SECTION 4 Concepts of Egress Design James K, Lathrop cans of egress and their design should be based on an evaluation ofa building's total fire pro- {ection system and an analysis ofthe population characteristics and hazards (othe occupants of that building. The means of egress design should be treated as an integral part ofthe total system that provides reasonable lite safety from fire ‘This chapter covers the fundamental concepts of good egress design that are the basis for NEPA 101°, Life Safety Code®, and NFPA S00, Building Construction and Safety Code®. NFPA 101 governs good practices to provide life safety features in existing buildings and structures and. features that can be designed as integral parts of new construction to provide reasonable safety to ‘occupants in fires. NFPA 5000 adresses new construction only, but covers life safety from many hhazards in addition to fire. The components of good means of egress are discussed in some det ‘with their functions and relationships in the total concept of proper egress design, Computer model- ing and simulation to assist the egress design process also ae discussed Sec also Section 4, Chapter I, “Human Behavior and Fite”; Section 4, Chapter 2, “Caleulation “Methods for Bgress Prediction”; Section 4, Chapter 5, “Strategies for Occupant Evacuation During Emergencies"; and Section 20, Chapter 1, “Assessing Life Safety in Buildings FUNDAMENTALS OF DESIGN ‘The approach to designing means of egress frst requires a familiarity with the reactions of people infie emergencies. These reactions can differ widely, depending onthe physical and mental capa- bites and conditions of building occupants. The psychological and physiological factors alfecting the use of exits during emergencies are being identified and measured in esearch studies. Dr. Tohn L, Bryan discusses in detail behavioral response to fire and smoke in Section 4, Chapter I of this book! Patterns of movement of people, singly and in crowded conditions, must also be understood, In buildings used as schools or theaters howsing highly mobile occupants, for example, there are certain reproducible flow characteristics from persons exiting te buildings. These predictable low characteristics have fostered computer simulation and modeling to aid the egress design process. However, no number of practical exit facilities can prevent injury or loss of life if the occupant gress flow is inhibited or prevented by the bulng itself, by personel, or by fire and smoke con- ditions. An in-depth review of movement of people by Proulx can be found in Section 3. Chapter 13 of the SEPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engincering” as well a in “Emergency Movement” by Nelson and Mowrer in Section 3, Chapter 14, ofthe same document Human Factors ‘The design and capacity of doors, passageways, stairways, and other components in the total means ‘of egress ate related tothe physical dimensions of the buman body. The tendency of people to avoid bodily contact with others should be recognized as a major factor in determining the number of ames K, Lathrop, FSFPE, ss vice-president ofthe frm Koifel Associates of Elkridge, Maryland, and Niantic, ‘Connecticut. He i+ member of the Technical Committees on Fundamentals, Boaré and Care Occupancies, Residential Oeeupances, and NEPA'S Unyorm Fire Code™, He is also a alternate on the Techies! Com nite on Furmshings and Contents andthe Technicel Commitee on Fire Tess, He i chair of the Technicel (Consnitte oa Means of Egress andthe Technical Committe on Pyrotechnics 4-694-70 SECTION 4 | Human Factors in Emergencies persons who will occupy a given space at any given time. Given a choice, people usually automaticaly establish “territories” to avoid bodily contact with others. Studies have shown that most adult men measure less than 20.7 in. (520 mm) across at the shoulder, with no allowance for ‘ditional thicknesses of clothing.* A “body ellipse” concept is used to develop the design of pedestrian systems. The major axis of the body ellipse measures 24 in. (609 mm), whereas the minor axis is 18 in. (457 mm). This ellipse equals 2.3 £¢ (0.21 m?), which is assumed to help determine the maximums practical standing capacity of a space. ‘The movement of persons results in a swaying action that varies from male to female and, depending on the type of mo- tion, varies with movement on stairs, on level surfaces, or in dense crowds. Body sway has been observed to range 1% in. (@8 mm) left and right during normal free movement. Where ‘movement is reduced to shuffling in dense crowds and to move- iment on stairs, a total sway range of almost 4 in, (101 mm) has been observed. In theory, this indicates that a total width of 30 in. (762 mm) would be required to accommodate a single file of pedestrians traveling up or down stairs.> Crowding people into spaces where less than 31° (0.28 m?) of space per person is available under nonemergency conditions ‘may creates hazard. When the average area occupied per person is reduced to 2% ft (0.25 m) or less, contact will be unavoid- able, Needless to say, under the psychological stesses imposed during a fire, such crowding and contact could contribute to crowd pressures, resulting in injuries, When a queue occurs be- cause of an artificial temporary situation or because of some [permanent design feature, crowd control becomes difficult, and the well-being of individuals is threatened, Factors Affecting Movement of People ‘There are several factors that determine how quickly people may passthrough the means of egress In level walkways an average walking speed of 250 fin (1.26 msec) is attained under free-flow conditions, with 25 £2 (2.3 m?) of space available per person, Speeds below 145 fi min (0.73 msec) show shuffling, which restricts motion, Fig- ure 4.3.1, adapted from Research Report No. 95 of the London “Transport Board, shows the rate of speed reduction for space concentrations of ess than 7 (0.65 me) per person, Speeds of Jess than 145 fein (0.73 m/sec) resultin shuffling, and, finally 1 jam point is reached with one person every 2 ft2(0.18 m). The possibilty of a significant nonadaptive behavior exists when- ever egress movement is restricted, and the problem becomes urgent under fre exposure conditions, especially when there is more than one person every 3 (0.28 m?) Calculations of flow rates using velocity (/min [mlsec)) and density (persoas/f® [m¢) will reveal flow (persons/minit [persons/sec/m] of width), which increases as the pedestrian ea decreases, The flow inereases will continue until forward ‘movement becomes restricted tothe point that the flow begins to dtop. Interestingly, observations of flow rates in one study noted the same flow rate sometimes accurred even though walk- ing speeds of people were significantly different, Investigation revealed that te rate of decrease in speed, accompanied by an ‘Speed {emp om) 4782) (rin) oon) 069 64 NTE Flow imagined tobe ey (1 Shing bteongers toa stop <=‘ Y om \ 48 (63) 132 en sam pois {reaeieg)” ~~, 020 W780 a8 a28 20 Concantatin per person) FIGURE 4.3.1 Speed in Level Passageways (SI nits: 41min = 0305 m/min; 1 £2 = 0.093 m!) increase in densily, results in uniform flow rales over a wide range of conditions. ‘A study of passageways indicates that for passageways over 4 ft (1.2 m) wide, flow rates are directly proportional to width, The London Transport Board Research Report No, 95° determined the flow rate in level passages to be 27 persons! rin/ft (1.5 persons/see/m) of width, Travel down stairways was determined at 21 persons/ming/ft (1.2 persons/secim) of width, whereas upward travel was reduced (0 19 persons/minift (1.1 ppersons/seclm) of width, Where the width of a footway is less than 4 ft (12 m), the flow rate depends upon the number of pos- sible traffic lanes, Absolute maximum flow rates occur when approximately 3 £2 (0.28 m?) is occupied per person, which is applicable to both level walkways and stairs, In observed and ‘measured evacuations, however, it has been empirically deter- rined that the maximum flow sates down staits in high-tise buildings occur when from 4 to $ fof space (0.37 to 0.46 m*) is occupied per person, as shown in Figure 4,3,2.° When flow in ‘opposite directions takes place in a passageway up to the point where the two flows are of equal magnitude, chet is no signifi cant reduction in toll flow below that which would be predicted fn the basis of unidirectional flow in the same passageway. Further, flow can be 50 percent greater in short passage- ways less than 10 ft (3.05 m) long than through along passage- ‘way ofthe same width, Minor obstructions within a passageway do not appear to have a significant effect on flow. Within a 6-f (.82-m) wide passageway, there is no effect on flow rates when 1 ££ (0.35 m) projection is introduced. A 2 f (0.61 m) projec- tion resulting in a 33 percent reduction in width reduces the flow rate by approximately 10 percent. A major obstruction, though, such as that which occurs ata ticket booth or turnstile, may in- terrupt the movement of people and reduce flow rates. Corners, bends, and slight grades up to 6 percent are appar- enlly not factors in determining flow rates. A slight reduction in speed does occur, bt the flow rate is maintained by an increased conceattation of persons.CHAPTER 3 Concepts of Egress Design 4-71 80 B «0 4 Es g:% 4 se RB a 4 PB 3 10 4 ° ‘oor oe 0s Mean density stairway, persontt® FIGURE 4.3.2 Eifect of Density on Flow Down Exit Stairways in Evacvations of High-Rise Oftice Buildings (0.093 m?) Accenter handrail or mullion, which may divide a passage: ‘way into narrower sections, can further zeduce the capacity of the passageway. The observed capacity of a 6-f¢(1.82-m) wide stairway reveals a reduction from 130 to 105 persons/min after installation of a center handrail ‘Except forthe very young and the very old, age does not ap- pear to bea significant factor in determining travel speed. Studies hhave shown a significant reduction in walking speeds for per sons over 65 yeats of age. Studies have further revealed that 40 percent increase is possible in the normal walking speed, which tends to discount this factor as a major influence on flow rates:* For additional information see Section 3, Chapter 13, ofthe SEPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering? Methods of Calculating Egress ‘Two major principles ate used to determine the necessary egress ‘width. They are based on anticipated population characteristics identified with a specifi occupancy. ‘The Flow Method. This method uses the theory of evacuating a building within a specified meximam period of time. Flow rates ‘were traditionally set at 60 persons per 22 in, (559 mm) width! ‘min through level passageways and doorways. In older editions fof NFPA 10/ this 22 in, (559 mm) width was referred to as 1 “unit” of exit width. Credit was given only for whole or half ‘units, aalf unt being 12 in, (0.3 m). The unt of exit width is no longer being used in most model codes. The flow method most ‘commonly used today is based on so much width of an egrese clement per person served. For example 0.2 in, (0.5 em) per per son for a door or other level egress component is what is used by the Life Safety Code and the International Building Code, Table 43:1 provides the capacity factors used by the Life Safety Code. TABLE 4.3.1. Capacity Factors Stairways Level Components OWieth pee and Ramps Person) (Width per Person) Area in mm in mm Board andcare Od 10002 5 Health ear, 03. 