NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

COURSE CODE : PED230

COURSE TITLE: INTRODUCTION TO MUSIC

PED230 COURSE GUIDE

COURSE
GUIDE

PED230
INTRODUCTION TO MUSIC

Course Team Dr. C. E. Ugolo (Developer/Writer) - UNIBEN

P.O. Odogbor (Co-developer/writer) - UNIBEN
Prof. Idolor Emurobome (Editor) - DELSU
Dr. Dorathy N. Ofoha (Coordinator) - NOUN

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

ii
PED230 COURSE GUIDE

National Open University of Nigeria

Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island
Lagos

Abuja Office
No. 5 Dar es Salaam Street
Off Aminu Kano Crescent
Wuse II, Abuja
Nigeria

e-mail: @nou.edu.ng
URL: .nou.edu.ng

Published By:
National Open University of Nigeria

First Printed 2010

ISBN: 978-058-752-7

All Rights Reserved

Printed by:

iii
PED230 COURSE GUIDE

CONTENTS PAGE

Introduction …………………….……………………………….…. 1
Course Guide…………………….…………………………………. 1
Course Objectives…………………….……………………………. 1
Course Summary…………………….………………………..……. 2
Textbooks and References…………………….……………………. 2
Course Marking Scheme …………………….……….……………. 2
Course Overview…………………….…..…………………………. 3
How to Get the Most from this Course …………………….………. 3
Final Examination and Grading …………………….…….…………. 7
Conclusion …………………………….……………………………. 7
Summary …………………..………….……………………………. 7

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PED230 MODULE 4

Introduction

This course is PED230: Introduction to Music. It is a two (2) credit unit

course, which is taught in the second year to students of the
undergraduate degree programme in Primary Education. It consists of
fifteen study units. No prerequisites are required for studying this
course. This is because it has been prepared using suitable illustrations
that are indigenous in character. Other aspects that are technical in
nature have been systematically presented in a manner that would
progressively enhance your understanding.

The course guide constitutes one of the many resource materials which
you can avail yourself of towards effective study and successful
completion of both the course and programme of your study.

Contained in this course guide are very useful pieces of information

relating to the course. These include: aims and objectives, the content of
the course, materials for your use in this course, services that are
available to aid your learning, and relevant information about
assignments and examination. In addition, it guides you on planning
your time for a more purposeful study. Information on how much time it
may take you to complete each of the study units, as well as the tutor-
marked assignments is provided.

In addition to the above, this course guide offers answers to a number of

questions you are likely to ask. Notwithstanding, you should feel free to
visit (or call) your study centre in the event that you have other issues
requiring attention. In the light of all of these, I urge you to diligently go
through this course guide; carefully complete the feedback form before
you commence studying the course. It is mandatory for you to submit
the feedback form and your first assignment to the tutorial facilitator.

I wish you success at every stage of your programme.

Course Aim

The aim of this course is to equip you with appropriate skills and
knowledge in music, which are necessary for you to function effectively
in your chosen field of study and career.

Course Objectives

For each of the units that make up this course, there are a number of
objectives. They are designed to help you in measuring the degree of
your progress in the course. It is very important therefore, that you go

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through them prior to studying the respective units. Conclusively, by the

time you finish this course, you should be able to:

• describe the nature of music

• enumerate the functions of music in society
• display the technical skills required to write and interpret music
• describe the features of the different types of music
• provide explanations to the evolution and development of music.

Course Summary

An overview of the course is presented here in terms of the topics within

each module. Module 1 presents discussions on what music entails,
types of music, musical instruments employed in music making as well
as African music and music in Nigerian festivals. Module 2 explains
certain basic concepts relating to writing music. Module 3 presents aids
to the interpretation of music, while module 4 examines the components
of music. This course comprises fourteen (14) study-units. A study-unit
comprises a unit of work to be done in one (1) week, and whose
completion requires you to put in about three (3) hours. Each unit
contains specific objectives, guidance on how you should study, material
to be read, self assessment exercises, as well as tutor-marked
assignments. You should be able to achieve the learning outcomes stated
for each of the study-units and the course if you devote quality attention
to the exercises and assignments.

Textbooks and References

The primary text for the course is your course material. This
notwithstanding, it is very important that you access additional sources.

You will find a list of references and other materials for further reading
at the end of each unit. Make some effort to get as many as you can.

Course Marking Scheme

Your assessment in the course will be based on a particular grading or

marking scheme. This is presented below:

Assessment Marks
Assignment 1- 4 (four submitted Three assignments, marked out of
but the best three of all the 10% each, totaling 30%.
assignments selected)
Final Examination 70% of overall course score
Total 100% of course score

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Course Overview

The table below presents the course in terms of the time required to
complete each of the study-units in addition to the assignments.

Unit Title of Study-Unit Weeks/Activity Assignment

Course Guide 1
Module 1 Music in Society
1 What is Music? 2 Assignment
2 Types of Music 3 Assignment
3 Instruments for Making Music 4 Assignment
4 Traditional African Music 5 Assignment
5 Music in Indigenous Nigerian 6 TMA 1 to be
Festivals submitted
Module 2 Foundation of Music
1 Music Notation 7 Assignment
2 Time Names 8 Assignment
3 Tones and Semitones 9 TMA 2 to be
submitted
Module 3 Music and Tonality
1 The Music Scale 10 Assignment
2 Use of Tonic Solfa 11 Assignment
3 Music Intervals 12 TMA 3 to be
submitted
Module 4 Elements of Music
1 Rhythmic Organisation 13 Assignment
2 Melody Writing 14 Assignment
3 Harmony 15 TMA 4 to be
submitted
Revision 16
Examination 17
Total 17

• Using the overview above, plan your personal timetable to aid

your study.

How to Get the Most from this Course

As far as distance learning is concerned, you go through course

materials that are carefully prepared in a manner that would enable you
read and study in ways suitable to you. The study units in this course
have been prepared in a fashion peculiar in distance learning where you
do not need face-to-face engagement with a lecturer.

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PED230 INTRODUCTION TO MUSIC

Following from the above, the various study units possess unique
characteristics that have been prepared to enhance a systematic study of
this course. In each of the study units, there is an introduction, which
serves as an opening to the unit and a link between it and
preceding/successive units and the entire course. Second, there are
prescribed learning outcomes or objectives, which you should attain by
the time you have gone through the respective units.

As a “compass”, you should refer back to the objectives after you have
completed each unit to assess your degree of attainment. Attempting the
self-assessment exercises should guide you toward attaining the
objectives since they aid you in self-evaluation of the work done.
Therefore, attempt every self-assessment exercise as you encounter it in
the unit before progressing to other issues.

Each study-unit also consists of conclusion and summary, which are

intended to unite the areas treated in the unit and also act as “prompters”
to aid you in recalling the salient aspects of what you had previously
studied in the unit. In addition, there are tutor-marked assignments at the
end of each unit some of which must be submitted at certain specific
periods.

Going through each of the units – involving studying a unit and

attempting the exercises and assignments – would take you about three
(3) hours. Therefore, ascertain the duration of time you put into the first
unit so as to enable you know the average time that may be required to
complete each unit, and be able to plan your time-table correspondingly.
There are wide margins on both sides of each page in the course book;
you are to use the spaces to note important ideas or points for the
purpose of quick revision. We have no doubt that, if you make effective
use of the various features, your performance in this course would be
satisfactory.

Course Delivery

You are an open and distance learner. Your learning results from
studying your course material, and the guide provided to help you
navigate through the course. Because you are not taught your course
directly by a conventional teacher, certain service mechanisms are put in
place to enhance your study of the course. These include tutorials,
facilitation, and counseling.

Tutorial Sessions

The main purpose of tutorial sessions is to provide a forum where you

could present your questions to an individual, who functions as your

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tutorial facilitator, and whose responsibility it is to provide answers or

clarifications that would enrich your understanding of your course. Eight
(8) hours of tutorials are allowable in this course. Therefore, you could
maximise the period by ensuring that you have the phone number and/or
e-mail address of your tutorial facilitator.

The study centre nearest to you is the point where information about the
venue for tutorials and the time allotted for facilitation is provided. You
are therefore, encouraged to study and prepare your questions prior to
your attendance at a tutorial session so as to be able to benefit optimally.
The flexibility of tutorials allows you to arrange with your facilitator
what such sessions would entail. Although tutorials are not mandatory,
participating in them has the potentials to enhance your performance in
the course and your programme.

Facilitation

As stated earlier, you will have opportunities to interact with your music
tutorial facilitator, who is an expert in the field of music. The sessions
that you would have with him will be conducted in English. Basically,
the medium of instruction shall be the course material. However, certain
musical instruments would be introduced where necessary to help in
demonstrating some concepts that you might raise questions about. You
are encouraged to go through areas of the course material that are not
too clear to you, and note your questions in ways that would clearly
express areas where you require clarifications. Sessions will be held in
the study centre nearest to you. You are advised to note the average time
it would take you to leave your home to get to the centre so that you will
not be unduly late for meetings. However, facilitation shall be conducted
under flexible arrangements. Therefore, let your facilitator know ahead
of time if you would be late to meetings or be absent altogether. Also
feel free to ask your tutorial facilitator questions regarding your
assignments, and other difficulties you might have in relation to the
course.

Counselling

In order to help you cope effectively with your programme generally,

counselling services are provided to address issues of personal and
academic nature. These services are provided by the centre manager and
tutorial facilitators. These individuals are on hand to handle the
challenges you might have so that they become manageable. Therefore,
ensure that you have the phone numbers as well as the e-mail address of
your study centre, and those of your centre manager and facilitator.

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PED230 INTRODUCTION TO MUSIC

Assessment

Opportunities are provided for periodic assessments. Assessment is

approached from two perspectives; you assess yourself during the course
of your study of the course material by attempting the self-assessment
exercises in each unit. You are to judge your performance in the light of
the model answers provided for each question. (These answers are to be
seen after you must have done the exercise). There are some
assessments that are carried out by your tutor who grades your tutor-
marked assignments as well as your examination papers. The tutor-
marked assignments must be submitted to your facilitator at the
stipulated time for each.

However, if you have genuine reason(s) why your submission(s) would

be late, let your facilitator know in time, and whether it would be
possible to grant you an extension. You are required to do a total of four
(4) tutor-marked assignments. However, only three of the best would
count towards your grading. Each of the three is weighted 10% (a total
of 30%).

In preparing your tutor-marked assignment for submission to your

tutorial facilitator, ensure you observe the following:

• Write the course code and title, and the assignment number on
the cover of your assignment. It should also include your name,
matriculation number, your programme and the date of
submission.
• Make your answers to the questions as compact as possible. In
other words, be direct to the point. Your responses should be
based on the course material, other reference sources and your
personal experiences.
• Use ruled foolscap sheets for your assignments, and make for
yourself a copy that you can easily refer to. The answers should
be hand written, and margins of about 1.5 inches should be given
at the left side of your sheet(s). Give enough space between
questions.
• Ensure that your assignment gets to your tutorial facilitator on or
before the date given for submission.

In the event that your work will not be ready by the deadline, inform
your centre manager and tutorial facilitator to find out if there could be
an extension.

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PED230 MODULE 4

Final Examination and Grading

There will be a final examination in this course – PED230 – which will

last for two hours. Grading of the examination shall be based on 70%.
The examination questions will bear relationship with the ones
encountered in the self assessment exercises and tutor-marked
assignments. The assessment will cover all areas of the course. You are
encouraged, therefore to study all the aspects thoroughly. In addition to
going through the various exercises and assignments, compare your
responses in your copies of the tutor-marked assignments with your
present understanding to see whether there is some improvement that
you could utilise in the examination.

Your eligibility to sit for the examination will be based on your

submitting all four tutor-marked assignments prior to the examination. It
will also depend on whether you have registered to take the
examination. To ensure that you are not late in registering for the
examination, consult your centre manager who should be able to provide
you with information on registration.

Conclusion

The purpose of this course guide is to formally introduce you into the
course, and to lead you through certain measures you could take to make
the best out of this course, and enhance your overall performance in
your programme of study. These measures are contained in the aims and
objectives of this course, course summary, overview, self-assessment
exercises, among others. You are advised to thoroughly study this
course guide and ascertain if you have understood the issues discussed
before proceeding to study the course.

Summary

This course PED230: Introduction to Music – is designed to equip you

with basic theoretical framework that would prepare you towards deeper
understanding of music, and be able to both appreciate and interpret
music. The purpose of this course is to present music in a more or less
simplistic manner so that you could use the knowledge/skills gained
towards satisfactory performance in your programme and life in society.
The areas explored include music in society, looking at some of the
manifestations of music in society. There is elaborate discussion on the
foundation of music, where concepts that help towards musical
comprehension are discussed. In addition, both the representation of
music tones or sounds, and the elements employed in music organisation
are discussed. At the end of thoroughly studying the course, you should
be able to apply/interpret the aspects of music addressed.

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PED230 INTRODUCTION TO MUSIC

Course Code PED230

Course Title Introduction to Music

Course Team Dr. C. E. Ugolo (Developer/Writer) - UNIBEN

P.O. Odogbor (Co-developer/writer) - UNIBEN
Prof. Idolor Emurobome (Editor) - DELSU
Dr. Dorathy N. Ofoha (Coordinator) - NOUN

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

88
PED230 MODULE 4

National Open University of Nigeria

Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island
Lagos

Abuja Office
No. 5 Dar es Salaam Street
Off Aminu Kano Crescent
Wuse II, Abuja
Nigeria

e-mail: @nou.edu.ng
URL: .nou.edu.ng

Published By:
National Open University of Nigeria

First Printed 2010

ISBN: 978-058-752-7

All Rights Reserved

Printed by:

89
PED230 INTRODUCTION TO MUSIC

CONTENTS PAGE

Module 1 Music in Society …………………………..………. 1

Unit 1 What is Music?.......................................................... 1

Unit 2 Instruments for Making Music ……………………. 9
Unit 3 Categories of Music ………………………………… 15
Unit 4 Traditional African Music …………………………. 21
Unit 5 Music in Indigenous Nigeria Festival ……………… 27

Module 2 Foundation of Music ………………………………. 33

Unit 1 Music Notation ……………………………………… 33

Unit 2 Time Names …………………………………………. 44
Unit 3 Tones and Semitones ………………………………… 50

Module 3 Music and Tonality…………..……………………. 57

Unit 1 The Music Scale …………………..………………… 57

Unit 2 Use of Tonic Solfa …………..……………………… 68
Unit 3 Music Intervals ……………………………………… 74

Module 4 Elements of Music ………………………………….. 81

Unit 1 Rhythmic Organisation……………………………… 81

Unit 2 Melody Writing……………………………………… 87
Unit 3 Harmony ………………..…………………………… 96

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PED230 MODULE 4

MODULE 1 MUSIC IN SOCIETY

Unit 1 What is Music?

Unit 2 Instruments for Making Music
Unit 3 Categories of Music
Unit 4 Traditional African Music
Unit 5 Music in Indigenous Nigeria Festival

UNIT 1 WHAT IS MUSIC?

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definitions of Music
3.2 Origins of Music
3.3 Nature and Characteristics of Music
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Music has continued to attract greater attention in contemporary times

than it did in earlier times. The multidimensional uses of music and the
flexibility in the adaptation of music materials of one culture by another
through the aid of modern production and transmission technologies
have enhanced the understanding and acceptability of music from
diverse cultural milieu. The varied outlook of musical cultures could
suggest that music means different things to individuals and peoples.
The aim of this section is to present some of the definitions of music, its
historical origins, and its nature and characteristics.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• give your own definition of music

• present some accounts of music’s origin
• describe the nature of music
• outline the characteristics of music.

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definitions of Music

Music has been defined by a number of individuals and groups of

people. These efforts have with time, produced a number of definitions.
As a result, there appears to be no single universally accepted definition
of the phenomenon called music.

Okafor (2005) notes that difficulty exists in defining music because of

an ever-elusive single answer to the question: what is music? Another
reason for the difficulty, according to him, is because “music is culture-
bound. […] It is culture that gives music its definition”. (p.270) Marcia
Herndon and Norma McLeod (1999) share this view when they note that
“as a human activity, then, music is culturally defined”(p.5). What this
may mean therefore, is that the owner-culture of music must be
depended upon for the definition of its music. This notwithstanding,
some scholars have offered some definitions of music from the
perspectives of their experiences and studies. Some of these definitions
are presented below.

One of the commonest but very controversial definitions of music,

whose author seems uncertain or anonymous, is: “music is a universal
language”. This definition is often refuted in scholarly discourse.
However, the universality of music as a language, according to Okafor
(2005) lies in the view that “everybody in every culture recognises
music when he/she sees one or needs it”. (270)

While noting that the determination of what music is in contemporary

times had its groundwork done by several people, Okafor (2005),
however, finds appeal in Blacking’s definition of music as “humanly
organised sound” (270). This definition does not only indicate that only
humans are capable of consciously making music, but that music is
everywhere human beings are found.

In their definition, Herndon and McLeod (1990) also lay emphasis on

music as a human activity, which is determined by culture. They say that
“…music is a humanly structured sound … [whose] particular aspects
vary from culture to culture”. (iii) From this definition, it could be
remarked that, although nature is replete with countless numbers of
sounds, such sounds must be structured or organised as an entity in a
manner that takes into account the essential ingredients of what the
culture allows as music.

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Furthermore, Ruth Goode (1979) says that “music is a composition of

sounds that have regular vibrations, put together so that they have
rhythm, melody, and meaning”. (278) Apart from recognising sound as
the “raw material” for creating music, this definition sees the regularity
of sound vibrations, and communication of meaning through the
rhythmic and melodic components as vital aspects of music.

The above stated definition shares some similarities with that given by
Arved M. Larsen, Paul W. Borg, David Poultney, Arthur Unsworth and
Robert Washburn (2003). In a very concise form, they define music as
“sound organised in time” (p.4). This may imply that the organisation of
sound that results in music relies on time as its bases, and thus
differentiates it from noise. It may also imply that music is a conscious
activity in sound organisation.

Another definition of music, which might appear most accessible, is that

given by Hornby (2006) in the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary.
He defines music as “sounds that are arranged in a way that is pleasant
or exciting to listen to” (p.966). This definition like others above,
accords recognition to the place of orderly arrangement of sounds in
music conception. Although it adds further that the product of the
exercise should be “pleasant or exciting” to the ear, it might be
important to observe that the effects of music on individuals vary.
Different individual listeners may perceive the same piece of music
differently. For instance, while a piece of music being played on a
commercial bus might seem “pleasant” to younger passengers in the bus,
the older ones might perceive it as “noise”, and vice versa, depending on
the type of music, the volume level, the dispositions of the hearers, the
time of the day, and a number of other factors.

From the definitions above, it could be seen that emphasis is put on

certain features, which the individuals consider most important or
appropriate. Arising from these features, certain parameters could
evolve to provide some guide towards defining music. These are:

• music depends on sound

• the sound requires regular organisation
• music is made by humans to serve man’s needs
• music has inherit meaning to communicate

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Attempt a definition of music.