18 02 5 sprinkered Healthcare, os 1500s 13 nonsprinklered High-hazard 07 180 od 10 All others 03 18 02 5 ‘Source Table 7.31, NFPA 101, 2006 esion Paul's” effective stair width concept advocates the consid eration of only the portion of the stair used in effective move- ‘ment by the occupants, as observed in Functional and practice evacuations, This Width is established with 6 in, (150 mm) clear ance from each side wall of the stat, Figure 4.3.3 illusteares the flow time in seconds relative tothe effective stair width per person and the units of width, [-7.0in, (180 mm so, 1 i, (280 mm) reas i. (165 is, 18 (090mm ead \e 2. (19 mn ie, 10,25 mn rae “eh Joao raster eapactyreternca 7 wo uns of ent wea 20 person z 7 :, ozs 2 as ‘width/150 persons q g § § Lg z 3 ors & i? i a . o10 ¢ g 32 i : 3 oas et ° 0 © 108200 206400500 ao Flow time (ee) FIGURE 4.3.3 Relationship between Eifecive Sais Width and Units of Exit Width per Person and Flow Time for Three Stair Geometries”A-T2 SECTION 4 | Human Factors in Emergencies The Capacity Method. This methods based on the theory that sufficient numbers of stairways should be provided in a build- ing to adequately house all occupants of the building without ‘requiring any movement, or flow, out of the stairways. In theory, assuming a stairwell provides a safe and protected area for all ‘occupants within the protective barrier rested by the slairway enclosure, evacuation ofthe building may then be more leisurely, Permitting people to travel at arate within their physical ability ‘The capacity method recognizes that evacuation from high-rise buildings is physically very demanding. Purther, evacuation of health care facility is likely to be slow. Thus, design criteria ate established to pesmit holding occupants within exits or areas of refuge. The capacity method is not recognized in most model codes. However, codes do recognize areas of refuge. For ex- anple, the Life Safety Code does mandate that most health care occupancies have smoke compartments into which patients can bbe moved without having to evacuate the building Application ‘The capacity and flow methods may both be applied to efficient egress design, depending on specific circumstances. Where People are expected to be physically or mentally sick. aged, asleep, or incapacitated in any way, evacuation and use of the flow method can be augmented with the capacity method. less using a performance-based design, most model codes do not recognize the use of the eapacity method alone. ‘There is litle time between an alert and the use of an exit in assembly occupancies, and maximum flow rates that cause reductions inthe area used by each person may result in reduced lwaffc lows, On the other hand, the staff supervision of childzen in an educational setting, coupled with their familiarity with the surroundings, their presumed high physical capabilites, and their experience with a program of drills should allow rapid evacuation times. Pauls has reviewed the historical and current iterature relative to the principles of people movement, exit width determination, and the design of the means of egress.» Design of Means of Egress ‘Designing a means of egress involves more than numbers, flow rates, and densities, Safe exit from a building requires a safe path of egress from the fire environment. The path is atranged for ready use in case of emergency and should be sufficient to ‘permit all occupants to reach a safe place before they are en- angered by fire, smoke, or heat, Proper egress design permits everyone to leave the fire-endangered areas inthe shortest pos- sible time with efficient exit use, Ifa fire is discovered in its incipient stage and the occupants are alerted promptly, effective evacuation may take place, ‘Maximum permited evacuation travel distances are related to the occupant characteristics, occupant alertness, and building fire protection, The less capable people are to move, the less alert they are (such as sleeping), and the less protected a build- ing is (such as no sutomatie sprinkler protection, the shorter the ‘permissible travel distance. Depending on the physical environment of the structure, the characteristics of the occupants, andthe fire detection and alarm facilities, fie or smoke may prevent the use of one means of egress. Therefore at least one alternative means of egress re- rote from the firs is essential, Provision of two separale means of egress is a fundamental safeguard, except where 2 building or room is small and arranged so that a second exit would not provide an appreciable increase in safety. There are fewer or no advantages to separate means of egress if there is travel through ‘common space or use of common structural features tht result in the loss ofthe two distinct and physically separate means of egress. ‘One example of “common” stricture is a multistory build- ing where scissors stairs are used. These are two stats enclosed Within a common shaft, separated by a partition common to both stairs, Scissors stare are sometimes used to provide the required exit capacity while minimizing th loss of valuable floorspace. ‘Where a set of scistons stats is the only means of egress when two remote exits are required, the fundameatal principle of two separate means of egress design may be violated. Ifthe common partision between the stars fils, it Would result in the simulane- fous lose of both exits during a fit, leaving no alternative means of egress. With scissors stairs, the validity of the two separate means of egress, therefore, depencis on the design characteristics and construction ofthe common partition (Figure 43.4). In some proposed egress designs, all the exite discharge ‘rough a single lobby at street level, eventhough this procedure results in egress travel through a common space. This design philosophy presumes that the lobby may be considered a sale trea forall future egress needs during the life of the building. Where two remote means of egress are requited, this type af egress design is not permitted by the Life Safety Code ot by most model building codes. NFPA 0] limits openings in exit enclosures to those neces- sary for access tothe enclosure from normally occupied spaces and for egress from the enclosure, Penetration of enclosures by ducts or other wilities constitutes a point of weakness and may result in contamination of the enclosure during a fire and should not be permitted, Furthermore, itis not good practice to use exit enclosures for any purpose that could interfere with their value as exits, For example, ent stair enclosures should nat be used for storage or any other use not associated with egress or areas of vefuge for mobility impuired persons Provisions for handicapped persons is an important con- sideration in the design of an emergency means of egress from building. A 32 in, (813 mm) doorway is considered the mini- ‘mum width (o accommodate a person in a wheelchair. Since handicapped employees or vistors may be found in all types of buildings, special life safety considerations are indicated. NFPA 201 contains several additional provisions to protect moblity- impaired individuals. I lso must be noted thal mobiliy handi- caps are not the only type of handicap needing to be addressed. Hearing and sight impairments, along with certain mental dis- abilities, must be considered LIFE SAFETY CODE® [NFPA 10i, introduced in 1927 and revited and seissued in suc- cessive editions, is developed by several committees under theCHAPTER 3 Concepts of Egress Design 4-73 FIGURE 4.3.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Scissors ‘Staie versus Conventional Stairs. This sot of scissore salts provides the same degree of remote exit doors asthe circled stirs shown by dotted lines—travel distance fr ll fcecupants isthe same, even if the doted exit stairs were located at opposite comers as denoted by the cross marks Space is saved; however, the integrity ofthe separation of the ‘so scissors stat isin question oversight of the Technical Correlating Committee on Safety to Life. a representative group dedicated to safety of life from ize, NFPA J01 is primarily concerned withthe contzol of con- ditions that threaten the lives of individals in building fires. ‘This objective is different from fire protection provisions in building codes, which are concezned with the preservation of property in addition to the preservation of life. In 2000, NFPA. Announced its intent to write a building code. The first edition of NFPA $000®, Building Construction and Safety Code®, was published in 2003. The provisions for means of egress in NFPA 5000 are written by the same committes that write NFPA 10 Because of this, the discussion here will address NEPA 101. is equally applicable to NFPA 5000 when dealing with new ‘Adequate means of egress alone are nota guarantee of life safety from fire. They do not protect an individual whose own carelessness causes a threat to life, such as setting his or her ‘own clothes on fire. Neither do sufficient means of egress alone provide adequate protection in occupancies such a8 hospitals, nursing homes, prisons, assisted living facilities, and mental institutions, where occupants are confined or are physically or ‘mentally unable to escape without effective and immediate as- sislance, NFPA [0] does recognize such situations and provides life safety measures, including low-flame-spread and reduced- smoke-producing materials for interior finish. In addition, aute- ‘atic sprinkler and smoke management systems called for by NEPA [0] are designed to restzicl the spread of fire and smoke and thus help to defend the occupants within an area of refuge until they are able to use the exits or until the fire has been extinguished, In general, saving building occupants from a fire requires the following, all of which are identified in NFPA 10/: 1, Sulficient aumber of properly designed, unobstructed means of egress of adequate capacity and arrangement 2, Provision of alternative means of egress for use if one ‘means of egress is blocked by fir, heat or smoke 5, Protection of the means of egress against fire, heat, and smoke during the egress time determined by the occupant load, avel distanes, and exit capacity 4, Subdivision of areas by proper construction to provide areas of refuge in those occupancies where total vacua tion is nota primary consideration 5. Protection of vertical openings to limit the operation of fire protection equipment to a single floor 6, Provision of detection or slarm systems to alert occupants and notify the fire department in case offre 7. Adequate illumination of the means of egress 8, Proper marking of the means of egress and the indication of directions 9. Protection of equipment or areas of unusual hazard that ‘could produce a fire capable of endangering the egressing occupants 10, Initiation, organization, and practice of effective dill procedures 11, Provision of instructional materials and verbal alarm sys- tems in high-density and high-life-hazard occupancies to facilitate adaptive behavior 12, Use of interior finish materials that prevent a high flame spread or dense smoke production that could endanger ‘egressing occupants igure 4.3.5 illustrates some of the principles of exit safety NFPA 101 recognizes that fll reliance cannot be placed fon any single safeguard, because any single protective feature ‘may not function due to mechanical or human failure, For this reason, redundant safeguards, any one of which will result in a reasonable level of life safety, should be provided. NFPA 101 also recommends the special protection of hazardous areas and specifies where automatic sprinkler, detection, and other protec- tive systems are required. NFPA 101 is used widely as a guide to good practice and as a basis for local laws or regulations I differs from building codes since it generally provides ite distinction among the dif ferent classes of building construction. However, where totalA-TA SECTION 4 Human Factors in Emergencies Atleast wo rave out rete rom lezen ote Evacuation sie wel plannes frequen practn —— a oo) ‘Aadtional ena according to rarer ‘Stpersons and eater danger Et avalable in tesconabl travel tance Esa pas marks Uiodetructed wel ighted Ke ‘| FIGURE 4.3.5 Principles of Exit Safety evacuation of a building is not practical, duc either to the oc- cupant characteristics or the building environment, the con- struction type becomes an important variable and should be considered, NFPA 101 also recognizes that all habitable buildings con- lain sufficient quantities of combustible contents to produce lethal quantities of smoke and heat! In addition, caswalty studies have established that the toxic properties of smoke axe the principal hazard to life," and this hazard is recognized in NEPA 10/. NFPA 101 is intended to be applied to both new and exist- ing buildings and is designed to provide a reasonable level of if safety from fire in both types of buildings, The authority having jurisdiction is given considerable latitude in achieving conformance with existing buildings. Each existing building represents a special situation that requires individual tention for the most effective and economical method of achieving & reasonable level of life safer. ‘The claim that buildings constructed many years ago ac- cording to all the legal requirements are sufficiently safe now should not necessarily be accepted. Ifthe cost of reasonable life safely is judged to be prohibitive the occupancy or the structure should be changed or prohibited because there is no justification for subjecting building occupants to an unreasonable level of peti from a fir. ‘There may be a variety of differing opinions as to what constitutes reasonable life safety from a fire in any given ase. 11s not possible to guarantee occupants 100 percent life safety from a fire; beyond certain conditions, a building becomes haz- ardous tothe life safety ofthe occupants in a fire. How should the authority having jurisdiction establish the minimum con~ ditions? NFPA 10/ provides guidance for such decisions with the help of studies of major-loss-of life ftes," fire devel- opment research," personnel evacuation, '* behavior NEPA 101 examines the various occupancy popula- tions according co their perceived life safety hazard, which ine cludes psychological and sociological variables in addition to the physiological and environmental factors. These occupancy classifications are assembly, educational, day care, health cate, ambulatory health care, detention/corectional, residential, resi- dential board and care, mercantile, business, industrial, and stor- age. Additional provisions for special-purpose and high-rise structures are also included Separate and distinct means of egress provisions are made for each occupancy classification, with the various occupancy subgroups included. These classifications. based on the pet~ ceived hazard to life safely from a fre, often difer from older building code occupancy classifications. For example, mer cantile and office occupancies were often grouped together in previous editions of building codes. However, there appears to be an increased hazard to life in mercantile properties, resull- ing from the displays of combustible merchandise, the greater density ofthe population, and the transient character of most of the occupants. These factors are not usually found in office and educational buildings, which have a relatively low combustiil- ity content, & lower population density, and normally alert oc- pants who are inthe building daily and presumably have the opportunity to familiarize themselves with the means of egress through functional use and evacuation drills and human INFLUENCES ON EGRESS Influence of Hazard of Contents ‘An evaluation of the hazard of the building contents must take into account the relaive probability of the ignition of combus- tibles, the spread of flames and heat, the probable smoke and gases expected tobe generated by the fire, and the possibilty of| a fire-related explosion or other structural failure endangering ‘ecupants. The degree of hazard is usually determined by the flammability or toxicity ofthe contents and by the processes or operations conducted in the building. Most NFPA 101 require rents are based on the exposure created by contents with an or- dinary hazard, Special requirements for areas with high-bazard contents usually consist of special protection systems, isolation of the havard area via fire-rated construction, reduced travel dis- tances, and additional means of egress ‘To assist in evaluating the contents hazards, NFPA 101 es- lablishes three classifications of contents: (1) low, (2) ondinary- and (3) high-hazard. They are discussed next. These should not be confused with the classifications established by NEPA 10, ‘Standard for Portable Fire Extinguishers, or NFPA 13, StandardCHAPTER 3 Concepts of Egress Design 4-75. for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems, nor with those estab- lished by some model building codes, Low-Hazard Contents. These are contents of such low com Dustibility that no self-propagating fize can occur in them, Consequently, the only probable danger requiring the use of ‘emergency exits will be from smoke or from fie from some ex femal source. These are extremely unusual. The storage of sheet ‘metal without combustible packing is one example. ‘Ordinary-Hazard Contents. These are contents that ae liable to bum with moderate rapidity and to give off a considerable volume of smoke. This class includes most buildings and is the ‘bass fr the general requirements of NEPA 101. High-Hazard Contents. These are contents that are liable to ‘burn with extreme rapidity or from which explosions are to be feared in the event of fire, Examples are occupancies in which ‘lamanmable liquids o gases are handled, used, o¢ stored; in which, ‘combustible dust explosion hazards exist; in which hazardous chemicals or explosives are stored; in which combustible fibers are processed or handled in a manner that produces combustible Alyings; and similar situations Influence of Building Construction and Design A building of ire-resstance-rated construction is designed to permit a burnout of contents without structural collapse, Fire- resistance-rated design does not ensure the life safety of the ‘ecupants of such buildings. 2"¥ However. the ability of a struc tural frame to maintain building rigidity under fire exposure is {important tothe maintenance ofthe fte resistance protection of exit enclosures. Where a 2-hour fireated exit enclosure is re- quired, a fir-resistance-rated structural frame capable of withe standing stresses impased by fire for a similar period is also necessary. Iti inconsistent to provide a 2 hour ext enclosure in building with a structural frame rated at less than 1 hour, for example, unless special construction precautions ae taken 10 prevent structural failure ofthe building from adversely affect ing the protective construction of the exit enclosures ‘The protection of vertical openings is one of the most significant factors in the design of multistory buildings, from the standpoint of life safety and exit design. Because of the natural tendency of fte to spread upward in a building, careful attention to detsils of design and construction are required to ‘minimize this effect. One of the arcatest hazards to life safety zesults from fires that start below the occupants and the means of egress, such asin basements or onthe level of exit discharge. ‘Similarly, fires in mulistory buildings may result sn smoke spread into enclosed exits before evacuation 121" Conversely escape {rom fires that occur above the occupants is relatively simple, provide sufficient warning is given and adequate means of egress are available. ‘The influence on the life safety of the occupants by the raterials used in building construction depends primarily on ‘whether the materials will propagate flame, support combus- tion, or create dense amounts of smoke when exposed toa fire initially involving the building contents. Some materials used as insulation, for example, could contuibute to rapid flame de- velopment and dense smoke production spread. Masonry walls enclosing a wood-frame interior provide no increased occupant life safety compared with a total wood-frame structure. Exit requirements are based on buildings of conventional design, Unusual buildings, such as those without windows or ‘those with unopenable windows, call for special consideration, Windows provide a number of advantages in a fire. Windows allow occupants to see rescue operations in progress and allow ‘occupants to communicate visually with rescue personnel, They also provide a means of access tothe building by fixe department personnel for rescue and fie fighting. Operable windows pro- vide the addtional advantage of access to fresh air, the potential ability o communicate orally with rescue personnel, and poten- tial use for escape. Although it might be possible to break fixed windows to provide those same advantages, this poses several problems. First, falling glass presents « hazard to fire fighters ‘outside; next, ifthe broken window permits smoke to enter, it cannot be closed as an operable window can; and last, depending fn the type of glass and its thickness the window may be very difficult to break. Automatic sprinklers are considered a primary requirement for life safety in windowless buildings, buildings ‘with unopenable windows, and underground structures. Influence of Interior Finish, Furnishings, and Decorations ‘The rapid spread of flame over the surface of walls, ceilings, or floor coverings may prevent eccupant use of the means of egress, In general, NFPA J0/ limits the Name-spread index cla sification of interior finish materials on walls and ceilings to a maximum of 200, based on the results of tests conducted in accordance with NFPA 255, Standard Method of Test of Surface Burning Characteristics of Building Materials, also known as ASTM E84, Lower ratings are prescribed forthe interior finish materials used in exits and in exit access corridors, Materials classified as having a lower lame-spread index are also requized {in certain areas in individual occupancies. A fire-retardant coa ing may be used on existing interior finish materials to reduce the rate of lame spread. In aeas protected with automatic sprine Iker, the use of materials with higher flame-spread index ela sifications sometimes is permitted. Table 4.3.2 summarizes the interior finish requirements contained in NFPA 101 forthe vari ‘ous occupancy classifications, NFPA 10/ also recognizes NFPA. 286, Standard Methods of Fire Tests for Evaluating Contribu sion of Wall ana Ceiling Interior Finish to Room Fire Growth ‘Any material that passes this tet, based on the pass-fal eriteria Contained in NFPA 10/, can be used anywhere ina building. Floor coverings are evaluated by NEPA /0/, through the use of NEPA 253, Standard Method of Test for Critical Radiant Flux of Floor Covering Systems Using a Radiant Heat Energy Source, also known as ASTM E648, Two classes of floor cover ings are established: Class I finishes, with a minimum critical radiant fux of 0.45 Wlem?, and Class TI finishes, with a mini- ‘mum critical radiant flax of 0.22 Wien Fumishings and decorations—particularly furnishings— play an increasingly important role in loss of life by fie.Interior Finish Classification Limitations Occupancy Exity But Access Corridors Other Spaces ‘Assembly-—new ‘300 Occupant load A AorB Aork Lor Tor ll <<300 Occupant load A AoB ABorc Tort Tort Assembly—existing 800 Occupant load A AoB Ack 300 Occupant load A AaB ABorc Educational—new A AoB AorB; Tort Tort Con Low paritions* Educational—eristing A AcrB A.B.orC Day-care centers—new A A Ack Tort Tort Day-care centers existing AoB AB Ao’ Day-care homes—new AoB AoB A.B.or€ Tor Day-care homes—existing AaB A,B, or ABore Health eare—new A A A NA Bon lower portion 2 in small individual of corridor wall rooms Tort Tort Health cate—esisting AoB AB Ao’ Detention and eorrectional—new Aok ArB A.B.orc (sprinklers mandatory) Tor I Tor Ir Detention and corectional—existing AaB AorB ABore Tor Tor I ‘One- and two-family dwellings and lodging ABor€ ABor€ ABorc forrooming houses Hotels and dormitories new A AcrB ABorc Tor Tort Hotels and dormitories existing Aok AorB A.B.orc Toe it Toe it? Apartment buildings—new A AaB ABorc orl Tor It Apartment buildings —existing AorB AcrB ABorc Tor I* Tor I* Residential board and care— (See Chapters 32 and 33 of NEPA 101.) Mercantile—now AoE AoE Ack Tort Mereantile—existing ‘Class A or Class B stores Aok AorB Ceilings A or B; walls—A. B, or C Class C stores A.B,or® A.B,orC A.B,orC Business and ambulatory health eare—new ‘ork Aok ABlorc Torll Business and ambulatory bealth care—existing AaB AaB A.Bor Industrial AoE A.B, or€ ALBlorC Tort Tort Storage AorB A.B, or€ ABore Tor Nove [Clas A otesior wall and ceiling finish—lame spread 0-25, new aplication) stoke developed 0-450 2 Class terior walla eling Gnsh flame spread 26-75, (se applicaons) smoke develuped 0-150 5. Class Ctrior wal an eelingKinish—ilame spread 76-200, (ge applications) smoke developed 0-150 4s Lntenoe or fneh-—eniel radiant ae no less than 0.48 Wem 5 Cle interior oor Gnih—crtieal raat fat. ot more tha 0.22 Wem? bat ese than 0.48 Wien 6: Automate spinlers—wheve a complete standard system of automate speakers is stale, interior wal and cling ‘ish with lame spreadating not exceeding Class Cis permited ioe used in any location where Class B ssequied and witharatingof Cars Biman ioeation were Class As requte: smal, Class llrior oor Snish's permed tore used in any loeaion where Claes Ti equte, and no erica aan rang se reqied where Cass I required These provisions o at apply to new detention and eorectional occupancies. 