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3.1 Origins of Music

The origins of music lie in the distant past. However, no one can tell
exactly how and at what point in time music came into existence. Many
traditions and historical accounts attempt to provide some clues on how
music probably originated. These clues are associated with the
functional uses of music, which Idolor (2005) notes are primarily
religious and social. He identifies three propositions by some schools of
thought on the origins of music, which are discussed below.

First, there is the view that music pre-existed man. In other words, there
was music before the creation of man, and most probably before
anything was created. What this could mean therefore, is that God
originally conceived music – he is the source of music. Biblical
evidence supports this in Zephaniah 3:17 where it is stated that God will
rejoice over Jerusalem with singing. Apart from God, other heavenly
bodies made music, which some theorists refer to as “Music of the
Sphere” (Idolor, 2005). For instance, the Bible records in Job 38:7 that
“the morning stars sang together and all the angels shouted for joy”
when God laid the foundation of the earth. And some other religions
have sacred books that indicate the divine origin of music.

Second, some view music as the product of divine inspiration. Man must
have been inspired by God and/or other supernatural beings to acquire
musical ideas. By this, some individuals could receive tunes of songs,
for instance, in their dreams or through some other means such as may
be witnessed in spirit-possession during religious worship. It could also
be by intuition where the individual, in his/her conscious state, suddenly
receives musical ideas.

Finally, there is also the view that music is the product of man’s
creativity. This view appears to be a logical flow from or a consequence
of the previous two views. In other words, having been divinely
endowed with some musical ideas, man must have decided to infuse his
own ideas, which are products of selective but varied manipulations on
the received ideas, to create his own music. By this process, man
acquires the necessary skills in the art of music making, which are
passed on from one individual/generation to another through formal and
informal means.

In addition to the above stated propositions, there exist also some

theories about the probable beginnings of the evolution of music. These
theories are itemised in the work of Miller (1964); they include the
following:

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• Music probably metamorphosed from primitive modes of

communication. These modes include the use of tribal drums or
similar objects, calls or howls, among others. The use of some
musical instruments such as talking drums and metal gongs by
town criers is still evident in some rural communities in Nigeria
in particular.

• Music was probably associated with the rhythm of work at the

early beginning. This implies that the efforts or actions needed to
carry out certain tasks were synchronised with appropriate body
movements and sometimes, vocal sounds. In our society some
types of work which require certain specific movements of the
hands or legs (or both) such as traditional methods of processing
palm-fruits in a wooden trough, blacksmithing, carving, clearing,
etc have associative rhythmic bodily sounds that are produced by
the workers in synchronous relationship with the respective
activities.

• Music probably was often connected with expression of the

emotions. The New Encyclopaedia Britannica (1993) presents a
parallel to this in expressing the view of Confucius that music can
portray the emotions of “sorrow, gratification, joy, anger, piety,
[and] love” (p.494). We may have witnessed, for instance, a
scenario where someone, on receiving a piece of news
(favourable or unpleasant), reacted by breaking into singing, or
letting out particular vocal sounds in imitation of instrumental
rhythmic patterns, and sometimes accompanied with body
movements or dance. Music is also implicated, as an outcome of
emotional expression. The blues is said to have evolved as a
“sorrow song” by people of African decent in America to lament
their condition of servitude (Larsen et al, 2003).

3.3 Nature and Characteristics of Music

Music is a vital means of self-expression. It is more or less a ubiquitous

phenomenon associated with humankind. Although it can be easily
recognised, the subject of its nature, however, is somewhat intractable.
The New Encyclopaedia Britannica (1993) quotes Aristotle as saying
that “it is not easy to determine the nature of music.” (p.493). Herndon
and McLeod (1990) opine that this difficulty stems from “both
biological and cultural limitations” (p.11) which condition music’s
conception and perception.

The above notwithstanding, music manifests itself basically as

regularised sounds. In other words, music is revealed in the patterned or
structured sounds that embody the musical ideas, whether vocal or

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instrumental music, or a combination of both. Generally speaking, music

is distinguished from other sounds or noise by its nature. Goode (1979)
identifies four aspects of music’s nature: meaning; melody; regular
vibrations; and regular rhythm.

Meaning in music, consists in the ideas and feelings (or intentions) of

the composer, which are communicated in the music. Along this
consideration, David Best (2005) asserts that…the meaning is the music:

it is not something lying behind it, and therefore separate from it. In
progressively coming to recognise the significance of particular features
of the music, one is reaching towards finer discrimination of its
meaning, and thus achieving more discriminating emotional response.
(p.27).

Music also has melody. Simply put, melody is the particular order a
composer arranges the notes or tones in his/her work to convey his/her
ideas. The melody becomes the tune by which a composition is known.
For instance, the Nigerian national anthem has a distinct melody or tune,
which can be hummed without mentioning the words. From the
humming of the melody an informed listener could easily identify the
work. We will treat melody in greater detail in a subsequent unit.

In addition, music has regular vibration. Although every sound is a

product of vibration, musical sounds essentially possess regular
vibrations. Noises have vibrations that are irregular. The irregularity of
vibration produces unstable or indefinite pitch, which may not be
amenable to musical arrangement.

Finally, music has regular rhythm. Music is measured against time.

Rhythm refers to repeated or patterned beats. Music depends on ordered
and regular flow of beats for its life. The subject of rhythm is addressed
later in more detail.

Another way by which music is recognised is contained in its

characteristics. Musical sounds or tones differ from noise (a form of
sound) in that musical sounds possess certain attributes that can be
manipulated or varied for use in musical organisation. These features are
pitch, volume, timbre, and duration.

Pitch refers to the highness or lowness of sound. It is the product of

frequency – frequency being the rate at which a sound-producing body
vibrates. The pitch of sound becomes high if the frequency is high and
low if the frequency is low. A high pitch may be exemplified by the
sound of a one-year old baby contrasting with the low pitch of its adult
father.

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Volume is the loudness or softness of a musical sound. It is also referred

to as the power or the intensity of sound. One way of demonstrating this
is by reference to the volume control of your music player. As you push
up or turn clockwise the control, the sound becomes louder, and you
hear it more. To do the contrary makes the sound less audible.

Timbre is the quality of the sound. It is also known as the tone colour.
This feature helps us to distinguish between sounds, as well as ascribe
particular qualities to them. For instance, we are able to recognise the
voices of people we are familiar with from the crowd. We are also able
to differentiate between the sound of a trumpet and that of a flute.
Furthermore, we are able to describe one sound as harsh and another
mellow. Timbre gives sound a distinctive identity.

Finally, duration addresses the length of time it takes sound or tone to

keep vibrating and be heard. Music sounds can be manipulated to last
long or short, depending on the preferences of the creator or composer.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Mention and explain any two (2) characteristics of music.

4.0 CONCLUSION

Music appeals to people of different ages, sexes, groups, or social status,

etc. Hence it has continued to feature in most events associated with
living. Music means different things to different people - people see
music differently from several perspectives. The definitions of music
provide some insight on how music affects people and cause them to
respond in particular ways. The study also shows that music has been
before man’s existence. In addition, it reveals that the nature of music is
demonstrated through the elements of meaning, melody, regular
vibrations (pitch), regular rhythm, volume, timbre, pitch and duration.

5.0 SUMMARY

Music is a universal phenomenon, which exists in every culture in one

form or another. In this unit, you should have learnt that music has
several definitions, without any one of them having universal
acceptability. You also must have learnt that music began with God,
who then gave man music by divine creation and inspiration. You must
have found out that man evolved his own musical creations by the way
he manipulated parts of his body and elements in his environment to
create music, and that music probably evolved from the different
functions it was associated with in the distant past. Furthermore, you
must have learnt about the nature of music, which consists in certain

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characteristics: meaning, melody, regular vibration, and regular rhythm.

Other dimensions of these characteristics are pitch, volume, timbre, and
duration. From all the explanations, you should be able to define music
in your own words, as well as discuss how it evolved and its nature.

6.0 TUTOR–MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. In your own words, give a definition of music.

2. Present any two (2) accounts of music’s origin.
3. From the study you have done, describe the nature of music.
4. Outline any four (4) characteristics of music.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Best, D. (2004). “Relationships – Musical and Personal: Theme and

Variations”. In International Journal of Music Education (IJME)
22(1). 21-33.

Goode, R. (1979). The Story of Music. In The Story of Art and Music.
(pp. 269-400). New Jersey: The University Society, Inc.

Herndon, M. & N. McLead (1993). Music As Culture (2nd ed.). Pt.

Richmond: MRI Press.
Hornby, A.S. (2006). Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current
English (7th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Idolor, E. (2005). “Music to the Contemporary African”. In Emurobome
Idolor (Ed.) Music in Africa: Facts and Illusions (pp. 1-11)
Ibadan: Stirling–Horden Publishers (Nig) Ltd.
Job. In The Holy Bible, New Living Translation (2004). Illinois: Tyndale
House Publishers, Inc.
Larsen, A. M.; P.W. Borg; D. Poultney; A. Unwsorth & R. Washbum *-
(2003). Crossroads in Music: Traditions and Connections.
California: Thomson Schirmer.
Miller, H.M. (1964). History of Music (3rd ed). New York: Barnes &
Noble, Inc.
Okafor, R.C. (2005). Music in Nigerian Society. Enugu: New
Generations Books.
The Art of Music (1993). In The New Encyclopedia Britannica (Vl. 24
pp 493 – 552). Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica.

Zephaniah. In The Holy Bible, New Living Translation (2004). Illinois:

Tyndale House Publishers, Inc.
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UNIT 2 INSTRUMENTS FOR MAKING MUSIC

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Musical Instruments: Definition, Kinds and Functions
3.2 The Voice as a Musical Instrument
3.3 Classification of Musical Instruments
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

We began in unit 1 with a study of what music entails in terms of its

definition, evolution, nature and characteristics. In this present unit, we
do a study of the materials or sources, which produce sounds that we
enjoy or react to as music.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• state the functions of musical instruments

• identify the role of the voice as a musical instrument
• discuss classes of musical instruments.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Musical Instruments: Definition, Kinds and Functions

Hornby, (2006) defines musical instrument as “an object used for

producing musical sounds” (967). This is quite a simple definition, but
also very tendentious. The use of the word “object” in the definition
appears to ignore the ability of human beings to produce musical sounds
from/with their bodies. This conclusion is in consideration of the
dictionary’s definition of object as “a thing that can be seen and touched,
but is not alive” (1004). The human body is a source of music,
especially the voice. Thus the human voice is considered a living
musical instrument. Here Hornby, however, corroborates this view when
it says that voice is “the sound or sounds produced through the mouth by
a person speaking or singing” (1646). In the light of the foregoing, a
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musical instrument can be said to be any living or non-living source

from which musical sounds are produced.

From our definition above, two kinds of musical instruments are

discernible: natural and man-made. The human voice, for instance, falls
into the category of natural musical instruments. On the other hand,
man-made musical instruments are the physical materials contrived by
man for the production of musical sounds.

Musical instruments perform a number of functions, which derive from

the various uses to which the instruments are put. Depending on the
context of its use, any musical instrument may perform musical or non-
musical roles or functions. The musical functions relate to the
contributions of any musical instrument to the overall sonic outlook of
musical sound content of any event where music is used. The event may
be primarily a musical event or a non-musical event where music plays
an associative or ancillary role. On the other hand, a musical instrument
may play a non-musical/extra-musical role if it is used for other
purposes other than making music. For example, some persons may
have some musical instruments as decorative or furnishing items in their
homes. Other instruments may serve as symbols of authority of a king or
some other important personalities, or families.

Where musical instruments are used in musical situations, they provide

accompaniment to singing, and rhythmic incentives for dance or
movement. In addition, some musical instruments function as speech
surrogates where their rhythms or tones are imitative of spoken
statements. Through their use, opportunity is provided for dialogue
between instrumentalists and singers. In some other situations,
instruments play interludes, thereby giving opportunity for singers to
rest their voices and for instrumentalists to show-off their dexterity on
their respective instruments. In this manner, variety is created, thus
enhancing the overall aesthetics of the performance. Furthermore, within
a given ensemble, certain musical instruments may provide cues, basic
pulse, or perform the role of master instruments, etcetera. There are a
number of other functions, which may vary from culture to culture, and
from one event to another.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

With what are musical sounds produced, and which are the kinds?

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3.2 The Voice as a Musical Instrument

The voice is often regarded as the most natural and primary musical
instrument man has. Larsen, et al (2003) say that the voice is probably
“the most universal of all musical instruments” (47). According to them,
the voice ranks as the only unique instrument owned by everyone.

The voice is employed in the singing of songs; singing or vocal music is

considered the earliest manifestation of music known to man. At some
points in the historical development of man, singing was given greater
prominence than instrumental music. For instance, Miller (1964) states
that prior to around 1600, vocal music almost exclusively enjoyed the
major developments music underwent.

Humans differ in a number of ways. The voice is one of the areas where
humans are different from one another. The basic difference that is most
easily noticeable amongst individual voices is the pitch. Hence we can
say that one voice sounds higher than another. Consider, for instance,
the voice of a toddler and that of an adult male – the former is high in
pitch, while the voice of the latter is low. Comparatively, female voices
are higher than those of males in general. These differences account for
why human voices are classified.

Voices are classified into soprano, mezzo-soprano, and alto or contralto

(for the female voices), and tenor, baritone, and bass (for the male
voices). However, the most common voices are soprano and alto in the
female category; in the male category, they are tenor and bass voices.
The female voices are higher than those of the males: the soprano voice
is higher than the alto, and the tenor voice is higher than the bass.

In vocal music, it is possible for one person to sing alone. This is called
solo singing. It is also possible for two, three, or more people to sing
together. If everybody in a group sings the same melody or tune, it is
referred to as unison singing. Where two persons sing, for instance, one
singing the melody and the other singing a different part that agrees with
the tune/ melody, it is called a duet. When the voices sing in
“agreement”, it is called harmony. A song can be written for the four
human voices where one voice sings the tune, and the others sing other
parts in harmony with the tune or melody. This kind of arrangement is
exemplified in hymns. Soprano usually takes the melody, while the next
part below it is taken by alto. Tenor takes the third part (below alto) and
the lowest part is for bass. On a musical score, the parts for soprano and
alto are often written in the treble staff, while those for tenor and bass
are written in the bass staff. If the music is to be played on the piano, for
instance, the right hand plays the soprano and alto parts, and the left
hand plays the tenor and Bass parts.

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3.3 Classification of Musical Instruments

In addition to the voices, people in different cultures employ musical

instruments in the performance of music. These instruments are
constructed from certain materials. The process of constructing these
instruments often involves the utilisation of materials found in the
immediate environment. Others, however, may require complex
processes in terms of procuring materials for the production of the
instruments. Some communities or groups may rely on others for the
instruments they use in musical organisation. That is, they make direct
purchases from makers of such instruments. The way instruments are
made with regard to the materials used, the sizes, the shapes, and a
number of factors have resulted in a wide range of musical instruments
available to man. Musical instruments are therefore, classified in order
to help cope with this diversity by promoting their easy identification
and ability to make effective use of them.

Generally, musical instruments are grouped into four broad categories.

The classification is done on the basis of how sounds are produced on
the instruments. The system of classification was invented by Curt
Sachs and Erich von Hornbostel, hence the system became known as
Sachs-Hornbostel System. However, some instrument types within a
category may be called by the name of the material with which they are
made. For instance, there is the pot drum, and wooden drum, which,
some have argued, are wrong appellations since they do not require the
manipulation of a skin surface to produce sound on them.

Some musical instruments have electronic components, which generate

their sounds. For this reason, some have introduced electrophone as a
category of musical instruments. Examples of such instruments are
electronic organ/keyboard, and other tone generators. However, our
classification is based on how sound is produced on an instrument.

The four categories of musical instruments in the Sachs-Hornbostel

System are:

• idiophones
• membranophones
• aerophones
• chordophones.

Idiophones (German: idio--self; phone--sound) are musical instruments

that produce sounds from their own bodies. In other words, they are self-
sounding instruments. Idiophones are further subdivided into primary
and secondary idiophones. Primary idiophones are those instruments
that are held by the player and played directly. Secondary idiophones,

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on the other hand, are instruments that are attached to other instruments
or the bodies of dancers or instrumentalists. Examples of primary
idiophones are metal gong, beaded-gourd rattle, triangle, wood clappers,
etc. Secondary idiophones include waist-bells, and anklets, among
others. Apart from the generic names, musical instruments have
local/indigenous names by which they are known in the respective
cultures where they are used.

Membranophones are musical instruments, which produce sound when a

skin parchment, etc, is struck or set into vibration. All types of drum fall
into this category. Drums appear to be the commonest musical
instrument found in almost all the cultures of the world. Drums may be
single-headed or double–headed, and in different shapes. Drums are
known by some local or indigenous names, like the other instruments. In
some cases, they are called by the functions or roles they play within a
given musical/instrumental ensemble. Examples of drums are bass
drum, conga, kettledrum, talking drum, etc.

Aerophones are instruments that produce sound when air is blown into
them. They are often made of hollow materials, sometimes with
openings for the fingers and the mouth. Pitch is varied on the
instruments by the manipulation of the lips and by covering and opening
certain holes. Flutes, horns, whistles, etc, are examples of instruments in
this category.

Chordophones are musical instruments that produce sounds when one,

or more strings are set into vibration by plucking, or bowing. These
instruments often have resonating boxes (resonators), which amplify the
sounds produced on these instruments. The strings can be made of steel
wire, the fibrous parts of some plants, twine, etc. Examples of
instruments in this category are guitar, violin, double bass, goge
(goje)(of the Hausa), afan (among the Etsako of Edo State), akpata
(among the Benin and Urhobo), etc.

In addition to the above, it is important to note that in the modern

Western symphony orchestra, the classification of the instruments is
done according to families. These include the String family, the
woodwind family, the brass family, and the percussion family. While
the string family falls under chordophones, the brass and woodwind
families fall under aerophones. The percussion instruments fall under
either membranophones or idiophones. Some of the instruments in each
of the families are: violins and viola (string family); flute and clarinet
(woodwind family); trumpet and trombone (brass family); and
kettledrum and triangle (percussion).