7 Baposed portion of stuetral members complying wih Ue reguzenens fr heavy mbes constuction are permite *Seocatesponding ebaptess of NFPA 10! for details. Source Tile A.1022. NEPA 101, 2006 edition,CHAPTER 3 Concepts of Egress Design 4-77 Decorations can be treated with a flame retardant. Furnishings oon the other hand, are difficult control and regulate asa fire hazard, since they are not attached to, of par of, the building construction or ofthe interior finish materials, Furnishings are moved, refurbished, and replaced, However, there are now test procedures for measuring the combusibilty of upholstered fur niture and is suscepubility to ignition." Two NEPA standards address fumitute combustibiity: NFPA 260, Standard Methods of Test and Classification System for Cigarete Ignition Resis: tance of Components of Upholstered Furniture; and NFPA 261, Standard Method of Test for Determining Resistance of Mock Up Upholstered Furniture Material Assemblies to Ignition by Smoldering Cigarettes. ASTM E1590, Standard Method for Fire Testing Mattresses, assesses heat release of mattresses and bedding. Ifthe Life Saery Code regulates upholstered furniture for mattresses, the restriction will be found in the appropriate ‘ecupancy chapter. Few occupancies have such regulations, and even those occupancies limit the restriction to new upholstered furniture and mattresses. The U.S. Consumer Products Safety ‘Commission (CPSC) also basa standard fr evaluating the ignite ability of mattesses A number of fires have been documented in which severe conditions resulted from fire involvement of only a few furnishing items $194 Influence of Psychological and Physiological Factors on Egress “The psychological and physiological conditions ofthe occupants must be considered, in addition to the physical configuration factors of the building in planning means of egress. Studies ine dicate people usually behave adaptively and often altuistcally inthe stess of afte 2122 A heterogeneous collection of persons under the influence of alcohol or drugs, as may be present in ‘an assembly occupancy, may pose a greater probability of non adaptive group behavior, with a competitive fight, panic-type ‘behavior the likely result. Historically this type of nonadaptive ‘behavior has been documented, although studies indicate that the phenomenon is rare and depends on unigue, predetermined conditions involving both the population and the physical envi- ronment ofthe structure 2-2 In some cases, evacuation procedures and the cteation of areas of refuge within high-rise buildings encourage occupant movement upward within the buikling. The effectiveness of this concept has not been completely validated in actual fires Because ofthe orientation of some people toward total evacue ation and escape from the building tis possible that they may attempt to evacuate @ building in the conventional “down and ‘out” approach despite instruction to the contrary This i even more problematic since the September 11, 2001 World Trade Center disaster. Evacuation procedures in federal high-rise office buildings, as directed by vocal alarm systems, have continually obtained the selective movement of personnel in both upward and down ‘ward directions. In two serious highctse office building fires in Sto Paulo, Brazil, he occupants moved upward to the root ‘when their downward movement was inhibited by smoke and hneat! Inthe MGM Grand Hotel fire in Las Vegas, Nevada. in November 1980, there also was upward movement inthe stat ‘ways tothe roof and to rooms on upper floors when downward twavel was made untenable by smoke and heat.!"2! It should be noted that rarely have successful helicopter rescues from the roof been performed, Roof-mounted structures, antennas, and Similar items make close approach difficult. In a significant fire, thermal updafls make approaching the building hazard- ‘us, Buildings propery built and maintained in accordance with codes such a the Life Safery Code should not need such drastic Allexits need tobe conspicuously marked, because people sae likely to be unfamiliar with the various exits ftom an area ‘under fre conditions and thus neglect alt Its also important that the means of egress from a building be used as a matter of daily routine, so the occupants will be familiar with their location and operation. NFPA 101 requires that the main ext of assembly occupancies, which also serves asthe entrance, be sized to handle at least half of the total occu pant load ofthe building Some assembly occupancies are now equited to have a main exit hat can accommodate two-thirds of the occupant load. This is a esul of the Station nightelub fire in West Warwick, Rhode Island, where 100 people died ‘There are three critical parameters in the effective use of the zoned evacuation of personnel to areas of refuge within a building:** 1. Proper construction to provide compartmented areas that are protected from the effects offre and smoke 2. An effective verbal alarm system giving clear and com- prehensive instructions, with provision for originating on- Scene instructions from the fire department®> 3, Effective evacuation drills to familiarize the oceupants with ‘the way the system function thas been advocated that occupants in fte-esistant, com- partmented buildings wsed as hotels, motels, apartments, dormic tories, hospitals, and other health car facilities should stay in their rooms rather than evacuate, because the 1ooms are the most adequate area of refuge Tn general this method has not been adopted by NFPA 10/ or by model building codes. However, the concept of areas of refuge is used by NFPA 101 extensively in occupancies suchas health care as well as detention and cor- rectional facilities and also to protect occupants with mobility impairments in all occupancies. In occupancies such as health care, ambulatory health care, and detention and correctional ‘occupancies, NFPA J01 has mandatory provisions for smoke compartmentation to limit the need to move occupants off the story of fire origin. In new construction of any occupancy, build. ings that are not protected by automatic sprinklers are required to provide “accessible means of egress” which in mulistoried buildings usually means areas of rofuge, NFPA 101 provides various ways of providing areas of refuge. The two most come mon areas of refuge are oversized ext sti landings or subdivie sion of the story by horizontal exits or smoke barriers Influence of Fire Protection Equipment It is unsuitable to rely totally on manual or automatic fire- extinguishing systems in place of adequate means of egress, be- cause fireextinguishing systems are subject to both human andA-T8. SECTION 4 © Human Factors in Emergencies ‘mechanical failure. In addition, building areas may become un- tenable for human occupancy before the fie-extinguishing sys- tems are effective, Under no congition can manual or automatic fire suppression be accepted as a substitute forthe provision and ‘maintenance of proper means of egress. However, NFPA JO] does provide significant alternative methods of compliance for buildings protected by automatic sprinkler systems. In addition, automatic sprinkler systems and various automatic detection systems are often installed in existing buildings to compensate for problems with the means of egress ‘Where a complete standard system is installed, automatic sprinklers are sufficiently reliable to have a major influence on Life safety. In addition to providing an automatic alarm of fire, they quickly discharge water on the fre before smoke has spread dangerously, Alwhough automatic sprinklers should never be used in place of adequate means of egress, they ate recognized in various ways by NFPA 10/. When total automatic sprinkler protection is provided, NEPA 101 permits increased travel dis- tance to exits, the use of interior finish of greater combustibilty reductions in corridor requirements, and, in some occupancies, the use of combustible construction in situations where it would otherwise be prohibited. Provisions for areas of refuge axe sig- ‘nificantly easier to comply with in buildings protected through- cout by automate sprinklers, Sprinklers are particularly valuable in dealing with problems in existing buildings. ‘Automatic fte detection, or fre alarm, systems are valu- able in notifying building occupants of a fire go they may evacu- ate promptly. Automatic fire detection systems only provide a warning of fire and do nothing themselves to suppress or limit the spread of fire and smoke. An automatic fice detection system is nol a substitute for adequate means of egress ‘Smoke detection systems can be useful to help mitigate problems in existing buildings. They can be especially useful Where earlier egress may help selve problems, such a exist- ing excessive common paths of travel, dead ends, and travel distance DEFINITION OF THE TERM. “MEANS OF EGRESS’ NEPA 10/ and most of the U.S. model building codes use the term “means of egress” A means of egress isa continuous path of travel from any point ina building or structare toa public way that isin the open air outside at ground level. Egress consists of three separate and distinet parts: 1. Bvit access, Portion of a means of egress that leads to the entrance of an exit 2. Exit. Portion of a means of egress that is separated ftom the area of the building from which escape is to be made by walls, floors, doors, or other means that provide the protected path necessary for the occupants to proceed with reasonable safely to the exterior of the building. An exit may comprise vertical and horizontal means of travel, such as exterior doors, protected stairways, ramps, and exit passageways. 3. Bxit discharge. Portion of a means of egress between the termination ofthe exit and a public way Figure 4.36 illustrates the relationship among these three parts of an exit in a building The Exit Access ‘The exit access may be a comtidor, aise, balcony, gallery, room, ‘porch, or tof. The length of the exit acess establishes the travel distance to an exit, an extremely important feature of a means of egress, because an occupant might be exposed to fire or smoke dlusing the time it takes to reach an exit. The average recom- mended maximum travel distance i200 f¢ (61 m), but this dis- tance varies with the occupancy, depending on the fire hazard and the physical ability and alertness of the occupants (Table 43.3), The travel distance must be measured from the most re rote point in a room of floor area to an exit, In most cases, the travel distance can be increased if the building is completely protected with a standard supervised au- tomatic sprinkler system, {A dead end isan extension of a corridor beyond an exit oF fan access to exits that forms a pocket in which occupants may bbe rapped. Since thee is only one direction of travel to an exit from a dead end, a fire in a dead end between the exit and an ‘secupant prevents the occupant from reaching the exit. Another problem with dead ends is that while taveling foward an exit in a smoky almosphere, an occupant may pass by the exit and ‘walk into the dead end. This requires return travel, which adds distance, and therefore time, co reach the exit In good egress FIGURE 4.3.6 Examples of Exit Access, Exit and Exit Discharge. To the occupant of the building an this level, the doors at A;,A,,E;,and E, are exis. To the person emerging rom the exit enclosures doors D, and D, are exit discharge doors, Exit access i denoted by dashed lines. Exit discharge is denoted by dotted lines. Solid lines are within the ext(CHAPTER 3 Concepts of Egress Design 4-79 TABLE 4.3.3 Common Path, 1d, and Travel Distance Limits (by Occupancy) ) Common Path Limit Dead-End “Travel Distance Unsprinklered —Sprinklered —Unsprnklered —_Sprinklered —Unsprinklered—_Sprinklered Type of Occupancy Sem) Sim) Stim) sem) Sit) Stim) ‘Assembly New 20ns 2ons 20¢6) 26.1 200625070) (rsp (a3 Bristing 20075 20n15 206.1 2066.0 20066" 25076) (ose (ours Educational New 753) 10030) 2066.1) 50.13) 15045) 200.61) Existing 75.023) 10030) 2066.1) 5015) 15045) 200,61) Day Care New 7523) 1000) 206611) 50.15) 104s 200,601 Existing 753) 10030) 2066.1) 5013) 1505} 200,60 Health Care New NR NR 3000.) 300.) NA 200 61 Euisting NR NR NR NR isos 200,68 Ambulatory Health Care New aaa" 100G0" 206.1) s0(is) 15045} 200 ¢61»¢ Enisting 7523" 1030" 5045), 50.15) 15045} 200,61} Detention and Correctional New—use condition 505) 100 30) 5005) 50.8) 1504s} 200,601 11m, 1V New—use condition V 5013) 1000) 2066.1) 206.) 150s} 200601 isting —ese condition 5015) 100 30 NR NR 15045 200,601 WALV.Y Residential One- and wo-faily NR NR NR NR NR NR dwvelings ‘Lodging or ooming houses NR NR NR NR NR NR Hotels and dormitories, New 3sdo7e® —sosye® 35,107) 50.15) 175.638 325 09)8 Eisting 35078 SOLIS 5005) 50(15) 175.5388 325 (09)8 Apartments New ssuome — Souse 3510.7) 50.19) 175.638 325 09) Existing 350.7% ——S0(I5 5015) 505) 175,58 525 09) Board and cate Small, new and existing NR NR NR NR NR Large, new NA 135 G8)" NA 50015) NA 325 (99) Large, existing 11083) 16049) 505) 5015) 175,53) 325 09} ‘Mercantile Chass A,B,C New 753) 10030) 20,61) 5015) 150 (45) 250.6) Enisting 7503) 100 30) 505) 50.5) 15045) 250,76) Open air NR NR 00) 00) NR NR Mall New 7503) 10000) 2066.1) 5015) 15045) 4001203! Existing 753) 100 G0) 5015) 5015) 150145) 490120)! (continued)4-80 SECTION 4 © Human Factors in Emergencies TABLE4.3.3 Continued ) ‘Common Path Lin ‘Dead-End Limit Unsprinklered —Sprinklered —Unsprinklered — Sprinlered —Unsprinklered _Sprinklered Type of Occupancy film) film) film) Simm) Sim) a) Business New 753 100 G30) 2066.1) 50.5) 200 (61) 300,01) Existing 7523) 100 30) sous) 505) 200 (61) 300,81) 5015) 100.30) 5015) sus) 200 (61)! 