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SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Describe the four categories of musical instruments.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Musical instruments enrich musical performances. Their integration into
any musical situation affects the performers and audience alike.
Although they seem commonplace, paying particular attention to them
could result in better understanding of those who use them, and their
importance. It could also be a way of demonstrating knowledge of one’s
culture and those of others.
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit discusses musical instruments. Certain kinds of instruments
were identified and, the unit explained that musical instruments function
in a number of ways. It also identified the voice as a musical instrument,
and gave the four basic voice types. Man has evolved musical
instruments for his use. The instruments fall into four categories, which
are based on the means by which sound is produced on each of them.
The categories are idiophones, membranophones, aerophones, and
chordophones. You should be able to identify and classify the musical
instruments found in your environment.
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
1. Write briefly on any four functions of musical instruments.
2. Describe the role of the four voice parts.
3. Using local examples, write briefly on the categories of musical
instruments.
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
Hornby, A. S. (2006). The Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Larsen, A.M.; P. W. Borg; D. Poultney; A. Unsworth, and R. Washburn
(2003). Crossroads in Music: Traditions and Connections.
California: Thomson Schirmer.
Miller, H. M. (1964). History of Music (3rd ed). New York: Barnes &
Noble, Inc.
Okafor, R.C. (2005). Music in Nigerian Society. Enugu: New
Generation Books.
Okafor, R.C. (2004). “Nigerian Organology and Classification of
African Musical Instruments”. In R.C. Okafor & L.N. Emeka
(eds.). Nigerian Peoples and Culture (4th, rev. ed.) pp. 175 – 197.
Enugu: New Generation Books.

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UNIT 3 CATEGORIES OF MUSIC

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Traditional Music
3.2 Popular Music
3.3 Art Music
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In the preceding unit, we considered musical instruments, which are

used in music making situations. This unit will discuss some categories
of music in which musical instruments function. These include
Traditional music, Popular music and Art music.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• enumerate the features of each of the categories of music

• identify types of music within each of the three categories.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Traditional Music

Traditional music is the indigenous music of any given people or

culture. It is the music that evolved with the emergence of any
indigenous group or people. Nketia (cited in Agordoh, 1994) says that
traditional music is the music of ethnic nationalities. It is said to have
existed before the era of colonial rule. In a nutshell, it is the democratic
music of a people, which is made by them and primarily for their use.

Traditional music is a daily experience in the life of the people who own
and practice it. The music maintains its identity through the use of
indigenous language, locally made musical instruments, and the
distinctive ways singing and instrumentation are done. Okafor (2005)
states that apart from the indigenous language, “traditional music is the
most widely used medium of expression for all manner of occasions and
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at all times and periods of life” (p.87). He states further that while any
community makes use of it to express their culture, the music also
affects the character disposition of individuals in certain ways.

Certain features characterise traditional music. Willoughby (1996) states

that folk music is:

…informal, aesthetically and mutually unsophisticated, and usually

simple. It is preserved and transmitted by means that require learning
songs from memory rather than from notated, printed music. (p.40)

As far as folk songs are concerned, the language (or diction) used in the
text is dissimilar in some respects to those used in ordinary everyday
conversations. In many instances, there is no clear–cut dichotomy
between performers and audiences. In addition, traditional music is not
an exclusive creation of an individual.

Traditional music performs a number of functions in the life of the

communities who practice it. Due to its functions in the different aspects
of a people’s day-to-day living, traditional music has been grouped into
some types. Willoughby (1996) identifies these to include (1) story
songs or narrative ballads (2) lyric songs (3) work songs (4) children’s
songs (5) political songs, and (6) religious songs. Writing from an
African perspective, Akpabot (1998), however, identifies still six
different types of songs. These include ritual songs, songs of social
control, philosophical songs, protest songs, educational songs, and songs
of entertainment. These songs, he says, can be sub-divided further into
several other more specific types. In Nigeria, these types are practised in
communities where foreign influences and urbanisation/modernisation
have not adversely affected the way of life of the people.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

List any three (3) characteristics of traditional music.

3.2 Popular Music

Popular music (pop music, for short) is music that is popular among a
good number of people. It is the music enjoyed or patronised by many
people, irrespective of age, class/status race/ethnicity, etc. Akpabot
(1986) (cited in Oikelome, 2005) says popular music is music used in
social occasions with less complexity of vocal and instrumental
involvement or demand. Oikelome (2005) further cites Gillette (2002)
who limits his definition of popular music to that which evolved in the
1960s in Africa out of admixture of African and Western musical
practices.

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Onyeji (2002) defines popular music as a genre of music, encompassing

several styles, that is readily comprehensible to a larger proportion of
the population; its appreciation requires little or no knowledge of
musical theory or technique. It differs in important ways from classical
and folk music and from much jazz. (p. 24).

Along this consideration, Willoughby (1996) says popular music “…is

visceral, foot-tapping, emotional, and immediately understandable
music” (p. 96). Popular music is able to appeal to a wider audience
because of certain peculiar attributes or features, which it possesses.
First, the language used is very easy to understand, usually the ordinary
language spoken by the people. Second, the melodies of popular music
are interesting and easy to sing. Third, it exhibits direct intimacy
between the artistes and the listener. Fourth, popular music is easy to
dance to. Fifth, it provides a form of entertainment in social contexts.

Popular music manifests in different styles, and these may vary from
place to place. Popular music types from the United States of America
such as Tin Pan Alley, Rock-n-Roll, Rock, Disco, Blues, etc were
predominant in African countries, beginning from around the 1920s;
these came as recorded music. However, as time went on Africans
evolved their own popular music types. One of the earliest types of
popular music was Highlife.

Other popular music types are Reggae, Calypso, Gospel music, Rap
music, Hip-hop, Rhythm & Blues, amongst others. In Nigeria for
instance, Okafor (2005) has identified some three Pop music types under
three categories. First, there are those that are derived from traditional
music such as the Apala and Sakara, which have now been
commercialised. Second, there are those that are hybrids of local and
western musical cultures. These include Highlife and Juju music, among
others. Third, there are types, which derive from imported forms and
styles from the Caribbean and the United States of America. Some of
these are Rhythm and Blues (R & B), Hip-hop, Rock ‘n’ Roll, etc.

Today in Nigeria, popular music forms the bulk of entertainment music

available to the people. Through airplay on the radio and television as
well as the inclusion of popular Nigerian music as ring tones on mobile
phones, the dissemination of music is assuming a greater dimension that
was never witnessed earlier. The activities of telecommunications
service providers have also helped in both promoting popular music
artistes and their works through live concerts in cities and in campuses
of higher institutions of learning. Popular music is thus an ever-present
and accessible phenomenon.

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3.3 Art Music

Art music is music composed and performed according to the music

traditions and practices of Western Europe. It is different from much of
folk music. While folk music is primarily transmitted through oral
means, art music is written down using certain systems of notation; it
involves adherence to certain rules.

The terms classical music and serious music, although sometimes

misleading, are often used synonymously with art music. For instance,
classical music refers to the music practice of a particular period in
music history, i.e. 1750 -1825. Writing on classical music, Willoughby
(1996) says that classical music is:

…Western European music. It is thought of as music that is formal,

sophisticated, urban, sometimes complex, and appreciated by an
educated elite. It grows out of a cultivated tradition based largely on
notated music. (p. 39).

Willoughby’s description above tends to explain the nature and features

of classical music, and these are true of art music. As note Joseph
Machlis and Kristine Forney (2003), art music is “the notated music of a
cultivated and largely urban society” (68). It must be pointed out,
however, that, apart from the art music tradition of Western Europe,
certain other cultures have their art music traditions or practices. One of
such is India, which has an art music tradition that is exclusively
performed and patronised by the upper class. Nigeria and other African
societies also have their art music traditions.

The ever-growing consciousness on the importance of art music in

Nigeria today began with the efforts of the early Christian missionaries
who first came to Nigeria. They trained certain church members to play
the organ or teach choirs from notated music. These initial influences
were later to produce some Nigerians who went overseas to study music,
and others who were later trained in Nigeria. Some of these, according
to Idolor (2001) include T.K.E. Philips, Fela Sowande, Laz Ekwueme,
A.A. Ogisi, G.E. Idolor, Bode Omojola, Dan Agu, Ikoli Harcourt
Whyte, R.P.I. Okenrentie, Meki Nzewi, and Ayo Bankole.

The establishment of the Department of Music at the University of

Nigeria, Nsukka, in 1960, opened greater opportunities for formal music
education in Nigeria. The content of the programme then contained
much of art music. Today, there are over thirty institutions of higher
learning in Nigeria that offer music, where recipients are trained to
acquire art music traditions and the indigenous ones. These have used
their knowledge to evolve compositions, which are indigenous in

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content but expressed or notated after western art music theories.

Churches such as the Apostolic Faith and the Deeper Christian Life
Church have also helped to sustain art music traditions. In this
connection, too, due recognition is accorded the Music Society of
Nigeria (MUSON) with a centre in Lagos for hosting art music
performances or concerts.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Describe any feature that clearly distinguishes popular music from art
music.

4.0 CONCLUSION

We are confronted everyday with various types of music. These fall

under different categories such as traditional music, popular music and
art music. Sometimes our preference for one type of music stems from a
long association with it. Everyone is capable of enjoying any type of
music. What is required is for an individual to make his/her choice
having listened to the content of a particular kind of music. This could
enrich one’s musical appreciation and knowledge.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit we examined the three common categories of music, which

are traditional music, popular music and art music, and their
characteristic features. This should enable you identify types of music
whenever you come across some music performance situations, whether
as live or recorded music.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. State any four (4) features of each of the three categories of

music studied in this unit.
2. Mention any two (2) types of music under each of the three
categories of music.

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7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Agordoh, A.A. (1994) Studies in African Music Ho: New Age

Publication.

Akpabot, S. (1988). Form, Function and Style in African Music Ibadan:

Macmillan Nigeria Publishers Limited.

Idolor, G.E. (2001). “Formal Education and the Develoment of African

Art Music in Nigeria”. In M.A. Omibiyi-Obidike (ed.). African
Art Music in Nigeria: Fela Sowande Memorial. Ibadan: Stirling-
Horden Publishers (Nig.) Ltd. Pp.135-149.

Machlis, J. and Forney, K. (2003). The Enjoyment of Music (9th ed.

Shorter version). London: WW. Norton and Company Ltd.

Oikelome, A.O. (2005). “The Development of Popular Music in

Nigeria” In Duro Oni (ed.). Nigerian Theatre Journal Vol. 8, No.
1. Pp. 316-324.

Okafor, R.C. (2005). Music in Nigerian Society. Enugu: New

Generation Books.

Onyeji, C. (2002). “Popular Music: Facts about the Music and

Musicians.” In Idolor, E. (ed.). Music in Africa: Facts and
Illusions. Ibadan: Stirling-Horden Publishers (Nig.) Ltd. pp. 24-
37.

Willoughby, D. (1996). The World of Music (3rd ed.). Chicago: Brown &
Benchmark Publishers.

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UNIT 4 TRADITIONAL AFRICAN MUSIC

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Characteristics of Traditional African Music
3.2 Functions of Traditional African Music
3.3 Organisation of Traditional African Music
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

We examined some categories of music in the previous unit (unit 3).

Although the different categories have universal applications, every
continent of the world has its own peculiar kinds of music. Within a
particular continent, differences occur in the music of the various
nations that comprise it. Even within a given nation, the various ethnic
nationalities show some variations in their musical practices. There are
certain features or characteristics common in the musical practices of the
peoples that make up a given geographical location, be it a continent, a
nation, a state or a region. Our discussion of traditional African music in
this unit will generally be focused on the characteristics, functions and
organisation of the traditional music of the people of Africa south of the
Sahara.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• describe the characteristics of traditional African music

• highlight the functions of traditional African music
• describe how any traditional African music situation may be
organised.

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Characteristics of Traditional African Music

Traditional African music is the music practised by the various peoples

of Africa before the incursions of external cultures, colonialism or any
Western-imposed traditions.

Nketia (1974) identifies authentic music of the rest of Africa in

contradistinction to Arabic musical practices in the North of Africa and
European-influenced music practised in the southern part of Africa. He
says authentic African music is found in African societies whose
musical cultures not only have their historical roots in the soil of Africa,
but which also form a network of distinct yet related traditions which
overlap in certain aspects of style, practice, or usage, and share common
features of internal pattern, basic procedures, and contextual similarities.
(p. 4).

Certain general features characterise African music. Some of these are

highlighted below, from the perspectives of vocal and instrumental
musical practices.

• African music can be expressed in diverse ways as solo or group,

accompanied or unaccompanied performances, etc.
• African music is ethnic bound: every society practices its own
variants of African music.
• It is often practised or experienced by a community rather than an
activity for an individual.
• Musical performance may be incidental/concurrent with other
events, or as terminal activity, or as a free activity.
• There is no clear-cut boundary or dichotomy between performers
and spectators.
• Musical performances usually occur in out-door settings.
• Music is always performed with emphasis on artistic, socio-
political, and religious values of the community.
• African music encourages spontaneous involvement with the
community’s musical life.
• There is often social control over musical performances
• The language of song texts often varies from the language used in
ordinary conversation. Hence a singer could utter statements that
are not usually allowed outside the context of musical
performance.

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SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Think about an event you witnessed where traditional music was

performed. Identify any of the features discussed above, which were
observable in the said event.

3.2 Functions of Traditional African Music

The functions of traditional African music in societies where it is

practised derive from the contexts of usage. In other words, music
functions in one way or another to enhance or emphasise the purpose or
goal of the event with which it is associated.

Okafor (2004) implicates the place of African music in the life of a

people when he states that African music

…is the indigenous music of a people which is an integral part of a way

of life. It plays a functional part in all important stages of a person’s life,
especially birth, puberty, initiation, title-taking, marriage and death (p.
148).

Nketia (1974) groups events where music may occur under three broad
categories: recreation, work, and worship contexts. Using a variety of
songs as paradigm, he identifies four basic types of songs, each
manifesting its functions within the respective contexts. These include:

(1) cradle songs,

(2) reflective songs (3) historical songs, and (4) general songs

Cradle songs are generally addressed to the needs and conditions of

children, especially when they are left alone by their mothers, and to
make them happy. Some of these songs, such as lullaby, have soothing
effects on children and make them fall asleep or become less restless.
Nketia (1974) also notes that the songs can be used by the mothers to
convey “matters of personal interest, for reflection, or for commentary”
(p.193). For instance, a mother may sing and praise her child, “telling”
the child in her song that she prefers him/her to wealth, when in fact she
is making indirect remarks at a troublesome mate or neighbour who is
wealthy but has no child.

Reflective songs are complex, and employ allusions, imagery or

proverbs in conveying their messages. They carry with them reflective,
philosophical, sentimental, satirical, humorous or comic contents.
According to Nketia (1974), the functions of these songs include to
“…entertain, inform, praise, insult, exhort, warn or inspire their
audiences, or perform similar functions” (p. 195). Their objects of

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attention may be individuals (highly or lowly placed, living or dead),

creatures or elements in nature, and with past or present application.

Of all the songs found in Africa, historical songs are considered the most
important. They are sung to cause people to remember the past, and call
attention to societal values. This type of songs is found in the courts of
traditional rulers, some of who maintain court singers/musicians. The
functions of such songs are to assert or reinforce the status of rulers or
lend legitimacy to their possession of power.

On the other hand, there are general songs, which deal with themes that
are philosophical and religious. They may also address particular
challenges that confront man in his interactions in the world. Under this
category, we have songs, which are reflections on social order, songs
related to the environment and the activities of man such as songs of
occupational groups, and songs employed in the worship of the gods or
deities. In the last example, worshippers praise, invoke, and pray to the
gods; they also address areas that would enhance their worship, and
other issues of spiritual and moral values.

In addition to the songs, musical instruments, whether used in song

performances or in purely instrumental ensembles, perform certain
functions. When they are used as integral part of a musical performance
involving singing, instrumental ensembles, and even dance, such
instruments enhance the rhythmic and melodic outlook of the
performance. Some instruments function as principal or lead
instruments, which provide direction for other instruments as well as
dictate the pace and intensity of a musical performance. Some other
instruments may serve as speech surrogate, imitating verbal statements
or responding to certain phrases by singers in a call-and-response
manner, thus heightening the aesthetic outlook of performance. Apart
from the musical functions, musical instruments also play non-musical
roles.

SELF ASSESSMEENT EXERCISE 2

Mention three (3) functions of music in any traditional event in Nigeria.

3.3 Organisation of Traditional African Music

Musical performances are organised around socio-cultural events of a

people. Traditional African music manifests in vocal and instrumental
musical performances. Singing can be done independent of instrumental
accompaniment, such as in a cappella singing. There can also be
performances strictly by instrumental groups, such as the Yoruba
dundun (drum) ensemble. However, this practice is not so common. Our

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discourse on the organisation of traditional African music shall be in

relation to musical performances involving the two media whether as
separate or unified entities. Some of the various manners of organisation
are highlighted below.

• Solo singing may be done in strophic form where a single verse is

repeated, sometimes with minimal variations, for as many stanzas
as may be desired.
• Where solo singing is accompanied, an accompanying instrument
provides bridge between successive stanzas or declamations.
• In group singing, the songs may be organised in a call-and-
response form.
• Choral singing is planned where a lead singer or cantor leads the
group; this role may be played by a group of lead singers.
• Spectators are positioned in certain manners in relation to the
performers. This is to allow adequate space where dancing can be
done. The formation of the spectators (often standing) may be
shaped like a horseshoe or semi-circle, a square, or even a circle.
• In solely instrumental ensembles, the selection of the various
instruments is based on how effective they would be in
accomplishing peculiar musical tasks, or achieving certain
musical purposes. A place of prominence is thus, accorded any
musical instrument, which functions as a principal within an
ensemble, both in physical positioning and sonic space.

The list above is not in any way exhaustive. The manner of organisation
of musical performances may vary from culture to culture and from one
ensemble to another.

4.0 CONCLUSION

This unit has exposed you to certain aspects of traditional African

music. Your knowledge of the characteristics, functions and
organisation of traditional African music should guide you in
appreciating traditional musical performance situations so that, from
your observation, you could make judgments that are both insightful and
intelligible. This could also provide the impetus for you to learn about
the music of your people and develop tolerance for the music cultures of
others.

5.0 SUMMARY

Traditional African music is the music of the peoples of Africa, which

originated from the continent. It is different from the music of other
peoples owing to its peculiar and observable characteristics. Traditional
African music functions in the life of people in many significant ways.
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Also, the music of Africa is organised on the basis of certain

conventions.
On the strength of all that you have learnt, you should be able to
identify and describe these elements within traditional African music
performance contexts.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Explain any three (3) characteristics of traditional African music.

2. Enumerate any five (5) functions of traditional African music.
3. Recall a traditional ceremony. From your observation, attempt a
description of how the traditional music performance was
organised.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Akpabot, S. (1998). Form, Function and Style in African Music. Ibadan:

Macmillan Nigeria Publishers Limited

Nketia, J.H.K. (1974). The Music of Africa. New York: W.W. Norton &
Company, Inc.

Okafor, R.C. (2004). “Types of Music in Nigeria”. In Okafor, R.C. and

L.N Emeka (eds.). Nigerian Peoples and Culture (4th, rev. ed).
Enugu: New Generation Books. pp. 147-197.

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UNIT 5 MUSIC IN INDIGENOUS NIGERIAN FESTIVALS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition and Features of Traditional Festivals
3.2 Significance of Traditional Festivals
3.3 The Role of Music in Nigerian Festivals

4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In unit 4, we studied African music, which is the traditional music of

indigenous African peoples that is performed in socio-cultural events. In
this unit, we narrow down on one of such socio-cultural events in a
nation of Africa, where most indigenous practices are retained in their
authentic forms. The present study discusses the general outlook of
traditional festivals in Nigeria, and the role music plays in these
festivals.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• mention the characteristics of traditional festivals

• highlight the importance of traditional festivals
• discuss the roles of music in traditional festivals.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition and Features of Traditional Festivals

Oyin Ogunba (1978) defines traditional African festival as an
indigenous cultural institution, a form of art nurtured on the African soil
over the centuries and which has, therefore, developed distinctive
features and whose techniques are sometimes totally different from the
borrowed form now practised by many of our contemporary artists (p.4).
One of the conclusions that could be drawn from the definition above is
that there are as many varied festivals as there are different African
peoples in the different nations that make up the continent. This means
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that, within a given nation, there are different festivals, which are
instituted as reflections of the peoples’ beliefs and traditions. The
contents of these festivals are primarily indigenous, even when there had
been some changes due to exposure and adoption/adaptation of external
cultural practices. Another point that may be made from the definition is
that festivals that result from the artistic creations of individuals or
groups of individuals without any deep-rooted pristine cultural bases
may not be said to be traditional festivals, not withstanding their degree
of aesthetic sophistication through the use of modern performance tools,
or quality of participation. In this connection, Festivals of Arts and
Culture and other national festivals may less be regarded as authentic
traditional African (Nigerian) festivals even if they display fragmentary
aspects of known traditional festivals.
In the light of the above, our focus will be on local/traditional cultural
festivals whose roots are primarily religious, and whose enactment
provides revelations on the origins, identities and destinies of the
celebrating communities.
Traditional (cultural) festivals possess certain general features, which set
them apart from other similar cultural events such as marriage and
naming ceremonies, etc. However, every festival has some exclusive
features that give it a distinctive character or outlook, different from
other festivals even within the same locality. Some of the general
features inherent in the celebration of any traditional festival are
highlighted below.
There is always an object around which a festival is celebrated. It might
be a god/goddess, an ancestor, a hero, or a totem animal embodying a
supernatural being.
As a communal festival event, it often involves every member of the
community, or the individuals who are members of the religious or
occupational groups.

• It usually has a time set apart for its celebration, and lasts for a
certain number of days, weeks, or months.
• There is usually an underlying myth, or a story about a past event
being re-enacted.
• Music making (singing and playing of musical instruments) and
dancing are very essential elements in the performance.
• There are prescribed rules or procedure, which govern the
celebrations.
• It always involves some form of procession of people from one
end of the community to another.

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• There is always a central place where those involved in the

celebrations converge, which may be a shrine in the grove, or a
village square, or the courtyard of the ruler, etc.
• Rituals and ceremonies are major features in the celebration of a
festival.
• There is often elaborate use of costumes and makeup to designate
or distinguish significant characters or personages such as kings,
chiefs, masquerades, warriors, etc.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Enumerate any five (5) features of an indigenous festival of your people.

3.2 Significance of Traditional Festivals

The New Encyclopaedia Britannica (1993) states that

“… festivals, originating in the dim past of man’s social, religious, and

psychic history, are rich in symbols. […] Festivals in the past have been
significant informational and cohesive devices for the continuity of
societies religious institutions” (p.835).

Traditional festivals are significant in many respects. This may depend

on the purpose or the central theme of each festival, or the functions a
given festival is intended to perform in specific and general terms.
Certain festivals may be for the purification of the community –
communal cleansing. It is believed that at the end of the festival period,
every member and everything in the community would have been
cleansed, either from sicknesses, barrenness, evils, etc. One of such
festivals in Nigeria is the Olua festival celebrated by the people of Osi-
Ekiti.

Other festivals may provide opportunities for community members or

worshippers of certain gods/goddesses to give thanks to their objects of
celebration. For instance, in agricultural festivals, the events are meant
to appreciate the supersensible for good harvests, or to pray for more
bountiful harvests in subsequent endeavours, etc. One of such festivals
is the New Yam festival celebrated in most communities in the South
East geo-political zone and other parts of Nigeria.

Some festivals are important because they provide opportunities for

people to worship their ancestors. The Egungun festival of the Yoruba
of Nigeria is a typical example. Some other festivals may be instituted
to initiate qualified members of the community into higher statuses. This
could involve series of ceremonies to initiate adolescents into adulthood
(manhood or womanhood). This confers on them positions of higher

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responsibilities in the community. The Ovia Osese festival of the Ogori

people (Ogorians) of Ogori/Mangogo Local Government Area of Kogi
State is an example of a very vibrant festival celebrated to initiate
pubescent girls into womanhood/motherhood.

On a general level, traditional festivals provide opportunities for renewal

of life, friendships/relationships, hope, commitment, etc. They also
provide opportunities for people to make their contributions to the
development of their communities. In addition, the celebration of the
festivals attract outsiders to the communities concerned, and by this,
awareness is created about the potentials inherent in such communities,
which could be explored for the benefit of the people.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

State any three (3) reasons why traditional festivals in Nigeria are
significant.

3.3 The Role of Music in Nigerian festivals

Taiwo (1985) notes that music is “a non–controversial cultural activity

in which all Africans engage…” (p.39). In Nigeria, music plays a
number of roles. Speaking on traditional Nigerian music, Odogbor
(2008) states that “it serves social, cultural, religious, educational,
political, and economic needs of the Nigerian society” (p.69). Regarding
festivals, Ogunba (1978) asserts that “… the festival is the only
institution which has the framework which can coordinate [or exhibit]
virtually all the art forms of a community” (p.5). Music – vocal,
instrumental, or a combination of both - is one of the arts, which is
extensively and intensively employed as an integral part of a festival.

Music is an ever-present phenomenon in any given festival, and it plays

a number of roles in the celebration of such festival. Taiwo, in this
regard, tells us that through the rendering of songs during a festival,
people demonstrate their honour and commitment to the object of
worship. Music embodies all levels of meaning (manifest or latent) that
a community desires to convey in performance contexts. Omojola
(1999) elaborates on the place of Nigerian music when he states that
In Nigerian music, social meaning can be communicated when structural
elements [rhythm, melody, harmony, texture, etc.] are interpreted within
social situations in which they are performed. Even when not performed
within specific social situations, musical performances in Nigeria still
arouse certain feelings and reinforces (sic) social values usually
associated with their contexts of performance (pp. 2/3).

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The performance of music becomes one of the elements people

especially look out for in the celebration of any given festival. This is so
because it helps the people in getting into the mood and character of the
festival, and be able to participate actively.

Furthermore, music works in conjunction with the other arts (which are
significant in their own right) to heighten the tempo and general “feel”
of the festival. For instance, music elicits appropriate dance responses,
and also plays accompaniment to solemn or intense dance movements,
all of which enhance the tone of the festival. On the basis of the
symbiotic interrelationship of the various art forms, especially in
Nigeria, Ugolo (2007) calls for collaboration amongst specialists in the
various areas in order to harness the collective potentials in the arts for
overall societal growth and development.

According to Merriam (1980), music “provides a rallying point around

which the members of society gather to engage in activities which
require the cooperation and coordination of the group” (p.227). A
traditional festival is one of such platforms that encourage collective
involvement of the people. Merriam states further that in such events,
music performs a number of functions. With particular reference to
festivals, the functions of music include, but not limited to, the
following:

1. To provide aesthetic enjoyment

2. To communicate feelings, attitudes, etc.
3. To contribute to the continuity and stability of the festival
4. To contribute to the integration of society through collective
involvement in the musical performance
5. To aid emotional expression in response to visual, aural, and non-
sensory stimuli
6. To help enforcing conformity to social norms
7. To provide entertainment
8. To elicit physical response in form of dance, gesture, laughter,
etc.
9. For symbolic representation
10. As a means for validating the festival

4.0 CONCLUSION

Festivals are sacrosanct activities in the life of a people because of the

benefits derivable in their performances. Music contributes in a number
of ways towards the attainment of the ideals of a given festival.
Therefore, due attention should be paid to the organisation of music
during festival events in a manner that would enable it perform its roles
optimally. There is also the need to evolve ways or means of preserving

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the musical practices of a people as they relate to their festivals and

other aspects of life in order to guarantee the transmission of an
authentic music culture from one generation to another.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we looked at the meaning of traditional festival and its
features/characteristics. We have seen that any given Nigerian festival is
significant in a number of ways. Many traditional festivals are
celebrated yearly in Nigeria. It is hoped that the knowledge you have
gained from this unit would help you to identify peculiar features of any
festival and the role of music, whenever you have the opportunity of
witnessing festival celebrations.
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
1. State any five (5) characteristics of traditional festivals.
2. Highlight any five (5) reasons why traditional festivals are
significant or important.
3. With reference to any traditional festival, discuss very briefly any
two (2) roles or functions of music.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Merriam, A.P. (1980). The Anthropology of Music. Evanston:
Northwestern University Press.
Odogbor, P.O. (2008). “Towards the Sustainability of Traditional
Nigerian Music: the Role of the Music Educator”. Awka Journal
of Research in Music and the Arts (ARJMA) 5. 67 – 80.
Ogunba, O. (1978). “Traditional African Festival Drama”. In Oyin
Ogunba & Abiola Irele (eds). Theatre in Africa. (pp. 1-26)
Ibadan: Ibadan University Press.
Omojola, B. (1999). “Introduction: Perspectives on Music and Social
Dynamics in Nigeria”. In Bode Omojola (ed.). Music & Social
Dynamics in Nigeria. (pp. 1-5) Ibadan. Caltop Publications
(Nigeria) Limited.
Sacred Rites and Ceremonies. In The New Encyclopaedia Britannica
(Vol. 26, pp. 770-842).

Taiwo, O. (1985). An Introduction to West African Literature. Surrey:

Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd.
Ugolo, C. E. (2007). “The Modern Music Composer and Dance
Choreographer: Need for a Collaborative Effort”. In Chris E.
Ugolo (ed.). Perspectives in Nigerian Dance Studies (pp. 162-
172).

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MODULE 2 FOUNDATION OF MUSIC

Unit 1 Music Notation

Unit 2 Time Names
Unit 3 Tones and Semitones

UNIT 1 MUSIC NOTATION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Music Alphabet
3.2 Clefs and Staffs/Staves
3.3 Music Notes and Rests
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Music is a language of sounds. As a language, its message is

communicated through written and unwritten forms. In order to aid
towards the reading, writing and “speaking” of the music language, a
vocabulary of music terms and concepts has been developed. Like any
other language system, the fundamental stage in learning the music
language begins with an understanding of the music alphabet, and other
basic signs and symbols. This unit explores the “ABC” of music - a
knowledge that contributes to an enriched understanding of the issues in
subsequent units.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• name letters of the music alphabet

• draw types of clefs and staffs
• write music notes and rests

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 The Music Alphabet

The music alphabet is a set of letters, which are derived from the first
seven letters of the English alphabet. The first seven letters of the
English alphabet are A, B, C, D, E, F and G, and these constitute the
music alphabet. We could re-arrange these letters beginning from any
one of them to form different series. For instance, we can begin from
the letter C thus: C D E F G A B. If we were to end our series of letters
with the one (letter) we began with, we would have this: C D E F G A B
C.

The letters of the alphabet are employed to identify or indicate the pitch
of sounds. You would recall that we treated the subject of pitch, which is
the highness or lowness of sound. Musical tones are represented by the
use of these letters. When these letters are used to name specific pitches
they are referred to as notes. For example, we can say “C note” by
which we mean the sound or pitch of C. In another usage, each of the
letters can be referred to as notes in relating to the written symbols
(called music notes) that designate their pitches, especially on the staff.
Finally, the letters can be called notes in identifying positions on a
musical instrument where the pitch representing the letters can be
produced. Each of these three applications will be employed at one point
or another in this course.

3.2 Clefs and Staffs/Staves

Music is written using certain signs and symbols to specifically

designate and order musical sounds. Some of these are clefs and
staffs/staves. Although they are separate entities in their own right, clefs
and staffs are used in combination. We shall treat them from these two
perspectives.

Clefs

Clef in music is derived from the French word for key – clef. It “opens”
a staff so that the letter names of the lines and spaces of the staff can be
known. In other words, the pitches of notes on staff cannot be fixed
unless a given clef is written on the staff.

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Written music employs three kinds of clefs. These include:

• G clef or Treble clef

• F clef or Bass (pronounced as base) clef
• C clef ⊃
The C clef is somewhat fluid in its usage: it can therefore manifest as
Soprano clef, Alto clef, and Tenor clef. Each of the C clefs is known by
the position of the staff that is designated as C.

Of the three kinds of clefs, the Treble and Bass clefs are most popular.
Although there is decline in the use of the C clef, two of its types – Alto
and Tenor clefs – are still favoured by some composers of vocal and
instrumental works. The shapes of the clefs are shown below.

• G or Treble clef =
• F or Bass clef =
• C clef =
⊃
⊃
• Soprano Clef =
⊃ Position of C1
• Alto clef = ⊃
• ⊃ Position of C1
Tenor clef=
⊃ Position of C1
⊃
⊃
Staffs

A staff is made up of five lines and four spaces. It is written thus:

The lines and spaces of the staff are identified from the bottom to the
top. Numberings for the lines and spaces would be:

Lines 4 Spaces
5 3
4 2
3
2
1
1

Note that the numbers are meant for identification or reference purposes
only; they do not denote any value or quality.

We also said that the staff carries on its lines and spaces fixed names of
pitches or notes. However, a staff cannot perform this function unless a
clef is written on it. The type of clef written on a staff identifies such

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staff, and gives specific names to the lines and spaces. For instance, if a
treble clef is written on a staff (five lines and four spaces), that staff will
now be called treble staff, and if a bass clef is written on a staff, the staff
becomes known as bass staff. The treble staff and the bass staff are the
most commonly employed types of staffs.

The Treble Staff

The Treble staff, as noted above, is a combination of a staff and the

Treble clef. It is written thus:

A close observation of the above shows that the clef sign coils around a
portion of the second line. This point is where one begins to draw the
clef. But most importantly, the coil around the second line designates or
fixes the name of the second line as G. Thus, names of other lines and
spaces of the staff become fixed also. Working up or down from G, the
names of successive lines and spaces can be identified.

Letter names of the lines of the Letter names of the

spaces of the Treble staff

F 5
E 4
B D
4
lines 3
3 C spaces
G 2
A
2
E 1
F 1

Note that to write music on any staff, music notes are used instead of the
letter names.

Apart from the five lines and four spaces of the staff, positions can be
created for pitches that fall below or above the staff. This can be done by
using short lines called ledger lines. A ledger line may be likened to a
dash (-). The ledger line immediately below the first line of the staff is
regarded as the first below the staff, and the first one immediately above
the fifth line of the staff is referred to as the first ledger line above the
staff. The spaces created by the use of ledger lines are reckoned in this
manner. The figure below shows some ledger lines of the treble staff.

3rd
or (b) below
(a) above 2nd
1st 1st
2nd
3rd

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Note from the illustrations above that to write a ledger line other than
the first, others before it must be indicated. Note also the spaces created
between the ledger lines: each represents a fixed pitch. For example, the
first ledger line below the treble staff is C, and the space above it is D;
both are shown thus:

Middle C D

The treble staff is often used to represent voices or instruments whose

pitches are high. For instance, female voices such as soprano and alto
are usually written on the treble staff. In addition, most melodies or
tunes are written on the treble staff. The parts of certain musical
instruments are also written on the treble staff, such, as flute and violin.
Furthermore, in music for the piano, the part to be played with the right
hand is commonly written in the treble staff.

From this we can represent the series of eight notes from C (see 3.1) the
treble staff

Middle C D E F G A B C

The Bass Staff

The Bass staff comprises a staff and a bass clef written on it thus:

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The clef sign begins on the fourth line of the staff, with each of the dots
on either side of the line. This feature designates the name of the fourth
line as F. The Bass staff is so called because it is used to represent notes
of low pitches. It cannot, however, be called F staff. With the fourth line
of the bass staff established, other lines and spaces can be identified
thus:
A 5
F 4 G 4
lines E 3
D 3
C 2 Spaces
B 2
A 1
G 1

In addition, ledger lines can also be written below and above the bass
staff to make allowance for other notes or pitches.

or

Usually, the music meant for low voices such as tenor and bass are
written in the bass staff. Instruments such as the double bass, tuba, etc,
which are characteristically low in pitch are written on the bass staff.
Furthermore, in keyboard or piano music, the part that is meant to be
played with the left hand is written in the bass staff. However,
sometimes parts of the music that are in the domain of the treble staff
may be written in the bass staff, and vice versa.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Draw a treble staff, and indicate the names of the lines and spaces

3.3 Music Notes and Rests

Music notes and rests are signs used to indicate sounds and silences,
respectively. Music notes and rests are keenly related in that to every
music note there is an appropriate rest of equal value in terms of
duration. Through the use of music notes and rests, rhythmic, melodic,
and harmonic features of a music composition can be represented on any
of the staffs. Without the use of a staff, however, only the rhythmic
elements can be represented most appropriately. In other words, they
would not indicate the pitch of sounds.

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Kinds and Types of Music Notes

Music notes are basically oval in shape; this part is called the head, and
it is the position of this part that indicates the specific pitch. Broadly
speaking, there exist two kinds of notes – white and black notes (not in
relation to the keys on the keyboard). These notes perform two
functions: they show the pitch and duration of music sounds or tones.

In order to distinguish the various types of music notes, some of them

have stems and/or hooks (also called flags or tails) added to the heads,
thus:

Stem------ -----Hook
Head---

The first music note (apart from the breve, which is seldom used in
modern music) is the semibreve. It is the basic unit of length from which
other notes derive their value. It stands for the duration or length of four
regular beats or counts.

The semibreve is written thus:

Or on a staff

The other music notes, their shapes and their duration in relation to the
semibreve are presented below in their order of value from the greatest
to the least:
Name of Note Shape Duration (in beats or counts)
1. Semibreve 0 4

2. Minim or 2

3. Crotchet or 1

4. Quaver or ½

5. Semiquaver or ¼

1
6. Demisemiquaver or /8
1
7. Hemidemisemiquaver or /16

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Each of the music notes is also known by another name, whose origin is
American. They are:

Semibreve = Whole-note = 1
Minim = Half-note =½
Crotchet = Quarter-note = ¼
Quaver = Eighth-note = 1/8
Semiquaver = Sixteenth-note = 1/16
Demisemiquaver = Sixty-fourth-note = 1/64

The fractions in the example above are used to show how many of the
notes in each case make a whole-note (or semibreve). They should not
be confused with the duration of notes above. For instance, a minim
(half-note or ½) is half of a semibreve; therefore, two minims would
make a semibreve or whole-note (indicated with 1).