2005" 50 (15) 100 (30) 50.5) 50.15) 300(91) 400 (122), High hazard 0 0) 0) 0) 00) 75003) Aircraft servicing hangars, 50 (15)8 100.30" sous sous . . ‘ground floor Aireratt servicing hangars, sous 7503" 50,15)" sos)" 75003) 7503) ‘mezzanine floor Storage Low hazard NR NR NR NR NR NR Ordinary hazard sous) 100.30) sous) 100.30) 200 (61) 400 (122) High hazard 00) 00) 00) 00) 75,03) 100 (30) Parking stuctures, open 50415) 5013) sous) 5015) 300(91) 400 (122) Parking structures, enclosed 50 (15) 5015) 5013) 5013) 150 (45) 200 (60) Aiseraft storage hangars, sos 100.307" soci. sous . . ‘ground floor Aircraft storage hangars, sous sas Sos sous 7503) 75003) mezzanine floor Underground spaces in sous 1030" sos 100 (30)" 200(61) 400 (122) ‘rain elevators ‘News ‘NA=Not applicable NBs No requiem ‘or common path sring > 50 rons 2016.1 m): for common path serving 50 persons, 75 1 23 m), SDeadend emits of 20 (6.1m) permited: dead-end asies of 20 (6.1 m) permed «See Chaps [2 and 13 of NFPA 11 for special consieions for aokt-proeted sserbly eating in ana ad ala, ‘his dimension i for the (otal wae dstanee,asuming ineremental portions have fully uuize thee permed ‘maximums Fr ave! stance win the oom, and Irom te oom ext acces dor Io the ei, ee the appropriate occupancy chapter of NFPA TOI See basnes ceupances, Chapers 38 and 39 of NFPA J01 ‘ce Chater 2 of NFPA 10] fr special considerations for existing common pats ‘This dession stom he oonceridr or sutelcoride ext acces oot othe ex thsi applies to comider common, pat 'ste the appropiate occupancy chaper of NFPA 101 fr requirement for second exit acest based on room area 'See appropriate occupancy chaps of NFPA 10] fr special wael distance considerations fo exterior Ways of ext ccs, See 3644and 374.8 of NFPA 01 for socal uvel distance considerations in covered mull considered o Be pedetian ways, ‘See Chapters 38 and 39 of NEPA 01 fr special common pal considerations fr single tenant space. 'See Chapers 40 ana 2 of NFPA 10! fr special reuiemns on sparing of doors nara Rahat "See Chaper 40 of NFPA 107 for industrial occupaey special ave distance considerations, "See Chapers 40 and 42 of NFPA [01 for special equrements it high-haratd conditions eit. Source Table A.78, NFPA 10, 2006 eon, designs, dead-en corridors are not used, However, NFPA 101 permits dead ends in most occupancies, within reasonable limits (Gee Table 4.3.3). Two examples of dead-end corridors are il- Justrated in Figure 4.3.7. ‘The width of an ext access should be at least sufficient for the number of persons it must accommodate, In some occupan- cies, the width of the access is governed by the character of sctivity in the occupancy. One example is a new hospital, where patients may be moved in beds or in gumeys. The corridors in the patient areas of the hospital must be 8 ft 2.4 m) wide to allow for a bed to be wheeled out of room and turned 90" ‘A fundamental principle of ext access is the provision of a free and unobstructed way to the exits. Ifthe access passes ‘rough a room that can be locked or through an area containing a fire hazard more severe than is typical of the occupancy, the principles of fee and unobstructed exit access are violated.CHAPTER 3 Concepts of Egress Design 4-81 HI LI mal FIGURE 4.3.7 Two Examples of Dead-End Corridors ‘A shows an elevator lobby that has no exit atthe far end, thereby forming adead-end corridor. B is a “classic” dead. end corridor. a | ‘The floor of an exit access should be level. If this isnot pos- sible, small differences in elevation may be overcome by a ramp and large differences by stairs. Whete only one or two steps axe necessary to overcome differences in level in an exit aveess, a xamp is preferred, because people may trip in a crowded cor rior and fall on the staits if they do not see the steps or notice ‘that those in front of them have stepped up or down, The Exit ‘The types of permissible exits are doors leading dtectly outside at ground level or through a protected passageway tothe outside at ground level, smokeproaf enclosures, protected interior and ‘outside stairs, exit passageways, enclosed ramps, and in existing par fee pee &s fof —o% e Enetoses Horizontal ‘sane onto FIGURE 4.3.8. Plan Views of Types of Exits. Stair enclosure prevents ie on any floc for tapping the persons above. A smokepeoof tower is better as it opens to the ait at each floor, largely preventing the chance of stoke inthe stairway. A hori- zontal eit provides a quick refuge and lestens the need fora hasty ight down stats, Fie-rated doors must be arranged to be self-closing or automatic-closing by smoke detection, buildings, enclosed escalators or moving walkways. Elevators are nol accepted as exits; however, they can be used to provide ‘a way of removing mobility-impaired individuals from areas of refuge, NEPA [01 also recognizes elevators for very limited use as a second exit for limited-access towers such as FAA control towers, Research is currently being conducted in an altempt to make elevators more usable for egress purposes. See Figures 4.3.8 and 4.39 for illustrations of some common types of exit arrangements. ‘The specific placement of exits is a matter of design judg- ‘ment, given the specifications of travel distance, allowable dead. ends, common path of wavel, and exit capacity, NFPA 10/ states |< hea neal 1oniam Notes than tpt veinstonr Sina spnng we eee open, gm door Ahr door ‘door Meche ‘Wehr door 13 Seen Guard ie May i 18 oom Pian A pune ane wat | ran mrechanel vention 20min dor nn so Min 72 - Wehr door (183. em) tt open —_ }___] outsise chee Tinfan nto issent Sm linc Pino FIGURE 4.3.9 Fou: Variations of Smokeproof Enclosures. Plan A has an open-air vestibule opening fom a corridor Plan B shows an entrance by way of an outside balcony. Plan C could provide a stair entrance common to two areas, In Plan D, smoke and geses entering the vestibule would be exhausted by a natural or induced draft in the open air shal. Teach case, a double entrance to the stat tower with at least one side open or vented is characteristic ofthis type of, construction, Pressurizalion ofthe slat ower inthe event of fire provides an attractive alternate for tll buldings and isa sieans of eliminating the entrance vesubule4-82 SECTION 4 | Human Factors in Emergencies that exits must be remote from each other, thus providing two separate means of egress so located that occupants ean travel in either of two opposite directions to reach an exit. This concept is important when itis necessary for occupants to leave fre or smoke-contaminated area and move toward an exit. F occupants have no choice bul to enter the fre area to reach an exit, itis doubtful whether they will beable or willing to do so, The Exit Discharge Ideally, all exits in a building should discharge directly to the outside or through a fire-resistance-rated passageway to the outside of the building. NFPA 10/ permits a maximum of SO ‘percent ofthe exit stats to discharge onto the street floor. The obvious disadvantage ofthis arrangement i that if a fire occurs on the street-level floor, it is possible for people using the exit staizs discharging there to be discharged into the fite area, I any exits discharge to the street floor, NFPA 101 therefore requires that such exits discharge to a free and unobstructed way to the outside of the building, thatthe street floor be protected by au- tomatic sprinklers, and thatthe street floor be separated from any floors below by construction having a 2 hour fie resistance rating Discharging an exit to the outside is not necessasily dis- charging to a safe place. I the exit discharges into a courtyard, an exit passageway must be provided from the courtyard through the building so thatthe occupants can get away from the build- ing. Ifthe ext discharges into a fenced yard, the occupants must be able to get out of the yard to get away from the building, If the exit discharges into an alley, the alley must be of sufficient width to accommodate the capacity ofall the exits discharging into it, and any openings in the building walls bordering the alley should he protected to prevent fre exposure to the occt- pants proceeding through the alley. ‘When exit stairs from floors above the street floor continue fn to floors below the street floor, occupants evacuating the building may miss the exit discharge door tothe street level, continue down the stairway, and enter a floor below the level of exit discharge. Therefore, NEPA J0/ requires a physical barier or other effective means atthe street floor landing to prevent evacuees from passing the level of exit discharge ‘CAPACITY OF MEANS OF EGRESS ‘The capacity of exits is calculated using a capacity factor pro- vided in NFPA 10/. This capacity factor is given as in.person (canfperson) and varies with the occupancy (see Table 4.3.1), The {otal ext capacity for each component of the means of egress such as doors, stare, ramps, cozidors, and so on, is calculated bso on its clear wid. For example, one 34 in, (86 em) clear width door in an office occupancy would have an exit capacity of 170 persons (34 in. 0.2 in person = 170 persons [86 em (05 emiperson = 172 persons)). The reason for these variations in exit capacity factors isto establish a consistent total evacus- \uon time in different occupancies, based on the physical ability, ‘mental aleriness, age, and sociological roles of the occupants In occupancies where people are housed for care, the time taken to reach exits will be greater than in some other occupancies, and so the exits must be sufficiently wide to allow nonambula- tory occupants to egress and to prevent any waiting fo get into the exit, ‘Occupant Load Occupant load, or the number of people to he expected in & building or an area within a building at anytime for whom exits ‘ust be provided, is determined by the actual anticipated oc- cupant load but not less than that number obtained by dividing the gross area ofthe story or the net area of a specific portion ofthe building by the area inf? (a2 projected foreach person, ‘The amount of floor area projected for each person varies with the occupancy (Table 4.3.4) These figures are based on actual counts of people in buildings and on reviews of architectural plans. Tn some situations, the maximum number of people in a building ahove the caleulated occupant load can be determined atthe design stage, in which case tis number shouldbe used in the design of the exits. Atypical example is an assembly occu- pancy in which fixed seating is installed. Counting the number of seats provided, and calculating the standing or waiting areas by the occupant load factor, would obviously give a more ac- curate figure than multiplying a f (m?)fperson figure by the net floor area ‘Computing Required Egress Width ‘To compute the minimum required egress widths from the indi- vidual floors of a building, the following steps are nevessary 1, Calculate the floor area, either net or gross, whichever is applicable, 2. Determine from NFPA. 0/ the estimated number of fe? (os?/person, or occupant load factor 3. Divide the number of ft (ax?)person (occupant load factor) into the floor area to determine the minimum number of people for whom exits must be provided for that floor; use this calculated occupant load or the actual occupant load, Whichever is higher. 4. Measure the clear width of each component in the means of egress 5. Determine the capacity factor from NFPA 101 for each exit ‘componeat forthe appropriate occupancy. 6, Divide the clear width of each exit component by the capacity factor to determine the egress capacity for each component. 7. Determine the most restrictive component in each egress system, 8. Determine the total egress capacity for the story. 