The value of each of the notes can be increased or prolonged with the
use of a dot or dots, as the case may be. A dotted note, therefore, is one
that has a dot placed after its head; the dot adds to the note half of its
value. For example, a dotted semibreve would be the value of one
semibreve and a half of it (which is one minim). This is illustrated
below:

0= + = 1 (whole-note)
½ ½
0. = 0 + = 1½ (whole-note and a half)
1+ ½

In terms of duration, a dotted semibreve would last for six (6) counts or
beats. Thus:

0. = 0 + = 4 counts + 2 counts = 6 counts

Each of the notes (including their dotted variants) represents a single

sound, which should last for the respective number of counts. In other
words, every music note represents a single sound that is sustained for
the duration of its counts. By illustration, consider the following series
of notes:

0 0

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There are eight (8) notes in the series above. From the first to the last,
their order of duration or length is: 4counts, 2counts, 2counts, 1count,
1count, 1count, 1count, and 4counts. Because an individual note
represents a single sound, sound is meant to be produced eight times in
the example above, beginning on the first note on the left. The source or
medium of the sounds can be vocal, clapping, playing an object, etc. In
doing this, you can use the second hand of the clock or watch as a guide
to provide the basic regular pulse while attempting to interpret the series
of notes (rhythm) above. Each sound is produced on the first count of
each of the notes, and sustained for its duration, before the next note is
sounded, and so on. It is to be noted that, since the sound of a clap
cannot be sustained, let the palms of the hands remain closed for the
duration of the note to indicate that it is sustained. The same approach
can be applied when non-resonant objects (like the table top) are used in
producing the sound.

Rests

Rests are points of silence in music. Here, silence does not imply
inactivity or stagnation; it is a transition through time. One does not
speak non-stop in a conversation, so it is in music; hence rests are used
to introduce some “‘breaks” or moments of silence. By their use, rests
are integral components of the rhythmic structure of music, which
delineate units of individual motives or music ideas.

There are as many rests as there are music notes. In other words, each
music note has a corresponding rest of equal time value or duration.

They are:

1. Semibreve =

2. Minim =

3. Crotchet =

4. Quaver =

5. Semiquaver =

6. Demisemiquaver =

7. Hemidemisemiquaver =

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The rests can also be written outside (without) the staff. In performing or
interpreting an exercise involving notes and rests, a moment of silence is
observed for the duration of time indicated by the rest sign(s) used. Let
us modify our earlier example with notes by introducing some rests.

0 0

Although there are eight signs or points in the exercise above, sound is
only produced where notes are used, and silence is observed where there
are rests. The type of rest used in the exercise above is crotchet (two of
them); each indicates one beat or count of silence.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2
Draw/write the following notes on the third line of the treble staff in the
following order: a semibreve, two crotchets, a minim, a dotted quaver, a
semiquaver, a quaver, and a dotted crotchet.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Music sounds can be represented graphically through the use of certain
signs and symbols. This representation makes possible the reproduction
of the music sounds by interpreting the signs and symbols in
performance. The system of representing music sounds graphically is
called notation. The European system of music notation involves the
use of seven letters of the English alphabet, clefs and staffs/staves as
well as music notes and rests to depict certain elements of music sounds
such as pitch and duration especially. An individual’s performance of
music will be limited if he/she lacks the skills of writing or interpreting
music through notation.
5.0 SUMMARY
So far this unit has taught certain aspects of music notation, which
include the music alphabet, clefs, staffs/staves, music notes and rests.
The music alphabet comprises seven letters – A to G – that are used to
indicate the pitch of sound. When used in combination with music notes,
the duration of such sounds (pitches) are reflected. Pitches are fixed by
the use of clefs and staffs, which provide the platform for the western
system of music notation. Music is not all about sound: moments of
silence provides added variety and this contributes to the creation of
several musical ideas. The knowledge of music notation (whether staff
or solfa notation) is very vital in the efficiency and proficiency of
composers and performers of music.

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6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. In the correct order, name the letters that make up the music
alphabet.
2. Draw the following:
(a) Treble clef (b) Bass Staff (c) Soprano Clef (d) Alto Clef (e)
Treble Staff.
3. Write the following music notes and their rests:
(a) Quarter-note (b) Half-note (c) Eight-note (d) Dotted whole-note.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTEHR READING

Karolyi, O. (1982). Introducing Music Middlesex: Penguin Books Ltd.

Smallwood’s Piano Tutor (n.d). London: Francis, Day & Hunter Ltd.

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UNIT 2 TIME NAMES

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 What are Time Names?
3.2 Music Notes and Their Time Names
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Music sounds have duration; the various signs used in showing the
duration were treated in the previous unit. This current unit treats time
names to further promote an understanding of the music notes,
especially when they are used in combinations.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• write the time names of music notes

• relate rhythmic exercises with time names.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 What are Time Names?

Each music sound has duration, which is the time period within which
the sound is heard. This duration is shown with the use of music notes.
Apart from using music notes to represent the duration of sound
graphically, the duration of individual sound can be shown aurally
through the use of some “nonsense” syllables. These syllables are called
time names or French time names.

Time names are used to aid the interpretation of music notes or sounds,
which depict when sounds are produced through to when they are not
heard. Each time name represents a corresponding music note that has
been used to indicate the duration of particular sounds. Therefore, an
understanding of time names will promote both the ability to represent
music sounds by using notes, and interpreting notated or written sound.

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The purpose of time names, therefore, is to further promote the

interpretation of rhythmic music sound.

3.2 Music Notes and Their Time Name

For our purpose, we shall treat the time names of the basic music notes
that were identified earlier in unit 1; and we shall also show other
combinations of music notes and their time names, especially in the next
sub-division of this unit. The basic notes and their time names are
shown below.

Name of Note Symbol Duration (in counts/beats) Time Name

1. Semibreve O 4 counts Taa-aa-aa-aa

2. Minim 2 counts Taa-aa

3. Crotchet 1 count Taa

4. Quaver ½ count Ta or te

5. Semiquaver ¼ count Ta, or fa, or te, or fe

The above can be shown in relation to one another within the time of
four regular counts/beats or the semibreve. For ease of interpretation, let
a beat or count be represented by a stroke of the second hand of the
clock/watch.

Note Number of Notes

1. Semibreve 1 = 0
1 2 3 4
Taa-aa - aa – aa

2. Minim 2 =
1 2 3 4
Taa - aa Taa - aa

3. Crotchet 4 =
1 2 3 4
Taa Taa Taa Taa

4. Quaver 8 =
1 & 2& 3 & 4&
Ta-te Ta–te Ta-te Ta-te

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5. Semiquaver 16 =

1 & 2 & 3 & 4 &

Ta-fa-te-fe Ta-fa-te-feTa-fa-te-fe Ta-fa-te-fe

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Write the time names of the follow exercise:

0 0

In time names, special attention should be paid to the use of the

consonant letters, which are t and f. The use of either of these two
consonants in combination with one or two vowels (aa, a or e) indicates
the point at which sound is to be produced within a count or beat. If the
sound is longer than one count/beat, it is sustained through the number
of counts with the use of appropriate vowels, and dash or hyphen (-)
depending on the length of the sound. The absence of any intervening
consonant shows that the sound is not repeated after it has been
produced initially, but sustained through the count(s). See our
illustration above showing that a sound represented with a semibreve
note is produced on the first count (Taa) and sustained through counts
2-4 (-aa-aa-aa).

Minim, on the other hand, shows a sound that lasts for two counts;
therefore, in the time count of four, two minims are required, indicating
that sound is produced twice – each lasting for two counts. The first
minim indicates that sound is produced at count one and sustained
through the second count (Taa-aa), and the second minim shows that
sound is produced on the third count and sustained through the
fourth/last count (Taa-aa). Where a sound lasts for one count, the
crotchet note is used. Therefore, there would be sound produced on the
four counts, with each sound lasting for one count (Taa Taa Taa Taa).

Our example above shows that where the vowel “a” is used in pair, it
indicates a count or beat. However, we would find that some time names
use only one “a”. Where this occurs, it shows that the sound is occurring
at the first half of a beat. It could represent a half count or one of lesser
value depending on what comes after. Furthermore, where the vowel “e”
is used, it shows that the sound is occurring within the second half of a
beat. These possibilities are examined subsequently.

We noted earlier that a crotchet is commonly regarded as the unit of

beat. This is because a single crotchet represents one count or beat. If a
beat is split into two equal halves, the music note that is used to

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represent each half is the quaver, ( ). It means that two quavers ( )

make one crotchet ( )

or a beat/count. Two quaver notes represent two sounds – the first

quaver representing the sound on the first half of the beat, and the
second quaver, the second half of the beat. The time name for the first
quaver (half count) is “’Ta”, while the second half carries the time name
“te”, hence the time name for two quavers within one beat is Ta-te. The
distinction between the two halves is shown with the use of :(i). Upper
case “T”, and a single “a” indicating that although the sound is produced
on the first count, it is half as long as one count (aa). (ii) Lower case"t”
showing sound is produced, but that the sound occurs half way into the
beat (“e”). Therefore, within the time of four counts/beats, there would
be four pairs of quavers.

Furthermore, it is possible to divide a beat into four equal parts. This

means that each part is a quarter count. The note that represents a
quarter count is the semiquaver, i.e. four

semiquavers ( ) make one count/beat. Another way is to see

the first and second semiquavers as the first half of a

beat ( ), and the third and fourth semiquavers as an equivalent of the

second half of a beat ( ). We said earlier that the first quaver (half) of a
beat is ‘Ta’, while the second quaver or half is “te”. With the use of
another consonant “f”, two equal divisions of each half can further be
represented. Hence ‘Ta-fa’ for the first and second semiquavers ( )
of the first half beat, and “te-fe” for the third and fourth semiquavers
( ) in the second half beat. The use of consonant letters preceding the
vowels shows that individual sounds are produced.

In our treatment of the music notes, we noted that music notes could be
dotted to make them longer by half. Hence, a dotted semibreve (0.) is a
semibreve plus half of it, making a total of six counts. A dotted minim (
.) equals a minim plus half of a minim, which is two counts plus one
count, and equals three counts. The time names of these and other
combinations are illustrated below.

Name of Note Sign Duration Time name

1. Dotted semibreve 0. 6 counts Taa-aa-aa-aa-aa-aa

2. Dotted minim . 3 counts Taa-aa-aa

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3. Dotted crotchet . 1½ counts Taa-a

4. Dotted Quaver . ¾ count Ta-e

As far as a dotted crotchet is concerned, a sound indicated by it lasts for

one and a half counts. This means that the sound is produced on the
count or beat at “Taa” and sustained into the first half of the next count
(“a”). The second half of the next count, which has the time name “te”,
therefore would require a different treatment. Thus, the rhythm .
which falls within a total of two counts (1½+ ½ ), is to be read:

Counts= 1 2 &
Taa-a te
1+½ + ½

The rhythm above can be reversed thus: .. In such case, the

interpretation would be: . where the . represents the last three

1 &2
halves of two beats. The time name would be Ta te-aa.

For the purpose of emphasis, unless otherwise indicated with

appropriate use of symbols/signs, every music note represents a single
sound. In other words, a music note is a direction to produce a sound
whose duration depends on the type of note used. The dotted quaver
( . ) indicates a single sound that lasts for half and a quarter of a beat
or three-quarters of a beat; that is, it is less than one beat by a quarter.

The time name for four semiquavers is Ta-fa-te-fe (refer to 3.2 above),
each representing a quarter of a count. Therefore, the first three
semiquavers are subsumed or contained within the . (Ta-e) and the
other note to make up the count is (fe).

Hence, the rhythm:

.
1 &
Ta-e fe
¾ + ¼ = 1 count

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Note the omission of the consonants f and t of the second and third
semiquavers, indicating that a fresh sound is not made after the initial
sound on the first semiquaver, but it is sustained through the second and
third semiquavers. The rhythm in the example above can be reversed to
read:

.
1 &
Ta - fa-e
¼ + ¾ = 1 count

In this case, the dotted quaver represents the last three semiquavers
within a count, which are taken as a single unit.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Write music notes to show the following time names:

Ta-te Taa Taa-aa Taa-a-te Ta-te Taa Ta-fa-te Taa Taa-aa.

4.0 CONCLUSION

Time names help in recording and interpreting the rhythm of music

sounds. They compliment the role/function of music notes or signs in
relation to the rhythmic organisation of sounds. Saying the time names
of an exercise and at the same time clapping, for instance, facilitate the
learning of the rhythmic aspects of vocal or instrumental works. It is
important therefore, that you study this unit thoroughly.

5.0 SUMMARY

This unit explains time names, which are used to represent the duration
of music sounds. They are “nonsense” syllables that aid in the
interpretation of the rhythm aspect of musical works. The various
examples/illustrations examined in this unit should aid you in
recording/writing or interpreting simple rhythmic exercises by tapping
or clapping them while saying the time names along.

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6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Write the time names of notes in the following exercise.

2
4 . . .

2. Write out the music notes that correctly represent the following
time names:

Taa-aa Taa Taa Taa Taa Taa Ta-te Taa Taa-aa-aa

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Smallwood’s Piano Tutor (n.d). London: Francis, Day & Hunter Ltd.

Warburton, A.O. (1953). A Graded Music Course for Schools. Book

One. London: Longman Group Ltd.

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UNIT 3 TONES AND SEMITONES

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 What are Tones and Semitones?
3.2 Tones and Semitones on the Keyboard
3.3 Uses of Accidentals
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Previously, we examined letters used in representing music sounds. We

also looked clefs and staffs, as well as music notes and rests. In this
present unit, you will be taken through a study of tones and semitones,
and how to locate or effect them on the keyboard or the staff through the
use of the accidentals.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• state what tones and semitones are

• identify relationships of tones and semitones between notes
• mention the uses of accidentals.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 What are Tones and Semitones?

The terms tones (or whole tone) and semitones (or half-tone) are used to
describe the quality of the distance or interval (in pitch) between two
notes. Sometimes, a semitone may be referred to as half step, and a tone
as whole step. A semitone is basically the smallest unit of pitch in works
patterned after Western music conventions. However, a smaller unit
such as the quartertone (half of semitone) exists in the music of some
oriental cultures. And besides, the Polish composer, Krzysztof
Penderecki, has also made use of quartertones in his St Luke Passion.
(Larsen et al, 2003). Two semitones make a tone.

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Between any music note and its close neighbour, there exists a distance
or interval that may be described as tone or semitone. However, the
distance between a note and a distant neighbour might be more than a
tone. In the next entries (3.2 and 3.3) discussions are presented to
promote deeper understanding of the applications of tones and
semitones. They should, therefore, be studied carefully.

3.2 Tones and Semitones on the Keyboard

A keyboard, in contemporary music usage, is any musical instrument,

which is played by means of a series of keys on a board similar to that of
the piano. Instruments like pianos, organs, synthesisers, and other allied
instruments are generally referred to as keyboards. Our present attention,
however, is on the board containing the keys that are played to produce
sound on the instrument. The configuration or structure of the keyboard
is essentially the same; therefore reference to any particular one of the
instruments above is not implied.

The keyboard is made up of a series of black and white keys. The keys
are sometimes called notes, but care must be exercised not to confuse
this nomenclature with music notes referred to as signs. The keyboard
looks thus:

The Keyboard

A careful observation of the keyboard above would reveal a certain

pattern of arrangement or ordering of the keys. For instance, the black
keys are placed in the alternating order of three black keys (or two black
keys) followed by two black keys (or three black keys). In addition,
there are no black keys between some white keys. Furthermore, it would
be observed that if counting were done involving only the white keys
one would arrive at a similar note as the first at the eighth count. For
example, counting eight keys from the first one (on the left) of the
keyboard above, you would arrive at a key with the same letter name.
These white keys, in succession, are F G A B C D E F. This series of
eight notes make an octave. Again, if we begin from the fifth white note
from the left, the series would be C D E F G A B C as we mentioned in

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unit 1, and these are the basic natural notes from which the black keys
derive their names.

Fundamentally, the white keys maintain certain qualities of distance

with their neighbouring white keys. For instance, between C and D is a
tone; D and E is a tone; E and F is a semitone; F and G is a tone; G and
A is a tone; A and B is a tone; and B and C is a semitone. In the same
vein, these qualities of distance can be calculated between any two of
the black and white keys. It would now be appropriate to attempt
definitions of semitone, and tone (which were deliberately excluded
from 3.1).

A semitone is the distance in pitch between a note and the one

immediately above or below it. When we move up from a note to the
one immediately after it, there is an increase of pitch by a semitone. If
the movement is downwards (not backwards) there is a reduction of
pitch by a semitone. A tone, on the other hand is the distance in pitch
between a note and another above or below, with a note in-between
them. Therefore, the movement from a note to another (up or down)
with an intervening note in each case, results in increase or decrease by
a tone, respectively. Examples of the above are:

Semitone Tone

C D E F G A B C

Tone Semiton

In the illustration above, between C and D is a tone because there is a

black key in-between; and between F sharp (the black key after F) and G
sharp (the black key after G) is a tone because there is an intervening
white key (G). Furthermore, between E and F is a semitone and between
C and C sharp is a semitone; these pairs do not have other notes in-
between them.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

1a. What is a tone?

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b. What is a semitone?

3.3 The Accidentals

The accidentals comprise three independent signs, which are employed

to raise, lower or restore notes. You would recall that we identified
seven basic musical notes, which are C D E F G A and B. The pitch of
each of these notes can be altered (or restored when altered) by the use
of the appropriate accidentals. They are written thus:

Sharp = #

Flat =

Natural =

Where notes are used on the staff, the accidentals are placed before or in
front of the individual notes they alter. However, when the letter names
of the notes are involved, the accidentals are written after or at the back
of the letters. The two examples are shown below:

F sharp =
#0

A sharp raises the pitch of a note on which it is placed by a semitone.

Thus an F note with a sharp becomes F sharp (as in the example above).
Sometimes, two sharps can be written on a note; in such case, the note is
raised by two semitones (or one tone). This treatment is called double
sharp, which can be written ## or x. G double sharp would be written
thus:

or
## X

This means two semitones (or one tone) above G. What is required is
for you to identify G first on the keyboard and move up by two half
steps. Please refer to the keyboard above.

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A flat, on the other hand, is used to lower or decrease the pitch of a note
by a semitone. Sometimes two flats (double flat) can be written on a
note; the note is thus lowered by two semitones (a tone). See these
examples, below:

=B = B flat

=B = B double flat

The natural sign is used to restore or readjust a flattened or sharpened

note (whether single or double) to its original or basic pitch. See the
different examples below.

F sharp F (natural)*

B double flat B

*The word “natural” is not usually added after the letter.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

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Which accidentals are appropriate to raise the following notes by the

number of tones or semitones mentioned, and what notes would result?
(i) C by a semitone (ii) F by a semitone
(ii) B flat by a semitone (iv) E double flat by a tone (v) D by a tone.

4.0 CONCLUSION

The knowledge of tones and semitones is vital to the understanding of

the interrelationships amongst the various music notes or sounds in
terms of the quality of interval or distance between one note and
another. Tones and semitones are demonstrable on the keyboard, and the
use of accidentals helps in creating tones and semitones. Do regular
exercises with these on the model/dummy keyboard shown in this unit.
It would be better if you could access an actual keyboard, which would
help you in getting familiar with and identifying the pitches/notes
aurally.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you probably have learnt that tones and semitones describe
the interval in pitch between any two notes. You also must have learnt
how to identify tones and semitones on the keyboard. In addition, you
should have learnt about the uses of the accidentals to affect the pitch
quality of intervals; they include: the sharp, which raises a note by a
semitone; the flat, which lowers a note by a semitone; and the natural,
which restores a sharpened or flattened note to its original state.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. With reference to the keyboard, illustrate what semitones and

tones are.
2. Identify the distance between C sharp and D sharp, and between
E flat and E.
3. Mention the uses of the following accidentals: (i) a sharp; (ii) a
flat; and (iii) a natural.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Goode, R. (1979). “The Story of Music”. In The Story of Art and Music
(pp.269 – 400). New Jersey: The University Society, Inc.

Karolyi, O. (1982). Introducing Music. Middlesex: Penguin Books Ltd.

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Larsen, A. M.; P.W. Borg; D. Poultney; A. Unsworth & R. Washburn

(2003). Crossroads in Music: Traditions and Connections.
California: Thomson Schirmer.

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MODULE 3 MUSIC AND TONALITY

Unit 1 The Music Scale

Unit 2 Use of Tonic Solfa
Unit 3 Music Intervals

UNIT 1 THE MUSIC SCALE

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Scale Defined
3.2 Types and Forms of Scales
3.3 Construction of Scales
3.4 Playing Scales on the Keyboard
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Previously in Module 2, we discussed among other things, letters of the

music alphabet, which represent music tones, and clefs and staffs, as
well as tones and semitones. In this unit, we are going to learn how
music notes can form particular series, and the conditions that govern
the creation of the series that is called scale.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• define scale
• name types and forms of scales
• write the scales of C major, and A minor
• identify the fingerings for playing the scales of C major and A
minor on the keyboard.

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Scale Defined

A scale is a series or sequence of notes or pitches. The word “scale” has

its origin in the Latin word “scala” that means “ladder”. Analogously, a
ladder has a number of rungs arranged in succession; so does a scale,
which is made up of successive sequence of notes. Every ladder has a
point of take-off (the first rung); in the same manner every scale begins
on a specific note. In addition, the rungs of a ladder vary in number and
spacing, which determine the height that can be reached using a
particular ladder. The same is true of scales, which vary in the number
of notes and the intervals between them – features that would determine
the music that can be created with them. Finally in our analogy, as effort
increases correspondingly as one climbs higher (going up) on a ladder,
so does pitch increases with successive upward movement from the first
note on the scale. Let us illustrate with a “music ladder” that begins on
the note C thus:

Half step •
8th (a kind of the 1st at a higher level)
C •
• 7th
B • Whole step
th
• A • 6

Whole step
• G • 5th

• F • 4th Whole step

• 3rd Half Step

• E

Whole step
• D • 2nd
Whole step
st
• C • 1

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3.2 Types and Forms of Scales

Many scale types exist, and some of these come in certain forms. The
type or form of scale employed in any music is determined by
conventional or cultural factors, as well as the preferences of the creator
of the music.

The New Encyclopaedia Britannica (1993) says the pentatonic and

heptatonic scales enjoy popular usage in the music of most cultures of
the world. Other scale types, which are not very common, are ditonic,
tritonic, tetratonic, and hexatonic scales. Each of these four scales has
two pitches, three pitches, four pitches and six pitches, respectively.
There are other scales that are used specifically by certain cultures. Our
discussion, however, shall be on pentatonic and heptatonic scales.

3.3 Construction of Scales

Pentatonic Scale

Pentatonic scale is a very common scale type that is used in many

cultures of the world. It consists of five (5) different tones or pitches.
Therefore, to construct or write a complete series of the notes of this
scale, six notes are involved (the sixth being a duplication of the first at
a higher pitch). On the treble staff, a pentatonic scale that begins on C
will look thus:

Letter names of notes C D E G A C

Degrees on the scale 1 2 3 4 5 6
(Tonic) (Tonic)

Tonic is used to
describe the note on
which a scale is built.
It is also called the
fundamental or home
note.

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And on the keyboard, the scale would involve the following keys.

C D E G A C

C D E G A C

In addition to the above, playing all the five black keys of the keyboard,
beginning from C sharp (the first of a set of two black keys), would
produce a pentatonic scale.

Heptatonic Scale

As the name implies, a heptatonic scale comprises a sequence of seven

(7) different notes or pitches. It is widespread in much of Western music
tradition, and in the musical practices of some Asian and Mediteranian
cultures such as Indian and Iran. In Western art music (composed
music), the diatonic scale is the form of heptatonic scale mostly used.

Diatonic scale is exemplified by two kinds that are used in most of the
composed musical works of today. They are the major and minor scales.
The minor further has three forms or variants: natural minor, melodic
minor, and harmonic minor. Both the major scale and the minor scale
variants have certain fixed arrangements of their tones or pitches. In
other words, each has its intervals arranged in certain order of tones and
semitones. First, let us begin with an example of diatonic major scale.

The Major Scale of C

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A major scale has its intervals arranged in the fixed order of Tone, Tone,
Semitone, Tone, Tone, Tone, and Semitone. These are indicated below
with the use of “ T” for tone, and “ St” for semitone.

A diatonic scale can be built starting with any of the music tones. A
scale is identified or called by the name of its first note. Our scale of C,
therefore, begins on C. But it is different from our previous example of a
pentatonic scale because our present scale consists of seven tones. The
scale of C on the treble staff is

Intervals T T St T T T St
Letters C D E F G A B C
Solfa names Doh Re Mi Fah Soh Lah Ti Doh
Degrees 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Technical Names Tonic Supertonic Mediant Sub-dominant Dominant Sub-mediant Leading note Octave

The scale of C involves the white notes of the keyboard, from C to its
octave(C). Each of the degrees is numbered for purpose of identification
of its position, and these have corresponding technical names, and the
degrees are shown with Roman numerals. The qualities of intervals are
indicated: in relation to the scale of C, semitones occur between E and F,
and between B and C. Tones occur between other degrees of the scale.
In writing or constructing other major scales, the order of tones and
semitones must be followed.

The Scale of C in Descending Order

The scale of C major, like any other scale, can be written in a

descending order. What this implies is that the last note of the scale
begins it, and built downwards to the first note, thus:

C B A G F E D C
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

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Playing only the eight white keys of the keyboard, beginning from C
and ending on its octave produces a diatonic major scale of C. Naturally,
the tones and semitones occur in the appropriate degrees. This is not so
for major scales that begin on other notes. To construct these scales, at
least one note would be affected by an accidental (either sharp or flat),
such as the scale of G major, which has F sharp instead of F; and F
major scale that has B flat instead of B.

The Diatonic Scale of A Minor

The other form of diatonic scale is the minor scale. Its tones and
semitones are arranged in a manner that is different from the major
scale. Any minor scale is derived from its relative major key, which lies
three notes above it. Conversely, the relative minor of any major key lies
three notes below it. The distance or interval between them is always
one tone and a half tone (i.e. three semitones). This is the kind of
relationship that exists between A minor and C major ( C is three half
steps above A).

The notes of the A minor scale are:

A B C D E F G A. These are the white

keys of the keyboard from A to its octave. This type of arrangement of
notes of the minor scale, where half steps occur between the 2nd and 3rd,
and 5th and 6th degrees is called natural minor scale. Other variants of the
minor scale are harmonic minor scale and melodic minor scale.

The harmonic minor scale has the seventh degree raised by a semitone
(mostly with the use of a sharp sign, or a natural sign where the seventh
is a flattened note). On the other hand, the melodic minor scale has the
sixth and seventh degrees raised when ascending, and both degrees are
restored or naturalised when descending. Each of these three forms of
the minor scale are illustrated below, using the A minor scale.

i. Scale of A minor (Natural)

153
T St T T St T T
Notes A B C D E F G A
Solfa Lah Ti Doh Re Mi Fah Soh Lah
Degrees 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
PED230 INTRODUCTION TO MUSIC

ii. Scale A minor (Harmonic)

T St T T St T +St # St
A B C D E F G A
Lah Ti Doh Re Mi Fah Se Lah
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Write the scales of C major one octave ascending, and A minor

(harmonic) one octave ascending and descending in the treble staff.

iii. Scale A minor (Melodic)

Ascending Descending
#
#

# #
A B C D E F G A G F E D C B A
Lah Ti Doh Re Mi Fe Se Lah Soh Fah Mi Re Doh Ti L
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

3.4 Playing Scale on the Keyboard

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Playing on the keyboard generally involves the use of both hands. In

some cases, legs may be involved also, depending on the peculiar
features of the keyboard instrument. We will, however, concentrate on
the use of the hands, especially the right hand in playing the scale at this
level.

Numbering of the Fingers

The fingers of both hands are numbered in relation to the preferred

fingers desired to play individual notes/keys. Beginning from the thumb
to the little finger, the fingers of each hand are numbered 1 to 5. Thus

Left Hand Right Hand

3 2 2 3

1 1
4 4

5 5

We noted previously that on the keyboard, the left hand is used for
playing notes in the bass staff, and the right hand for notes in the treble
staff, unless otherwise indicated. References to the right hand and the
left hand are often abbreviated R.H and L.H, respectively. Numbers of
preferred fingers are sometimes written above the notes on the staff. To
play the notes, the tips of the fingers are used, with the palms facing
down, and the wrists are slightly raised. You are required to trim your
nails to avoid injury and for proper playing.

Playing the scale of C (right hand only)

4 5
3
2
3 1
2
1

C D E F G A B C
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

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The switch to finger 1 on the 4th degree (F) is done by passing the thumb
under finger 3 after playing the 3rd note (E). When descending on the
scale, the process is reversed by passing the third finger above/over the
thumb to play the 3rd note. The fingering in the scale of C above is
realisable on the keyboard thus:

Fingering 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5
Notes/Keys C D E F G A B C

Playing the Scale of A Minor (Natural) 5

4
3
1 2

1 2 3
R. H

A B C D E F G A
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5

A B C D E F G A

Playing the Scales of A Minor (Melodic and Harmonic)

Playing both scales utilises the same fingering as that of A natural

minor. The difference lies in the notes or keys. For the melodic minor,
when ascending the 3rd finger plays the black key above F (F sharp)
instead of the white key F, and the 4th finger plays the black key above
G (G sharp) instead of the white key G. When descending, the
respective fingers play the white keys (natural) instead of their black key
counterparts. In the harmonic minor scale of A, the 7th degree is the only

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black key (G sharp), and this is played with the 4th finger in both
ascending and descending. See illustrations of these scales below. (Refer
to the respective scales in 3.3 above).

(a) Melodic minor scale of A

3 4

Descending

(1) (2) (3) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Ascending 1 2 3 1 2 3 5

UP A B C D E F# G#A
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E) (F) (G) (A) Down

(b) Harmonic minor scale of A

G#4

1 2 3 1 2 3 5
A B C D E F

A B C D E F G#A

You are encouraged to begin playing these scales at a slow pace or

tempo against a steady beat or pulse. You may use the second hand of
the clock/watch as guide. When you have mastered each, play them at a
slightly faster pace, and increase this as you gain proficiency. Note that
to play each of the scales above with the left hand, the order of the
fingers would be 5 4 3 2 1 3 2 1 when ascending, and the other way
round when descending.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Indicate the fingers of the left hand that you would use in playing each
of the notes of the scales of C major and A minor (harmonic) on the
keyboard.

4.0 CONCLUSION

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A scale is a series of notes arranged in succession from a tonic to its

octave. It is the framework for any music work or composition. Scales
have types and forms, which are determined by the number of notes that
make up the individual scale, and the status or quality of each note in
relation to others. Scales can be built on any notes or letters of the
music alphabet. Two types of scales are used predominantly in music –
major and minor scales. Scales can be sung, or played on any melodic
musical instrument like the piano, using either or both hands.

5.0 SUMMARY

This unit teaches that a scale is a “musical ladder”, and that each of the
notes or degrees can be likened to the rungs of a ladder: ascent on the
music scale takes one to a higher pitch, while the reverse is the case
when one descends. There are several types or forms of scales, some of
which are ditonic scale, tritonic scale, tetratonic scale, pentatonic scale,
hexatonic scale, and heptatonic scale. The heptatonic scale is most
commonly used in composed/notated music, and it has two types:
diatonic major scale and diatonic minor scale. The latter has three forms
– natural, melodic, and harmonic minor. The unit also explains the
scales of C major and A minor in terms of how to write, sing, and play
them on the keyboard. You are, therefore, encouraged to buy a music
manuscript book and a copy of Smallwood’s Piano Tutor to aid you in
your study. You could also get at least a mini-size electronic keyboard
of four octaves (about 32 white keys). This would further enhance your
progress.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. What is a scale?
2. Name any four (4) types of scale, and any two (2) forms of a
scale type.
3. Using the treble staff, write each of the scales of C major, and A
minor (natural), one octave ascending and descending.
4. With reference to question 3 (above), indicate the fingers of the
right hand you would use in playing each of the two scales on the
keyboard.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Smallwood’s Piano Tutor. (n.d). London: Francis, Day & Hunter Ltd.

The Art of Music. (1993). In The New Encyclopaedia Britannica (Vol.

24. pp. 493 – 552). Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica.

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UNIT 2 USE OF TONIC SOLFA

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Tonic Solfa: its Evolution
3.2 Notation in Tonic Solfa
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

We examined the music scale in the previous unit. The degrees of notes

of a scale vary in pitch. In this unit, we will consider tonic solfa. It is one

of the ways or methods used in interpreting the notes or pitches of a

scale or any music composition, whether for the voice or musical

instruments.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• state the importance of tonic solfa

• interpret music in tonic solfa
• write music in tonic solfa.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Tonic Solfa: Its Evolution

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Tonic solfa, which in Latin is called solfeggio, and solfege in French, is

a system of music notation. You learnt about another system or form of
notation in Unit 1 of Module 2. Apart from these two, there are certain
cultures such as those of Asia, which possess their own systems of
notating music.

Tonic solfa originated about the 9th century A.D. It was developed by an
Italian monk, Guido d’Arezzo, as a means of facilitating easy recall and
effective singing by monks in the Roman Catholic Church. He evolved a
mnemonic from a seven-line Latin hymn, Ut Queant Laxis, which was
very popular among the Christians then. Each of the lines begins on a
different scale degree, out of which grew the seven notes of our modern
diatonic scale.

The mnemonic was formed from the first syllable of each line, except
the seventh line, which combines the first letters of the two words to
make a syllable. The hymn, which is a prayer to St. John the Baptist,
runs thus:

Ut queant laxis

Resonare fibris

Mira gestorum

Famuli tuorum

Solve polluti

Labii reatum

Sancte Ioannes
With reference to the seven-note major scale, the syllables of the hymn
were represented as exemplified below:

Line of hymn Syllable/solfa name Position in a

major scale

First line = Ut (later changed to Do) = 1st degree

Second line = Re = 2nd degree
Third line = Mi = 3rd degree
Fourth line = Fa = 4th degree
Fifth line = Sol = 5th degree
Sixth line = La = 6th degree

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Seventh line = Si (became Ti) = 7th degree

From the above, therefore, the notes of the scale are read in succession
from the tonic to its octave thus: do re mi fa sol la ti do. This is the
Italian rendering. In the English language, these solfa names are spelt:
doh ray me fah soh lah te doh (the last doh is the high octave/tonic,
which completes the scale). However, the first letters of the solfa names
are often used thus: d r m f s l t d.

Tonic solfa functions as an aid to sight-reading and sight singing of

music compositions, and exercises in ear training. It can promote easy
writing of melodies. Further, it makes it possible to sing the scales of
every key just by locating the position of the tonic.

The system is adaptable in not only major and minor keys, but also
where chromatic or altered notes are involved. For instance, it is
possible to raise the pitches of d r f s l by a semitone each. The solfa
would become de re fe se le (or di ri fi si li), respectively. On the other
hand, r m s l and t can be lowered or flattened by a semitone each.
These would result in the solfa names: raw maw saw law and taw,
respectively. With this flexibility, it is possible to sing in solfa any pitch
within a key. This also caters to the various forms of the minor scale
(treated in the previous unit), whose natural form is: l t d r m f s l.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Write the scale of A minor (natural) in the treble staff, and indicate the
tonic solfa names of the notes.

3.2 Notation in Tonic Solfa

Tonic solfa addresses two basic features as far as music sounds are
concerned. These are intonation and pulse. Intonation refers to the
dynamics of pitch, which consist in the various notes or tones within a
given scale or key. On the other hand, pulse refers to the structure of
beats against regular time. It can be stated that while intonation deals
with the pitch of music sounds, pulse deals with the duration of such
sounds or the rhythm.

In a major key, for instance, the notes of the scale are written d r m f s l
t dI. This relates to the main octave of focus. These notes can also occur
at a higher or lower level or octave. For instance, to show that these
notes are in the higher octave, a primary stress ( I ) is written after each,
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hence dI rI mI fI and so on. On the other hand, secondary stress ( I ) is

used to indicate change of these notes to a lower octave; thus: dI tI lI sI
and so on.

The representation of the beats of the rhythmic aspect of a piece of

music begins with identifying the basic number of pulses or beats. In
written music, this is expressed in the time signature, where the upper
figure indicates the number of pulses or beats, while the lower figure
shows the type of note that is taken as a beat. On the other hand, the
number of pulses or beats can be identified aurally by determining
which beat of the sound is accented or given strong emphasis – this
marks the first count or beat. Other intervening regular beats between
two strongly accented beats are integral parts of the first.

Depending on the time signature or the organisation of strong and weak

beats, it is possible to have between two and twelve basic pulses within
2
a bar or measure. For instance, in time signature, there are two pulses, 2
where a minim ( ) is regarded as a pulse. But in 42 , although there are
also two pulses or beats within a bar, it is a crotchet ( ) that represents a
beat.

12
Further, in 8 time – signature, there are twelve pulses in a bar, where
the note taken as a pulse is the quaver ( ). Most times, however, times
considered in quavers are compressed where three quavers equal a pulse
(excepting where the unit of pulse is a dotted crotchet ( . = ).
6
9
Hence: 8 has two pulses of . .. ; 8
three - . . . . and so on.

You learnt earlier that music notes are used to express the rhythm of
music. The note commonly regarded as the longest in duration is the
semibreve (0); it has four beats/counts. To indicate the duration of
sound, some punctuation marks are used along with the solfa names,
where the solfas show the pitches, and the punctuation marks show the
length of the pitches. This and other musical notes representing possible
divisions of rhythmic sound are presented below, using the tonic (doh)
as example.