9. Ensure that the total egress capacity equals or exceeds the total occupant load, In mulistory buildings, the egress capacity foreach story is calculated separately. In other words, the capacity ofthe stairs need only be wide enough to serve each floor, but it must not be less than the minimum width required by NFPA 01. It must also be noted that the requized egress capacity cannot be de- creased in the direction of egress travel. Street-floor exits may Fequire special treatment, depending on the occupancy. Some occupancies require that street-floorTABLE 43.4 Occupant Load Factor ) tie per Perso per Perso Ue 1 per Persons per Peso ‘Assembly Use Detention ad me Ti Concentrated use, ‘Tet 0.65 net ‘Correctional Use iho fined seating Residential Use Less concentrated se, ae Leet Hotels nd dormitories 200 86 thou ined seating ‘Apartentbuings 200 186 Beach-type ceding IpenowI8— I peronéSS———Boud anne, ag 200 86 Tinea newrmm =~ yeauaan ne Fed seating Nomberef None et Conatantaghtacas 100 os redseas Bred seats scr an ating spaces seei2i72 seei2i72 ere fodiyi72 andi ing Secabmumorindusrat NA * (EPA Jon NEPA 10H Kitchens 100 93 Storage Use . He aw ‘oe 2 Tastorage ocupacies xa Na Library reading rooms sOnet 46 net nen “oo 78 Swimming poo SO(ewersric) Ascuaterauice) NPS soo es ‘Swimming pool decks 30 28 and mercantile Byercite rooms with so 4s cecupences, eauipment Mercantile Use Breriserooms witout 15 M4 Suceson sect 0 as vipat ea sige Ison net Sues ea on 0 er “0 a7 Lighingandacescut 100 et 93 net moe set Hews walks, galleries, gridirons ‘Sales area on floor below 30, 28 Casino aed sia nu 1 sect Dea mig aes Sales aeacn lorsabove 60 so stating inks so 4s Seet Dou? dvcational Use Poorsorporions of See Business See Busnes Cuseone ovat 19 et floes weedonlyfor Use Ue ‘Shops, laboratories, 50 net 46 net offices vovatona rors oor o potions of 300 ne Day-Care Use 35 net 3.3 net ‘floors used only for HealthCare Use feoge occ and Tapaticatweetet x0 23 eee departments ‘Mall buildings* Per factors Per factors Steping depress 0 ha Tete Ambulatory beathcae 100 93 ectspace! — Geatspace oer [NA Not applicable. The occupant load is the maximum probable numberof oecupats present a ny time ‘all facto ate expressed in gross area unless marked “nel "Yor the purpose of determining ocupant loud in mercantile ocupancice wher, duo difecaces in grade of eects on different ides, wo or more floors decly accessible from sects (nt including alleys or vital back els) ert, ‘ach such lor is permed oe considered» sree loo The eceupant lod facior iv ane pron fr each 40 (= (6.7 1m) of goss lor ares of sales space ‘or the porose of determining occupant loadin mercantile oecypancies wih no street floor, at defined in 3.3239 of [NEPA UOI. but with atces diced fom the steet by slats of escalates, the Hoot at he point af exance tothe rmereantle occupancy is considered the suet floor oF an food cout or other assembly Ue areas lesen the mal hat re notinclued aa potion ofthe gros esable ‘rea ofthe mall bling, te occupant loud sclelated hazed onthe occupant lad factor (or hla a spied ‘Tle 71.2 of NFPA 10] The remaining mal aea isnot equed tobe asigned an occupant load ‘The porions ofthe mall that ar considered a pedestrian Way and ol usd as goss Ieasabe are ate not equte 0 be ‘seed an ocupant load based on Table 7412 of NFPA TOI. However, means of egress rom ama pedestian way ite required to be provided fran occupant load determined by dividing the gros lesable rea of the ral building (oot inclaing anchor ores) by ie appropriate lowent whole nmberaccupant [oa actor Irom Figure 731 2(8) oF Figure 73.120) of NPPA 10! ‘Bach individual ena spac is required to have means of egress to the outside oro the mall based on occupant Loads “aeulated by using the apropeise occupant oe fate fom Table 7.3.1.2 of NFPA T01 vidal anche totes requed Yo ave means of eget independent of te al, 73.12, NFPA 101 206 eon. 4-834-84 SECTION 4 Human Factors in Emergencies exits be sized to handle not only the occupant load ofthe street floor but also the occupant load of the exits discharging to the street floor from floors above and below. In addition, in those ‘ecupancies where floors above andor below the street floor are permitted to have unenclosed stats and escalators connecting them withthe street loor, the exits must be suflicient to provide simultaneously forall the occupants of all communicating levels and areas. In other words, all comyunicating levels in the same fire area are considered a single floor area for the purposes of determining the required egress capacity. This unified fre arca factor can have a considerable effect on the sizing of the street- oor exits Should two or more exits converge into a common exit, the common exit should never be narrower than the stm of the widths ofthe exits converging into it, Generally, the minimuim number of exits is two In certain limited situations, however, one exit may be permitted in some ‘occupancies if there isa very low occupant load, low fire hazard, and a limited travel distance, EGRESS FACILITIES AND ARRANGEMENTS: ‘The following egress facilities are covered in NFPA 101 Doors Doors should be side-hinged or pivoted swinging type and should swing in the direction of egress travel, except in small rooms. Horizontal sliding, vertical, ot rolling doors are recog- nized for use as means of egress in some occupancies. In assem- bly occupancies, day-care centers, and schools, panic hardware should be installed on all egress doors equipped with latches that serve areas with an occupant load of 100 or more. Where doots protect exit facilities, as in stairway enclo- sures and horizontal exits, they normally must be kept closed to limit the spread of smoke. If open, they must be closed imme- diately in case of fre. Although ordinary, fusible-link-operated devices to close doors in case of fire are designed to close in time to stop the spread of fie, they do not operate soon enough to stop the spread of smoke and are not permitted by NEPA 10/ Atrelatively low temperatures, smoke accumulation cauld con tinue and could reach untenable levels long before the fusible ink melts, allowing the door to close Sometimes, people keep self-closing doors open with hooks or with wedges under the door, Doors also can be blocked open to provide ventilation, for the convenience of building mainte- nance personnel, of to avoid the accident hazard of swinging doors, The following measures have been provided in the NEPA 101 to alleviate this undesirable situation: 1. Doors that are normally Kept open can be equipped with door closers and automatic hold-open devices that release the door and allow them to close when smoke detectors operate 2. Doors that are normally closed can be equipped to open electrically or pneumatically when a person approaches the door, as long as smoke detectors are used to prevent the door from automatically opening when there is smoke in the area 3. Doors that normally are closed can be opened and held ‘open manually by monitors, as in schools, Qualifications and limitations are applicable to each of these measures. One i that, in the event of electrical failure, the door must close and remain closed unless itis opened manually for egress purposes. ‘Another major maintenance difficulty with exit doors isthe exterior door that is locked to prevent unauthorized access or for other reasons, NFPA 101 specifies that when the building is ovcupied, all doors must be Kept unlocked in the direction of egress. NFPA 10/ allows a delayed releasing device on some egress doors, provided ths is permitted by the requirements of the occupancy in question. Where the devices are allowed, the following provisions apply’ 1. The building must be protected throughout by an approved and supervised automatic fire detection system ot aulo- atic sprinkler system, ‘The release devices are installed only in low- or ordinaty- hazard areas. [3 The devices must unlock when the fire detection system or automatic sprinkler system operates. 4. The devices must unlock on loss of power 5. The devices must initiate an ireversible process that will free the latch within 15 seconds whenever a force of not more than 15 1b (6.8 kg) is applied to the releasing device, and the door must aot relock automatically. Operation of the releasing device must actuate & signal near the door, 6. Asignmasthe placed adjacent to the door that reads: PUSH UNTIL ALARM SOUNDS. DOOR CAN BE OPENED IN 15 SECONDS! 7. Emergency lighting must be provided atthe door, Refer to NFPA 10/ for mote details and restrictions. Some of the ‘occupancy chapters have further linitations. [NFPA 0] also provides “Access Controlled Egress Doors: ‘The code spells out several imitations for these. One ofthe limi tations included is that when an aecupant approaches the door from the egress side, a sensor must unlock it Locks on a door that let people exit but not enter are sat- isfactory, but even this type of lock may not be satisfactory for security purposes. Possible measures to prevent unauthorized "use of exit doors include the following’ 1. An automatic alarm that rings when the door is opened 2. Visual supervision such as wired-glass panels, closed- circuit television, and mirrors, which may be used where appropriate 3. Automatic photographic devices to provide pictures of So-called exit locks, with a break-glass unit actuated by stuiking ahandle with the hand, are not permitted by NFPA 107 ‘unless installed in conjunction with panic bars. Otzerwise, they «do not comply withthe NFPA 101 provision that reads: “A late or other fastening device on a door shall be provided with are-CHAPTER 3 Concepts of Egress Design 4-85. leasing device having an obvious method of operation and that is readily operated under all lighting conditions Other types of break-glass locks and electrical controls for releasing exits from a central point are not pertted by NFPA 101. The exception is an occupancy where controls may be necessary, at in health care or detention and correctional ‘occupancies A single door in a doorway should not be Less than 32 in, (813 mm) wide in new buildings and 28 in. (711 mm) in exist ing buildings. To prevent tripping, the floor on both sides of the door should have the same elevation for the full swing of the door, Panic Hardware gress doors in assembly, day-care, and educational occupa cies, such as schools or movie theaters, normally are equipped with panic hardware, Basically, panic hardware devices are de signed to facilitate the xlease ofthe latching device oa the door ‘when a pressure not to exceed 15 lb (6.8 ke) is applied in the direction of ext travel, Such releasing devices are bars or panels extending not less than one-half of the width of the door and placed at a height not less than 30 in, (762 mm) of more than Ain. (1.1 m) above the floor. Panic hardware that has been tested and listed for use on fire-protection-rated doors is termed “fire exit hardware” If panic hardware is needed on fire-protection-rated doors, only fire exit hardware i to be used, Panic hardware is available for use on single and double doors, with Vatitions for rim-mounted hardware and mortise ot vertical rod devices. Horizontal Exits A horizontal ext is a means of egress from one building to an area of refuge in another building on approximately the same level, ora means of egress through a 2 hour fire barrier ‘oan area of refuge at approximately the same level in the same building that affords safety from fire and smoke. With a horizontal exit, it is obvious that space must be provided in the ares or building of refuge forthe people entering the refuge area, NFPA 10/ recom ‘ends 3 1€ (0.28 m*) of space per person, with the exception of, healthcare or detention and correctional occupancies, where 6 to 30 ft (0.56 to 2.79 m) of space is recommended, Horizontal exits cannot comprise more than one-half te total required exit capacity, except in healthcare facilites, where horizontal exits ‘may comprise two-thirds ofthe total required exit capacity, and in detention and correctional facilities, where horizontal exits ‘ean comprise 100 percent of the total exit capacity, Horizon. tal exits have been applied universally in health care facilities ‘where the evacuation of patients over stairs is slower and more difficult than taking them through a horizontal exit toa safe area of refuge. A horizontal ext arrangement within a single building and belween two buildings is illustrated in Figure 4.3.10, AA swinging door ina fie wall provides a horizontal exit in ‘one direction only. Two openings, each with a door swinging in the direction of ext wavel, are needed to provide horizontal exits {rom both sides ofthe wall. Where property protection requires Fine TWwoowayhorzora extn anoperston sulaeg Serrebsing ve door requred fre separation FIGURE 4.3.10 Types of Horizontal Exits Sling At bung. Sactoeng br aulomale-clsing ve dors ana Protected passage reaurea fire doors on hoth ses ofthe wall, a normally open, automatic, fusibleclink-operated, horizontally sliding fire door may be used (on one side, wi a swinging fie door oa the other. Stairs [Exit stars are arranged (0 minimize the danger of falling, be- ‘cause one person falling on a stairway may result in the eom- plete blockage of an exit, Stairs must be wide enough for (wo persons to desvend side by side, thus maintaining a reasonable rate of evacuation, even though aged or mobility-impaired per sons may slow the tavel on one side, There must beno decrease in the width ofthe stair along the path of travel, since this may create congestion Steep stairs are dangerous, Stair treads must be deep enough to give good footing. NEPA 10/ specifies a minimum 11 i, (279 mm) tread and a maximum 7 in. (178 mm) riser for new stairs. Landings should be provided to break up any exces- sively long individual flight, Continuous