No. of pulse Notation (Solfa and Duration)

4 d:-:-:-

3 d:-:-

2 d:-

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1 d:

½ d.

1½ d:-.

¼ d,

¾ d.,

Uses of the Punctuation Marks

A colon (:) separates basic units of pulse or beat into equal spaces within
a bar. Thus for four basic beats in a bar, the divisions would be : : : ,
where each of the spaces within the two bar lines represents a beat.
Where three and two basic beats are involved, the divisions would be
: : , and : , respectively. Therefore, if the unit of beat in these
examples is a crotchet, then each of the spaces is a crotchet ( ).

You would recall that a beat could be divided into two equal halves. To
do this, a period (.) is placed at the middle of the space representing a
beat thus: . : . : . : . . Taking, for example, a crotchet ( ) as a unit of
beat, a period (.) therefore, divides the space for a beat into two equal
halves, where each space on either side of the period (.) is half a beat or
a quaver. In this example, the use of period has split the bar into eight
(8) equal halves.

Using our example (above) as a point of reference, each half beat can
further be divided to produce two quarter beats. This is done by using a
comma (,), which is placed at the mid-point of the space between a dot
and a colon, or bar line. Thus, , . , : , . , : , . , : , . , where each space
created by the additional use of comma represents an eighth-note or a
semiquaver ( ) or a quarter beat. Note, however, that the value of the
notes change in relation to the note that serves as the basic beat. This,
notwithstanding, the divisions in terms of uses of the punctuation marks
remain the same.

In addition to the marks showing the various divisions within a bar,

other punctuation marks used are a dash ( – ) and a hyphen ( - ). A single
dash is used to prolong a particular pitch before it by one beat or pulse.
A hyphen ( - ) prolongs a pitch by half a beat or pulse. Thus d :-:-
shows the pitch d is heard on the first beat and prolonged through two
additional beats (two dashes), indicating that the note lasts for three
counts or pulses. And a hyphen extends a pitch by half, hence d:-. with
d lasting for 1½ counts. In the example with the hyphen, you would

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notice that the space after the period (representing half pulse or beat) is
empty. An empty space shows a rest – an indication not to produce
sound for the duration implied. In this case, it is a silence of half a count
or beat. However, a note can be introduced similar to or different from
the previous; thus d:-.d or d:-.r , etc.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Write the notation for the following tonic solfa names:

(i) doh lasting for three counts

(ii) me lasting for two counts
(iii) soh lasting for four counts

4.0 CONCLUSION

The use of tonic solfa provides an easier way of interpreting music,

whether such music is written in solfa or staff notations, or aurally
communicated. It could also be a quick way of notating music sound,
without having to bother about a staff or the key. These advantages of
using tonic solfa, therefore offer enough incentives for a painstaking
study to understand the system.
5.0 SUMMARY

This unit has explained how tonic solfa evolved around the 9th century
A.D. It also it also explained the elements that are the hallmark of solfa
notation, which include the use of some punctuation marks such as
commas, colons, periods, etc. With the several illustrations/examples
given, you should be able to write melodies in tonic solfa, as well as
interpret music, using tonic solfa notation.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. In what three (3) ways is tonic solfa important?

2. Represent the following solfa notation in the treble staff: key: C;
Time: 34 m:-:f /s:-:l/s:f.m:r/d:-:-//
3. Write the following in tonic solfa notation:

2
4 .

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

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Goode, R. (1979). The Story of Music. In The Story of Art and Music
(pp. 269-400). New Jersey: The University Society, Inc.

Karolyi, O. (1982). Introducing Music. Middlesex: Penguin Books, Ltd.

Rohm, A.H. (2000). Music for the Church (2nd ed.). Ibadan: Baptist
Music Workshop.

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UNIT 3 MUSIC INTERVALS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 What is an Interval?
3.2 Classification of Intervals
3.3 Qualities of Intervals
3.4 Inversion of Intervals
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In a preceding unit, we saw, among other things, that a scale is a series

or sequence of notes or pitches from a tonic to its octave. The notes of a
scale are interrelated. In this unit, we shall treat the relationship between
one note of a scale and another in terms of distance and the quality of
such distance, inter alia.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• list the classes of intervals

• identify intervals
• invert intervals

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 What is an Interval?

An interval is the distance in pitch between one note and another. In

other words, two different notes are usually involved, except the interval
of the unison, which involves the duplication of one note of the same
pitch.

There are two kinds of interval: melodic interval, and harmonic interval.
Melodic intervals are considered horizontally, which means that two
notes of an interval are heard one after the other. A clearer picture of the
structure of a melodic interval can be seen when one considers two notes
on a scale – the first note is heard/seen first before the next. On the other
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hand, harmonic intervals are ordered vertically. The two notes of a

harmonic interval are written one directly above the other. This implies
that the two notes are to be heard together at the same time. See
illustrations of the two kinds of interval, using the key of C major.

(a) Melodic interval (b) Harmonic interval

3.2 Classification of Intervals

Intervals are classified in relation to the number of notes involved in the

distance between any two notes. In other words, in addition to the two
notes which form the interval, any notes in-between, which are not
usually written, are added in giving numerical quality to the interval. In
the two illustrations given in 3.1 a & b (above), the two notes in each
case are C and E. The distance from C to E involves three notes (two
shown, and one not shown, i.e. the note D). Because three notes are
involved, we say the interval is a third.

You would recall that in writing the scale of C, Roman numbers were
assigned to each of the degrees according to the positions they occupy
on the scale. We will use notes of the scale in making clear how
intervals are classified. However, you do not necessarily have to depend
on a scale to name intervals; what is most important is identifying the
two notes involved.

Intervals are classified into eight basic types. These are: unison, second,
third, fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth. Other classes are only
compounds of these types – they are ninth, tenth, eleventh, twelfth and
thirteenth. These are intervals that are greater than the octave. We shall
show only the basic intervals on the scale of C in their melodic and
harmonic forms.

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Basic Intervals

(a) Melodic Form

Unison 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th Octave

C–C C – D C –E C–F C–G C–A C–B C–C

(b) Harmonic Form

Unison 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th Octave

Top note C D E F G A B C
Bottom note C C C C C C C C

From the illustrations above, we can say that: a unison is a distance of

same notes; a second, two notes; a third, three notes; a fourth, four
notes; a fifth, five notes; a sixth, six notes; a seventh, seven notes; and
an octave, eight notes. Note, however, that intervals can be between any
two degrees or notes of any key.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

What are the basic intervals?

3.3 Qualities of Intervals

Any class of intervals has a quality, which is determined by the number

of tones and semitones that are contained between the two notes. An
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interval may be major, minor, perfect, augmented, or diminished.

Naturally, intervals between the tonic of a major key and any note on the

scale may be described as perfect or major. On the scale of C major, for

instance, the perfect intervals are the unison, the fourth, the fifth, and the

octave, while the major intervals are the second, the third, the sixth, and

the seventh.

Major Major Major Major

Perfect 2nd 3rd Perfect Perfect 6th 7th Perfect
Unison 4th 5th Octave

The tones and semitones that make up each of the basic intervals are as
follows:

• Perfect unison = same pitch

• Major 2nd = 1 tone (or two semitones)
• Major 3 rd
= 2 tones (or four semitones)
• Perfect 4th = 2 ½ tones (or five semitones)
• Perfect 5th = 3 ½ tones (or seven semitones)
• Major 6 th
= 4 ½ tones (or nine semitones)
• Major 7 th
= 5 ½ tones (or eleven semitones)
• Perfect octave = 6 tones (or twelve semitones)

Furthermore, each of the intervals (with the exception of the unison and
octave) can be increased or decreased by a semitone. If this happens, the
result would be either minor or diminished (when decreased), or
augmented when increased. A minor interval can further be decreased to
produce a diminished interval. However, every altered interval retains its
class number. Thus:

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a. Major 2nd minus 1 semitone = minor 2nd (2 semitones)

b. Major 3rd minus 1 semitone = minor 3rd (3 semitones)
c. Perfect 4th minus 1 semitone = diminished 4th (4 semitones)
d. Perfect 5th minus 1 semitone = diminished 5th (6 semitones)
e. Major 6th minus 1 semitone = minor 6th (8 semitones)
f. Major 7th minus 1 semitone = minor 7th (10 semitones)

In addition to the above, intervals can be augmented. This happens when

a major or perfect interval is increased by a semitone. For instance, if a
major second is increased by a semitone the result would be augmented
second. Or if a perfect fourth is increased by a semitone, the product
would be augmented fourth.

There are several ways of increasing or decreasing an interval. It can be

by using any of the accidentals, i.e. sharp, flat and natural signs, and this
would depend on the key in question, and which of the notes of the
interval is the point of reference. In other words, instructions can be
given to create a certain quality of interval above or below a certain
note. When this happens, the note indicated may not be altered by any
means. Let us see some of the examples of the altered intervals.

Major Augmented Major Minor Perfect Augmented Major Diminished

2nd 2nd 3rd 3rd 5th 5th 7th 7th

3.4 Inversion of Intervals

Apart from the basic forms of intervals, intervals can also be inverted.
The inversion of an interval entails moving the bottom note of the
interval an octave higher above the top note, such that the top note now
becomes the bottom note. For example, the interval C-E, when inverted
becomes E-C. Let us illustrate further using the intervals on the scale of
C major.

Basic – inversion Basic – inversion Basic – inversion Basic – inversion Basic – inversion Basic – inversion

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nd th rd th th th th th th rd
PED230 MODULE 4

Basic Inversion Basic Inversion

7th 2nd Octave Unison

There are other points to note when intervals are inverted. First, the
overall effect of the sound is affected, usually sounding higher. Second,
the quality of the resulting interval is sometimes affected, for instance, a
major interval becomes minor and vice verse; a diminished interval
becomes augmented and vice versa. However, the quality of a perfect
interval remains unchanged. For example a perfect unison becomes
perfect octave and vice versa, and perfect fourth becomes perfect fifth,
and vice versa.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

What are the qualities of the intervals between the following pairs of
notes?

(i) A – C (ii) B – F (iii) F – B flat (iv) G – E flat (v) D – C.

4.0 CONCLUSION

Knowledge of intervals is very central to the arts of listening,

composing, and performance as far as music is concerned, especially to
an enthusiastic practitioner. You should therefore, undertake a serious
study of this unit so as to be able to create and apply intervals, which
would enhance your proficiency in other related areas.

5.0 SUMMARY

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This unit shows what interval is as well as the various classes of

intervals. It shows that intervals possess peculiar qualities, and what it
entails to create inversions of intervals.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. With illustration, list the basic classes of intervals.

2. Identify the following intervals, including the quality of each, in
the spaces provided under them.

G#4

(a)___________(b)__________(c)|________|(d)_________(e)________

3. Invert each of the intervals in question 2 (above), stating the new

status of each.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Karolyi, O. (1982). Introducing Music. Middlesex: Penguin Book Ltd.

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MODULE 4 ELEMENTS OF MUSIC

Unit 1 Rhythmic Organisation

Unit 2 Melody Writing
Unit 3 Harmony

UNIT 1 RHYTHMIC ORGANISATION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition and Function of Rhythm
3.2 Components of Rhythm
3.2.1 Beats
3.2.2 Metre
3.2.3 Time Signature and Measure
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In unit 3 of module 3, you must have learnt about intervals. Intervals are
indicated through the use of music notes, which show combinations of
music tones or sounds. Music sounds transit or move in time. In this
present unit, you will learn about rhythm as an element of music, which
is employed to depict the transition or movement of music sounds.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• state the uses of the components of rhythm

• arrange rhythmic exercises into meaningful time groups
• interpret rhythmic exercises.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition and Function of Rhythm

Before we examine the basic components of rhythm, it is important that

we take a look at its definition and function. Larsen et al (2003) see
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rhythm as “music moving through time” (p.12). They define rhythm as

the “temporal organisation of sounds in music” (p.12). The “temporal”
nature of rhythm indicates that it derives its life or being from time.
Rhythm is vital because of its role in providing the framework for
movement in the organisation of music sounds. Without a time-based
rhythm, there would be no music; what might result is “noise” or
irregular and uncoordinated movement of sounds. In other words, the
other two elements of music -melody and harmony – cannot exist
independent of rhythm. It is important, therefore, to give attention to this
aspect of music in order to gain a richer understanding and intelligent
interpretation of music.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

What is the function of rhythm?

3.2 Components of Rhythm

3.2.1 Beats

Rhythm, primarily, is made up of beats, which are evenly spaced.

Rhythm can be represented visually on paper through the use of music
notes that show the duration of individual sounds. Beats move in
successive manner and at certain rate or speed: the rate of beats is called
tempo. One way of demonstrating beats is to observe the second hand of
a clock/watch. You would notice that the strokes (movement from one
degree to another) are equally or evenly spaced – this produces a
regularity of the beats/strokes. As far as clock time is concerned, there
would be sixty (60) of such beats/strokes in one (1) minute. Again, if
you were to touch your wrist to feel your pulse, you would notice that
the beats come in regularly and evenly spaced manner, and at a
particular rate or speed. But, if you were to run on the spot for, say, one
minute and later feel your pulse, you would find that the rate has
increased, the beats, however, remaining regular. This illustrates the
aspect of tempo mentioned earlier.

3.2.2 Metre

Furthermore, it is possible to group beats into patterns that recur

regularly. This is referred to as metre. The first beat of any grouping is
accorded a stronger stress or accent, which entails applying more force
in producing it. There may be groups of two beats, three beats, four
beats, etc. Metre (the grouping of beats) is organised on the basis of a
given time signature. The number of beats in a group as expressed in the
time-signature determines the maximum (regular) number of counts
allowable. For instance, in a group of two beats, the maximum count,

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beginning from 1, is 2. In the cases of three-and four - beat patterns, the

maximum counts would be 3, and 4, respectively. In each of these, the
beat on the first count (count 1) is strongly accented while others are
not. Metres are classified into duple, triple and quadruple, representing
groups of 2-, 3- and 4- beats, respectively. Each of these has its
compound. However, our focus in this unit shall be on simple metres.

3.2.3 Time Signature and Measure

Other important aspects of rhythm are time-signature and measure. The

former consists of two figures one above the other (but not in the sense
of a fraction). It is usually placed at the beginning of written music after
the clef sign and key signature. In a rhythmic exercise that does not
include clef and key signature, the time signature comes at the
beginning. Its presence at the beginning gives direction concerning the
metre and what constitutes a measure or bar.

A measure or bar is the grouping of beats into recurring successive

patterns. Measures are separated with the use of short vertical lines
drawn across the staff. The time signature shows the number of notes,
which are of equal value in comparison with one another, in a measure.
The top figure in a time- signature indicates how many beats or counts
that are contained in a measure, and by this the maximum number of
counts is known. On the other hand, the bottom figure shows the type of
note that is taken as one beat or count. Let us now examine the exercise
below for examples of all that has been said.

Number of
Time beats in each Bar/measure Double barline
signature bar. showing end of
Indicates 4 exercise or
crotchet as a 4 .z music.
beat

Counts1-2-3-4 1-2 3-4 1 2 3 & 4 & 1-2-3 4

The above is a rhythmic exercise, which does not show the actual
pitches of the notes. Here, interest is on producing sounds that would
reflect each note. The time signature shows four counts of crotchets
(quarter notes) or the equivalent in each bar, whether as sound or
silence/rest. The barlines (vertical lines) separate the exercise into
measures, while the double barline plays the function of a full-stop.

The same exercise can be transferred to a staff, and each note given
specific pitch – this combination becomes melody. The primary purpose
here, however, is to show how rhythm may be shown on the staff. Thus:

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4
4 Z
.

Count 1-2-3-4 1-2 3-4 1 2 3 & 4 & 1- 2- 3 4

In the above exercise, the time signature comes after the clef sign. The
absence of flat(s) or sharp(s) after the clef sign shows that the music is
in the key of C major. The other possibility would be C’s relative minor
key – A.

In the two exercises above, the first note (semibreve) is sounded once at
the first count and prolonged through to the fourth count. The second bar
contains two minim notes; each is sounded once and sustained for two
counts, the first covering counts 1-2, and the second counts 3-4. The first
two notes of the third bar are crotchets: each represents a count; the
other notes are four quavers each lasting half a count. What this means
is that the two of them are sounded evenly one after the other in a single
count; the other two are treated in a similar manner. Finally, the fourth
bar contains a dotted minim and a crotchet rest. What this means is that
the dotted minim note is sounded and sustained for three counts (counts
1-3), and on the fourth count there is silence of one count, which the
crotchet rest stands for. When going through these exercises, you should
use a clock/watch with a second hand as your guide.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Describe beat, metre, and time signature as components of rhythm.

4.0 CONCLUSION

The bedrock of any music is rhythm. In other words, rhythm is the life
wire of any music composition, the knowledge of which aids the
interpretation of such composition. Understanding rhythm requires
painstaking practice; you are, therefore, encouraged to practise
regularly, with the clock/watch as a guide. In addition, attempt to imitate
and then write down simple rhythmic sounds you hear, or create some
personally.

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5.0 SUMMARY

This unit shows what rhythm entails in terms of its definition, function,
and its components. Specifically, it shows that rhythm manifests, first,
as beats,and that these beats can be grouped, based on their recurring
sequences or patterns, into metres. In addition, metres can be
represented through the use of time signature, which spells out the
number of beats that occur in each measure or bar of the music. The
illustrations presented should help you in creating and interpreting
rhythm.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. State the uses of the following components of rhythm:

(a) Measure/bar (b) Barlines (c) Double barline (d) Music notes (e)
Time signature
2. Using bar lines, arrange the following exercises to agree with the
time signatures indicated.

(a)
2
.
4

(b) 3 . .
4

4
(c) 4 .
(d) 6
8 .

(3) Write the time names of the following rhythmic exercises:

(a) 2
4
.
(b) 4
4

3
(c) .
4 .

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7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Herfurth, C.P. (1933). A Tune A Day for Violin Bk. One. London:
Midpoint Press.

Karolyi, O. (1982). Introducing Music. Middlesex: Penguin Books Ltd.

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UNIT 2 MELODY WRITING

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition and Characteristics of Melody
3.2 Forms of Melody
3.3 Steps in Melody Writing
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In the previous unit, you must have learnt that rhythm, as an element of
music, is the heart-beat of any music organisation or composition. You
must have learnt that it is made up of certain components, and that the
other elements of music cannot exist without it. In this unit, you will
learn about a second element of music, which is melody. Our study will
centre on melody in relation to its definition and its characteristics,
forms and the process of writing it.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of the unit, you should be able to:

• explain the characteristics of melody

• identify forms of melody
• write simple melodies.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition and Characteristics of Melody

In a very simple term, melody is assigning pitch to rhythm. That is, each
of the notes that make up the rhythm is given a specific pitch. It can be
defined as single notes that are arranged in succession. This implies that
the tones that make up a melody are heard one after another, in a way
similar to a scale. We can even say that melody is the arrangement of the
notes of a given scale in a certain manner or order.

Graphically, melody can be shown with the use of music notes on a

staff, or through the use of tonic solfa. In this way, melody can be read
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or interpreted from left to right, as we would a sentence in the English

language.

From the way the notes or tones of a melody are selected and used,
certain features can be identified. These features or characteristics are:
motion; tonality; shape; and range. Generally, melodies come in one of
three kinds of motion. First, there is the melody whose notes move in
stepwise manner, which is from a note to anther above or below it.
Second, there is the melody whose notes move by leaps or skips (a
direct opposite of stepwise movement). Third, there is also the melody
that combines the features of the other two kinds - it employs both
stepwise and leap movement of notes. In all these examples, there may
be repeated notes. See the illustrations below exemplifying the three
kinds of motion.

Kinds of Melody Motion

(a) Stepwise
1 2 3 4 5 6

2
4
• • .
• .
Solfa m: -. f / s: f . m / r: d / r:-. / m:-. f / s: f. m /
Key C

7 8
(b)

•
r: d / d:-. //

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(c) Leaps/skips
1 2 3 4

4
4

Solfa m . s / d: l : f: r / s : m : :d. l / d:-:m:- / s:-: :m . s /

Key: F

•
d: l : f: r / s : : : m . s / r:-: s:- / d:- : - //

(c) Steps and skips

The Nigerian National Anthem

.
#4
4 .

#
.

#
.

#
.

#
.

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Second, most melodies are constructed with a particular key in mind,

and the notes of this key feature more prominently. Such melodies
usually begin and end with a feel of a certain key. Where there is a
change of key (modulation) within the melody, the sense of the new key
is established, and the melody usually returns to the original key at the
end. However, there are some melodies, which do not maintain a given
key centre, especially in atonal music. In atonality every note of the
melody is treated in its own right, and not in relation to a common tonic
or tonal centre. In the examples given above, each of the exercises is
based on a specific key – C, F, and G, respectively.

Third, melodies have shape or contour, which describes the up and down
linear movement of the notes. To help in identifying the shape of a
melody, you could draw a line to connect all the notes from beginning to
the end of the melody. There are five possible shapes of melodies. These
are: undulating; arched; terraced; irregular; and a combination of all the
others.

Finally, a melody has range. Range is a term used to describe the

distance that exists between the highest and the lowest pitches of a given
melody. Such distance may be described as narrow, wide, or in between.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Describe what each of the following means:

(a) Stepwise motion (b) Motion by leaps

3.2 Forms of Melody

The form of any piece of music is determined based on the overall form
or structure of its melody. Form is a product of how the different parts or
sections of the complete melody (and therefore the music) are put
together. A section of a melody is made up of two phrases. The first
phrase makes a statement to which the second phrase responds. The first
phrase can be called the antecedent phrase (question), and the second the
consequent phrase (answer). A melody may have one or more sections.
The sections may not change, or they may be similar. They can also
differ from one another in remarkable ways. Some of these forms are:
binary form (AB) and Ternary form (ABA).

A melody is said to be in binary form if there are two contrasting

sections. In other words, the first section (A) is different from the second
section (B). In this arrangement, the melody does not return to the ideas
expressed in the first section, rather it ends with the second section,
usually on the tonic or rarely any note of the tonic chord. Each of the

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sections may be repeated without any other intervening section, thus:

AAB, or AABB, all of which translates as AB. The melody of the
Nigerian national anthem can be described as AB form. See illustration
with the words below:

Arise, O Compatriots)
Nigeria’s call obey
To serve our father land A section
With love and strength and faith
The labour of our heroes past
Shall never be in vain
To serve with heart and might B section
One nation bound in freedom, peace and unity

Ternary (ABA) form describes a melody or piece of music in three

sections. The melody usually begins with a musical idea, and takes on a
second contrasting idea, then returns to a statement of the first idea as it
was initially stated, or with some modifications. This presents three
sections: A –B –A. An example of melody in ternary form is the hymn
“Joyful, Joyful, We Adore Thee” based on the choral of Beethoven’s
ninth symphony, Ode to Joy.

3.3 Steps in Writing Melody

Writing or composing melodies is not a mechanical exercise, which

involves mere “dabbing” of notes indiscriminately. Rather, it begins as a
spontaneous outflow of musical ideas or tunes, which is a product of
intuition or inspiration. It, however, requires some conscious efforts to
modify such ideas, where necessary, to accord them musical sense.
Putting the tune down in writing using staff or solfa notation is to ensure
its preservation for recall by the individual or for future performance.
An exercise that would result in good melody entails a process. Some
steps toward writing good melodies are therefore, presented below, with
some illustrations/exercises.

A melody grows organically from a fragment or a small idea. This unit

of idea or thought is called motive or phrase. The motive may be a short
one made up of usually four bars, or a long one that spans over four
bars. Once this initial idea or phrase is identified, the first step is to hear
it in the head. After hearing it in this way, sing aloud, or hum or whistle
the said tune. The purpose of this is to enable you commit it to memory.

The next step is to clap the rhythm of the idea or tune, and then think of
each beat (or clap) in relation to the music notes studied earlier. Then
write down the notes that represent the duration of the sounds. Once you

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are satisfied with this, proceed to add pitches to the notes by using tonic
solfa. The initial step might be to sing the scale in tonic solfa so as to get
re-orientated in relation to the pitches that make up the tune. Apart from
the music notes, add the various marks (the use of colon; semi-colon,
dot, dash, etc) to show the duration of each of the pitches.

Another approach might be to use time names instead of the music

notes, such as Taa–aa–aa-aa for a semibreve, which lasts for four counts
(refer to our discussion on this in unit 2 of module 2). These time names
can later be translated into music notes, especially when the staff is
going to be involved.

After undertaking the above, clap what you have written down if it
correctly represents the rhythm of your tune. If it is satisfactory, then
sing the pitches according to the rhythm, and ascertain if this also agrees
with your initial, original tune.

You are encouraged to begin with a melody of two phrases, where the
second phrase is a “natural” flow from the first. In addition, a phrase
should be of two bars in length. The first phrase should end on soh, te,
ray or me, and never on doh. Because the last bar of the second phrase
is the end of the music sentence, it should end only on doh, and on the
strong beat of the bar.

If you are able to sing your tune easily, it is an indication that it is a

vocal tune; therefore, ensure that the melody comprises mainly stepwise
movement or motion. Skips or leaps should be limited to intervals of
third, or between any of the notes of the tonic and dominant chords in a
major key.

The first phrase of a sentence is regarded as the “question”, which is

“answered” by the second phrase. Therefore, the sense of
incompleteness conveyed at the end of the first phrase, is complemented
in the second phrase where the use of doh ends the phrase to give a
sense of finality or completeness to the music sentence.

From all the above the process of writing down a tune could begin with
identifying the rhythm, using time names (or music notes) thus: Ta–te
Ta-te Taa-aa Ta-te Ta–te Taa –aa.

And proceed to identifying the pitches thus:

d r m f s f s m r d

Then converting the time names to musical notes combined with the
pitches, thus

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Ta –te Ta-te Taa-aa Ta –te Ta –te Taa –aa

d r m f s f s m r d

And next, indicating the duration of the pitches using appropriate solfa
notation marks

Musical notes
Time names
Solfa
Ta - te Ta –te Taa –aa Ta –te Ta – te Taa-aa
d. r : m. f /s :- / f. s : m. r / d : - //

And finally, the outcome is transferred to the staff, using specific key
and time signature

2
4

From the above tune, other materials can be added in developing the
idea into a melody. Meske, E.B. Pautz, M.P. Andress B. & Willman F.
(1988) say that the growth of the idea into a melody can come by:

a. repeating the motive the same way it is stated initially

b. making a slight change to the motive in its next appearance
c. varying the motive
d. bringing in a new contrasting idea
e. re-introducing the initial motive for the purpose of unity; and
f. introducing other ideas which are new, and sometimes integrating
them with the original motive.

In the exercise below, points a, d, and e (above) are adopted in

extending our initial tune/idea (above).

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1 2 3 4 5 6 7
8
2 7
.7 7 .7
4
. .

9 10 11 12 13 14 15
16
.7
.
.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

What do you understand by binary and ternary as forms of melody?

4.0 CONCLUSION

Tuneful ideas originate from individuals, which they can sing, hum or
whistle. But not very many people are able to remember them after some
time. Much of the music that is heard today is a product of small ideas,
which are later developed into some melodies to make great music! In
other words, the power of tuneful music is expressed through melody.
Therefore, when next a tune pops up in your head, do not discard it:
rather, sing it repeatedly, and take steps to write it down. If you are in
doubt, you can even record it on tape, or on your GSM handset (if it has
such feature), and later work on it for the purpose of developing it into a
“sensible” melody. However, note that this does not come easy; hence
you are encouraged to give it a conscious and consistent attention.

5.0 SUMMARY

This unit is about melody in terms of its definition, characteristics and

forms. It teaches how to write melody. The process of writing a melody
has been illustrated with music examples. This should aid you in writing
your own melodies.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Mention any four (4) characteristics of melody.

2. Giving reason(s) for your answer, mention the form of the 16-bar
melody in sub-section 3.3. (above).
3. In the key of C major, and in 2/4 time, write a melodic phrase of
four bars in length.

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7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Karolyi, O. (1982) Introducing Music. Middlesex: Penguin Books Ltd.

Meske, E.B.; M.P. Pautz; B.Andress, & F. Willman (1988). Holt Music
New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston Publishers.

Warburton, A.O. (1979). Melody Writing and Analysis.

London: Longman Group Ltd.

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UNIT 3 HARMONY

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition and Features of Harmony
3.2 Triads and Other Chords
3.3 Qualities of Chords and Chord Progression
3.4 Two-Part Harmony
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Units 1 and 2discussed rhythm and melody as two of the elements of

music. The third is harmony. Harmony combines features of both
rhythm and melody from which emerges music that has its sound
enriched. In this unit, you will see the definition and features of
harmony. You will also learn about triads and chords, and through this
knowledge you will further learn about how to write two-part harmony.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• discuss the features of harmony

• write triads and chords
• write in two parts.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition and Features of Harmony

Harmony is the combination of two or more sounds; they are to be heard

together or at the same time. It is the vertical aspect of music as opposed
to rhythm and melody, which are horizontally constructed. Rhythm and
melody were in use in music before harmony was conceived. Music
theorists are in consensus that harmony originated around the 9th century
A.D. with the use of parallel fourths and fifths, called organum, in the
earliest written sacred vocal music of the Catholic Church (Karolyi,
1982; Larsen et al, 2003).

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Harmony is made up of certain components or features. These consist of

chords and progressions. A chord is the sounding together of two or
more notes. The simplest form of harmony is, therefore, the two-part
harmony (discussed later in this unit).

3.2 Triads and Other Chords

Although any two notes may form a chord, the triad is regarded as the
commonest and simplest complete form of a chord. A triad consists of
three notes, which have the interval of a third between them. Put in
another way, a triad is built beginning from any note of the scale; the
first, second and third notes of the triad have the notes after each of them
on the scale omitted. To illustrate this, let us consider the notes (letters)
of the scale of C thus:

C D E F G A B C

If we choose to build a triad on C, for instance, our first note would be

C. After C, we would skip the next note (D), and write E (the second
note of the triad), then we would skip the next note (F) and write G (the
third note of the triad). Therefore, the triad built on C would be C E G.
As far as the triad is concerned, C, which is the first note on which the
triad is built, becomes the root; the second note, E is the third of the
triad, and the third note G is the fifth of the triad. This structure is so
because the intervals between C and E, and C and G are a third and a
fifth, respectively (taking into consideration the intervals of the notes
omitted i.e. D (second), and F (fourth).

Because a triad is vertically conceived, the triad built on C would appear

thus:
G
E
C

where C is the lowest sounding note, and G is the highest.

Transferring this to the treble staff, the triad of C would be:

G - 5th
E - 3rd
C - Root

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A triad whose root is the lowest note is said to be in root position.

Triads can be inverted also. What this means is that any of the other two
notes of the triad (the 3rd and the 5th) could be the lowest note. If the
third is the lowest note, the triad is said to be in first inversion, and when
the fifth is the lowest note, the triad is in its second inversion. This,
however, does not change the identity of the triad, which derives its
name from its root – the note on which it is built. Below are the two
inversions of the triad on C.

E – 3RD
C – Root C – Root
G – 5th G– 5TH
E – 3rd

Triad of C: (a) First inversion (b) Second inversion

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Build triads on all the degrees of the scale of C major.

The Seventh Chord

Another chord, which is also very common (after the triad) in Western
music traditions is the seventh chord. It consists of four notes, which are
sounded together. The four different notes of this type of chord are
arranged just like the triad; the difference is that the fourth note of a
seventh chord lies an interval of a seventh from the root. In a simple
form, a seventh chord may be described as a triad with a note lying an
interval of a seventh added above it. A seventh chord can also be
inverted; in addition to having similar inversions of a triad, a seventh
chord has a third inversion, where the fourth note becomes the lowest.
The following illustrate the various positions of a seventh chord built on
C:

B 7th
G 5th
E 3rd
C Root
Seventh
chord of C: (a) Root position (b) First inversion (c) Second inversion (d) Third inversion

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Like triads, seventh chords (among other chords) can be built on all the
degrees of the scales. Other types of chords are the ninth, eleventh and
thirteenth. To build these chords, notes lying an interval of (i) ninth is
added to a seventh chord to make a ninth chord; (ii) eleventh is added to
a ninth chord to make an eleventh chord, and (iii) a thirteenth is added to
an eleventh chord to make a thirteenth chord. However, only four of the
notes of each of these chords may be used at a time, especially in four-
part music, usually omitting the fifth or any other note considered not
too important. These chords can be inverted also.

3.3 Qualities of Chords and Chord Progression

The harmonic basis of any music is the melody. In other words, it is the
melody of the music (often the highest sounding part) that determines
the choice of the chords used.

Chords built on the degrees of any scale have certain qualities. In a

major key or scale, the triads built on the first (or eighth), fourth and
fifth degrees are major triads. This is because each of these triads has an
interval of a major third between the first two notes (i.e. the root and the
third). By contrast triads built on the second, third, and sixth degrees are
minor triads because they possess the interval of minor third between the
first two notes. The triad built on the seventh degree is diminished,
having the interval of a minor third and a diminished fifth; see
illustrations of these chords.

f1 s1
m1 mI
r1 rI
d1 dI dI
t t t
s l l l
s f s
m f
Triads m
d r
Chords
I II III IV V VI VII VIII(I)
Major Minor Minor Major Major Minor Diminished Major

The major triads are referred to as primary triads, while the others,
especially the minor triads, are called secondary triads. The primary
triads are most often used in combinations in a piece of music that is in a
major key. This is because, in these three chords lie all the notes of the
scale; therefore any scale degree reflected in the melody can be
supported with any of these triads that contains that note for such
“support” to be harmonious. However, in more advanced treatment, the
other secondary triads as well as the extended forms of all the chords
(i.e. the ninths, elevenths, etc) and the inversions can be used in
harmonising a melodic line.

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Chords are used in systematic combinations, and these involve the

progress from individual chords to another in a music composition.
Chord progression is considered along the four voice parts – soprano,
alto, tenor, and bass. To cater to this in harmony, either the root or the
fifth of the triads are doubled or other notes of seventh and the other
chords. One of the common features in chord progression is the
commencement of a piece of music in the tonic chord (I) and ending it
on the same chord of the tonic, where the penultimate chord is the
dominant (V), or sometimes the subdominant (IV). Certain chords also
precede or succeed one another much more satisfactorily than others. A
summary of this relationship is presented in a scheme by Karolyi (1982),
which states that:

• the tonic (I) can be succeeded by any chord

• the supertonic (II) can be followed by any other chord except the
tonic
• the mediant (III) can be succeeded by II, IV, V and VI
• the subdominant (IV) can be followed by any chord
• the dominant (V) can be followed by I, III, IV, VI
• the submediant (VI) can be followed by all except I and VI
• the seventh (VII) can be succeeded by I, III, V, VI.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Using only Roman numerals to represent the primary chords in the key
of C major, provide suitable chords, to which the notes in each of the
bars of the following melody belongs at the points labeled.

3.4 Two-Part Harmony

In the preceding sub-division, you learnt that a chord comprises at least

three notes, which are sounded simultaneously. It was established that in
order to cater to the four voice parts, the root or the fifth of a triad is
doubled. In two-part writing, only two out of these four parts are
selected at a time in each chord. Two-part harmony is best exemplified
with two persons taking a duet, where one person takes the melody or
the tune while the other does a second part at the same time. And this
choice is based on the determination of certain chord progressions
implied by a given melody to which a second part is to be added.

As stated above, two-part writing entails writing a second part to a given

melody based on a particular chord scheme. In some circumstances, the
second part may be provided, and a melody is required to be supplied. In
this unit, we shall concentrate on two-part harmony where the melody is
given.

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In two-part harmony certain intervals are more favoured to occur

between the two parts than others; these include intervals of thirds and
sixths. Other intervals are fourths and fifths, which, however, require
some care if they are to move from/to certain other chords. Consider the
two-part exercise below.

2
4

Intervals 3rd 3rd 3rd- 3rd 3rd- 4th 3rd 3rd 4th 3rd 3rdunison

In the melody above, you would observe that the stems of the notes in
the first part point upwards, while those in the second part are
downwards. This is a rule in two-part writing. There are other rules
governing more advanced harmony work.

4.0 CONCLUSION

Harmony is the combination of two or more sounds, which are in

agreement. A triad is the simplest form of chord. Other chords which
have more than three notes/sounds exist. The evolution of harmony
began with succession of two notes that were sounded together, and this
was called organum.

A melodic line is enriched with the introduction of a second part, which

are rendered as a harmonious unified entity. As you make attempt to
compose your own melodies, also strive to add a second part to them.
This would help you in further developing your musical skill.

5.0 SUMMARY

This unit has explained harmony with regards to its definition and
features. It has also explained triads and other chords, and their qualities.
The unit also teaches two-part writing also. The presentation should
help in deepening your knowledge of music as it relates to
harmonisation of melodies.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Write briefly on triad as a feature of harmony.

2. Write the following chords in the key of C major, using the treble
staff:

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(i) triad on C (ii) first inversion of triad on A (iii) seventh chord on G

(iv) second inversion of triad on F (v) third inversion of ninth chord on
D.

3. Write a second part above the tune given below by supplying the
notes of equal value at the intervals indicated.

2
4

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Karolyi, O. (1982). Introducing Music. Middlesex: Penguin Books Ltd.

Larsen, A. et al. (2003). Crossroads in Music: Traditions and

Connections. California: Thompson Schirmer.

Meske, E.B. et al (1988). Holt Music. New York: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, Publishers.

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