railings are now rec- ‘ommended for new stairs, New stairs more than 60 in, (1.5 m) wide should have one or more center rails. Beginning with the 2006 edition of NFPA 101, new very tall buildings will be required to have wider stairs, Ifa stair serves a total of more ‘than 2000 people there are mote stringent width requirements to accommodate better flow (allowing for easier passing and {or easier movement of mobilily-impaired persons) as well as counter flow (allowing fixe fighters with equipment up while ‘occupants are evacuating). Prior to 2006, to classes of stairs were permitted in NFPA 10] for existing buildings, with single clas of stairs for new staits, There were Class A and Class B stars for existing build- ings. Stating with the 2006 edition the provisions for Class A. sits were deleted from the code and now there is one set of requirements for new and one for existing, The requirements are given in Table 43.5, Stairs can serve as exit access, exit, or exit discharge. When used as an exit, they must be in an enclosure that meets exit enclosure requirements or outside the building and properly protected, Exit access sais that comsect two or mote stories axe vertical openings and must be protected as vertical opening. Stairways may be inside the building where NFPA 101 gen- cally specifies protective enclosures, They also may be outside4-86 SECTION 4 © Human Factors in Emergencies TABLE 4.3.5 Requirements for New and Existing Bulling Stairs ) Nev Siaire Existing Stairs ‘Minimum with clear of all 44in. 12m) 36 in (0.91 m) obstructions except projections 36in. (091 m) 36 n. (0.91 m) not exceeding 3¥+ in. (0-89 mm) Where total occupant load at and below handsail height on ofall floors served by each side stairways i less than 50 ‘Maximum eight of rises Tin. (178 mm) Sin. (203 mm) ‘Minimum height of risers 4 in, (102 mm) _ Mininvam tread depth in, 279 mm) in, (229 mm) ‘Minimum headroom 68in 2.03 m) 618in 2.03 m) ‘Maximum height between landings 2RG7m) 126G.7m) Minimum dimension of landinge in direction of tavel, Stairways and intermediate landings shall continue with no decrease in width along the direction of exit iavel In new buildings every landing shall have a dimension, measured in direction of travel, equa tthe width ofthe sta Such dimension need not exceed 4 f (1.22 m) when the stair has a straight run. Doors opening immediatly on stat, No without landing a least width of door No if they comply withthe requirements for exterior stairs and are arranged so that persons who fear heights will not be reluctant ‘o.use them, aze not exposed to fre conditions originating i the ‘building, and, where necestary, are shielded from snow and ice Exterior stairs should not be confused with fire escape stairs Figure 4.3.11), Exterior stairs as shown in the figure can be used in many types of occupancies, such as schools, motels, small professional buildings, and so on. Note that there are wo _means of egress, emote from each other, from the second-story balcony. Construction details of star enclosures i lve the princi- piles of limiting fie and smoke spread, Doors on openings from each story are essential to prevent the stairway from serving as a ‘Aue. In general, stairway enclosures should include not only the Ordinary glee nao ooouYy cool! FIGURE 4.3.11 Outside Stairs Providing Direct Exits to the Outside for All Rooms in a Mulistory Building, There are no interior corridors through which smoke and flame could spread, stair, but also the path of travel from the bottom of the stairs to the exit discharge, so that occupants have a protected, enclosed: passageway all the way out ofthe building. The stair enclosure should be of | hour construction when connecting three or fewer floors and of 2 hour construction when connecting four or more floors Smokeproof Enclosures ‘Smokeproot enclosures provide the highest protected type of stair enclosure recommended by NFPA 101. Access tothe stair is only by balvonies open to the outside air, vented vestibules, ‘or mechanically pressurized vestibues, so that smoke, heat, and ‘lame will nt spread readily into the tower even if the doors are accidentally left open (see Figure 4 3.9). Ramps Ramps, enclosed and otherwise arranged like stairways, are sometimes used instead of slairways where there are large crowds and to provide both access and egress for nonambula- tory persons. To be considered safe, exits ramps must have & very gradual slope. Exit Passageways Anhallway, corridor, passage, tunnel, or underfloor or overhead passageway may be designated an exit passageway, providing ‘is separated and arranged according to the requirements for exits ‘The use of a hallway or corridor as an exit passageway in- leoduces some unique considerations. The use of these spaces for purposes other than exiting may violate fundamental design considerations. In an industrial situation, for example, the use ‘of a gasoline-powered forklift in a corridor designated as an ‘exit passageway would violate the principles of exit design,CHAPTER 3 Concepts of Egress Design 4-87 NFPA 101 specifies that an exit enclosure should not be used for any purpose that could interfere with its value as an exit and is strictly limited by the code. Furthermore, penetration of the enclosure by ducts and other tities may violate the protective enclosuze Each opening in an exit enclosure introduces a point of ‘weakness that could allow fire contaminants to spread into the exit and prevent its use. The typical comridar used as an exit with numerous door openings could result in fire contamination of the enclosure if a door fails to close and latch, The door open- ings in exit enclosures should be limited to those necessary for access to the enclosure from normally occupied spaces. There Tore, doors and other openings to spaces such as boiler rooms, storage spaces, trash rooms, and maintenance closets are not allowed into an exit passageway ‘An exit passageway should not be confused with an exit access corridor. Exit access corridors do not have as stringent construction protection requirements as do exit passageways, because they provide access to an exit rather than being an ex- tension and component of the exit. In Figure 4.3.6 the passage between B, and Dy is an exit passageway. Fire Escape Stairs Fire escapes are, at best, a poor substitute for standard interior ‘or exterior stairs. NEPA 101 only permits existing fire escapes inexisting buildings: for some occupancies they aze not allowed even for existing buildings. Existing fire escape stairs can be rebuilt, but new fire escapes cannat be installed on an existing building unless specifically approved by the authority having jurisdiction ‘The same principles of design apply to fire escapes that apply to interior stairs, though requitements for width, pitch, and other dimensions are generally less strict. NFPA 101 gives {he following eriteria for fire escape stair design. Fire escape stairs ideally extend tothe stret or to ground level, When sidewalks would be obstructed by permanent sats, swinging stair sections designed to swing down under the weight of a person may be used for the lowest flight of the fire escape stairs. The area below the swinging section must be kept unobstructed so the swinging section ean reach the ground, ‘A counterweight ofthe type that balances on a pivot should be provided for swinging stars; cables should not be used. Fire ‘escapes that end on balconies above the ground level and pro- Vide no way to reach the ground, except by portable ladders or jumping, are unsafe, “Many persons who fear heights are reluctant to use fire es capes. As far as possible, design should provide a sense of secu. sity aswell as suitable railings and other details actually needed {or safety, Fire escapes must be well anchored to building walls and kept painted to prevent rust, Preferred access lo fire escapes is through doors leading {rom the main building area or from corridors, never through rooms that may have locked doors except where every room ‘or apartment has separate access to a fire escape. Although preferred access to fire escapes is by doors, windows may be "used, in which case sills should not be toa high above the floor. Windows should be of ample size, and, if insect screens are installed, they should be of a type that can be opened or re- moved quickly and easily. Decorative grilles or security bars should not be installed over windows that provide access to fire escapes Fire escapes can create a severe fire exposure to people if flames come out windows beneath them (Figure 4.3.12) ‘The best location for fie escapes is on exterior masonry walls without exposing windows, with access t fire escape balconies by exterior fire doors. Where window openings expose fire e3- capes, fixed wired glass in metal sashes should be used. Where there is a complete standard automatic sprinkler system in the ‘building, the fie exposure hazard to personnel on fire escapes is minimized. Innorthem climates, outside by snow and ice 1c escapes may be obstructed, Escalators, Moving Walkways, and Elevators In some occupancies, escalators may be recognized as egress in ceisting buildings. However, they are seldom installed in such a way that they would qualify as exits, and itis common to find escalator installations with unprotected floor openings. Escala. {os are nol recognized as an acceplable component in a means of egress in new construction in any occupancy and in existing conditions in many occupancies. ‘Moving walkways also may be used as existing means of egress if they conform to the general requirements for ramps, if inclined, and for passageways, if level, Elevators ate not recognized as exits, However, elevators axe permitted tobe used, under limited conditions, (o serve ateas of refuge for the mobility impaired, The Life Safety Code also rec- ‘ognizes elevators, under very limited conditions, asthe second exit from limited-aocess towers such as FAA control towers. As ‘mentioned earlier, there is significant research being conducted in an attempt to develop ways to use elevators for egress my ya FIGURE 4.3.12 The Makeshift, Often Dangerous Aspect of Fire Escapes. Fire may make fire escapes useless as this picture, drawn from a photograph ofan actual fire, shows.4-88 SECTION 4 © Human Factors in Emergencies Areas of Refuge Since 1991, NFPA 101 as listed “areas of refuge” as a spe- cific means of egress element, Although they are beneficial 1o all people, their primary purpose is for people with difficulty using stairs. All new buildings must address the issue of “aeces- sible means of egress." In most new nonsprinklered mulistory buildings, this will require some form of area of refuge. Figures 43.13 and 4.3.14 illustrate two methods for providing areas of ‘refuge in nonsprinklered buildings. Ropes and Ladders Ropes and ladders generally are not recognized in codes as @ substitute for standard exits [som a building. This is proper since there is no excuse for permiing their use except possibly in existing one- and two-family dwellings where itis economically {impractical to add a secondary means of esvape. In this case, a tuilable rope or chain ladder or a folding metal ladder may be suitable, However, the homeowner should recognize that aged, infirm, very young, and physically handicapped persons cannot FIGURE 4.3.13 Exi tar Used as an Area of Refuge, ‘When stair landings are used as an area of refuge, the stairs are requited toe 48 in, (122m) between handrails to accommodate carrying persons in wheelchairs. LJ FIGURE 4.3. Areas of Refuge in Nonsprinklered New ‘Construction. In this case the story is subdivided by either a horizoatal exit ora I hour fice resistance rated stoke hati, Each sie ofthe barrier isan area of refuge forthe other side. Ifthe smoke bait is used the stairs are required (o be 48 in. (122 em) between handrails to acommodate carying persons in wheelchairs. use ladders and that, ifthe ladder passes near or over a window in alower floor, flames from the window can prevent the use of the ladder Windows Windows are not exits, They may be used as access to fire ¢s- capes in existing buildings if they meet certain criteria concern- ing the sizeof window opening and the height ofthe sill from the floor. Windows may be considered a means of escape from certain residential occupancies. Windows are required in school rooms subject to student cccupancy, unless the building is equipped with a standard au- tomatic sprinkler system, and in bedrooms and living areas in fone- and two-family dwellings that do not have two separate means of escape. These windows are for rescue and ventilation and must meet the criteria for size of opening, method of opera- tion, and height from the floor. EGRESS LIGHTING AND EXIT SIGNS Egress Lighting ‘In buildings where artificial lighting is provided for normal use, the illumination of the means of egress is required to ensure that occupants can evacuate the building quickly, The intensity of the illumination of the means of egress should be not less than 1 footcandle (10.77 lu's*) measured at the floor. Itis desit- able that such floor illumination be provided by light recessed i the wall and located approximately 1 ft (30.5 cm) above the ‘loor because such lights are then unlikely to be obscured by the smoke that might occur during a fre, In auditoriums and other places of assembly where mavies or other projections are shown, NFPA 10/ permits a reduetion in this illumination for the period of the projection to values of not less than 4 foot- candle (2.2 lwim?) Emergency Lighting NEPA 101 requites emergency power for illuminating the ‘means of egress in many occupancies. For exatmple, emergency lighting is required in assembly occupancies; in most educa- tional buildings; in health care facilities; in detention and cor- rectional facilities; in most hotels and apartinent buildings: in Class A and B mercantiles; in business buildings based on oceu- ‘pant load and number of stories: in most industrial and storage buildings: and in underground or windowless structures subject to occupancy by more than 100 persons. Well-designed emergency lighting using « source of power independent from the normal building service automatically provides the necessary illumination in the event of an interup- tion of power to normal lighting. The flute of the pubic uiity or other outside electric power supply, the opening of a circuit breaker or fuse, or any manual at, including accidental opening of switch controlling normal lighting facilities, should result in the automatic operstion of the emergency lighting system, Reliability of the exit illumination is most important NFPA 70, National Electrical Code®, details requirementsCHAPTER 3 Concepts of Egress Design 4-89 {or the installation of emergency lighting equipment. Battery operated electric lights and portable lights normally are not used for primary exit illumination, but they may be used as ‘an emergency source under the restrictions imposed by NEPA. 101, Luminescent, uorescent, of other reflective materials aze nota Substitute for required illumination, because they are not normally sufficiently intense to justify recognition as exit floor illumination, However, such items aze being used to supple- ‘ment emergency lighting. And, a is discussed under exit signs below, code-compliant luminescent exit signs are now being ‘manufactured, ‘Where electric battery-operated emergency lights ae used, suitable facilities are needed to keep the batteries properly charged. Automobile-type lead storage batteries are not si able because of their relatively shor life when not subject 10 Frequent recharge, Likewise, dey batteries have a limited life, and there ie a danger that they may not be replaced when they hhave deteriorated, If normal building lighting fails, well-eranged emergency lighting provides necessary floor illumination automatically, with no appreciable interruption of illumination during the changeover. Where a generator is provided, a delay of up to 10 seconds is considered tolerable, The norntal procedure is to provide such emergency lighting for « minimum period of hours, Most health care occupancies have self-contsined clectrie generating plants for emergency power supplies, not ‘aly for exit lighting but also for use inthe event of failure of the public utility, Where such emergency electric facilites are provided, they may supply power for emergency exit lighting, as well as other critical azeas of such buildings. Exit Signs All requized exits and access ways must be identified by readily visible signs where the exit or the way to teach itis not imme- diately visible to the occupants, Directional “EXIT” signs are required in locations where the direction of travel to the near cst exil is nol immediately apparent, The character of the accu: ancy will determin the actual need for such signs. In assembly ‘occupancies, hotels, department stores, and other buildings with ‘wansient populations, the need for signs will be greater than in ‘building with permanent or semipermanent populations. Even in permanent residental-occupancy buildings, signs are needed. to identify exit facilites, such as stats, that ate not used regu: larly during the normal occupancy of the building. Itis just as ‘important that doors, passageways, or stirs that are not exits but are so located or arranged that they may be mistaken for exits be identified by signs with the words “NO EXIT” Signs should be so located and of such size, color, and de sign as to be readily visible, Care should be taken not to ob- scure the visibility of these signs with decorations, furnishings, (or other building equipment, NFPA J0/ does not make any spe- cific requirement for sign color bat requires that signs be of a distinctive color. Some local codes do specify exit sign color NFPA 10/ specifies the size of the sign, the dimensions of the Jeers, and the levels of illumination for externally illuminated signs, For internally ilhuminsted signs, the code mandates com: pliance with UL 924, Standard for Emergency Lighting and Power Equipment, This performance-ated standard provides rods to ealate deren pes of ext ins nluing Iv Improvement in the physical matkng of exis in an office cecupancy wih peine-soure, redo green sucbe gh as been Suggested Placing coor luninaion on the wall close ote oor o provide etetve illumination under snoke conditions ase the practice in Japan ia ecniqu worthy of research ALARM SYSTEMS Fire alarm systems to alert occupants to leave the building are normally operated manually. The alarm-sounding devices them- selves should be distinctive in pitch and tone quality from all other sounding devices, and the use of these devices should be restricted to evacuation notification. Vocal alarm systems have been developed and installed in many high-rise buildings." NFPA 10] mandates voice alarm and communication systems in high-rise buildings. I is, of course, very important that ll alarm system devices be distributed throughout a building so as tobe heard effectively in every room above all other sounds. Visible, as well as audible, alarm devices are sometimes used in buildings. NEPA 101 permits flashing the exit signs with the activation of the fre alarm system. In new construction, vis- ible alarms must be provided in addition to sudible alarms in ‘most instances. Advances in alarm technology, such as direc- tional sounders, are now being used to assist people in finding the exits ‘The proper maintenance of alarm systems is most impor: tant, Alarm systems should be supervised by a responsible per- son Who will make the proper tests a specified intervals and will take charge of all alterations and additions tothe systems. EMERGENCY EGRESS AND RELOCATION DRILLS Emergency exit and relocation drills are essential in schools and are desirable in every type of occupancy to ensure familiar ity with the exits and their operation. In occupancies such as bospitals, nursing homes, hotels, and department stores, drills are usually imited to employee participation, without alarming patients, guests, or customers. Drills should be planned to get everyone out of the building orto an area of refuge in an orderly ‘manner, as promplly as possible. Fire fighting is always second- ary to life safety, and, in general, firefighting operations should not be started until the evacuation is completed, except in cases ‘here trained fire departments conduct rescue and fire-fighting ‘operations simultaneously. Drills should be held at least once a month or more often, but not at regularly scheduled periods. Drills should occur on all shifts in an occupancy operated 24 hours a day, They should simulate typical fire conditions for the occupancy. Drills, both with and without warning, are beneficial School emergency egress and relocation drills are an exer- cise in discipline, not speed, though reasonably prompt evacu- ation of a building is important. Students and staff should not be permitted to stop to put on coats. No individuals should be4-90 SECTION 4 © Human Factors in Emergencies Permitted to remain in the building, and no one should be ex- cused {rom participating in the drill. The drill should include a roll call by class at designated assembly areas outside the build- ing to make sure that no one has been left behind ‘There also should be an established routine for a complete check of the entire building, including toilets, to make sure that no one has been left behind, All exits should be used in drill, ‘but routes should be varied from dill to drill. Occasional drills should be eld that simulate conditions of an ext blocked by fire cor smoke, Al drills should simulate the fre department notitica- tion procedure. For a more detailed discussion of fre exit drill, see Chapter 1 ofthis section. MAINTENANCE OF THE. MEANS OF EGRESS. ‘The provision of a standard means of egress with adequate capacity does not guarantee the safety of the occupants in the event of an evaevation of any building. Means of egress that are ‘not properly maintained can mean loss of life in afte. Property managers usually asign definite responsibility for maintenance ‘of mechanical and electrical equipment but may fail to do the same for the means of egress. Asa result inspection authorities ray find olherwite safe stairways used as storage for materials during peak sales or manufacturing periods. In apartment build- ings, rubbish, baby carriages, and other obstructions are often found in stairway enclosures. Exit doors may be found locked or hardware in need of repair. Doors blocked open or removed from openings into stairway enclosures may permit rapid spread of smoke or hot gases throughout the building. Loose handrails and loose or slippery stair treads offer the dangerous probability that persons evacuating a building will fallin the path of others seeking escape. Maintaining the exit discharge free ofthe accu- ‘mulation of ice and snow in climates subject to such weather is very critical. Maintaining the means of egress in safe operating condition at all times is 3s important tothe prevention of loss of. life as the proper construction ofthe building and the elimins- tion of fie hazards SUMMARY Providing adequate means of egress is «key fire safety issue in both new buildings and existing facilities. NFPA 101 provides indepth coverage for providing adequate means of egress. For new constriction, many ofthe issues are also covered i build ing codes, including NFPA 5000. This chapter only introduces the subject. To more completely understand the subject, both the NEPA Life Sfety Code® Handbook an the SEPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering should be consulted. BIBLIOGRAPHY References Cited 1. Bryan, 1.B., "Behavioral Response to Fite and Smoke,” SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, Nationa Fie Protec- {on Assocation, Quiney, MA, 2002. 20. 2 Proulx, G,, "Movement of People: The Evacuation Timing, SEPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engincerng, National Fre Protection Association, Qiney, MA, 2002 Nelson, HE. and Moore, F W,, "Emergency Movement SEE Handbook of Fre Protection Engineering, National Pte Protection Asorition, Quincy, MA. 2002. ruin J.J. Pedesirian Planning and Design, Metropolitan As- seciaton of Urban Desigers and Eavironmeatal Planners ne, New York, 1977 Pauls, 1, "Movement of People in Building Bvacuations Human Response o Tall Buildings, Down, Hutchinson and Ross, Ine. Stroudsburg, PA, 1977 ‘Second Report ofthe Operational Research Team onthe Capac ity of Footways” Research Report No. 85, London Transport Board, London, UK, 1958 Pesls, JL, "Calculating Evacuation Times for Tall Buildings Fire Safery Journal, 1981, pp. 113-235, Pauls, FL, "The Movement of People in Buildings and Design Solutions for Means of ress,” Fire Technology, Vol 20, No 1986, pp. 27-47. Abbot I. C, "Fire Involving Upholstery Materials nat Vol. 65, No.4, 1971, p88, Lhcep, JK. eta, "In Osceola: A Mater of Contents" Fire Tournal, No. 68, No 3, 1975, pp. 20-26. Hall J.., Burns, Toxte Gases, ad Orher Hazards Associated ith Fires! National Fire Protection Assocation, Fite Analysis tnd Research Division, Quincy. MA. 1996, ‘Shary, A. “South Ameriea Burning." Fire Journel, Vo. 68, Nov, 1974 pp. 23-33, Best, R, and Demers, .P, "Fite atthe MGM Grand” Fire Tournal Nol 75, No, 1982, pp. 19-37 Powers, W.R, “New York Otic Building Fite,” Fire Journal Vol. 65, Ne. 11971, pp. 18-23, 87 Keating, IP, etal, Am Evaluation ofthe Federal High Rise Emergency Evacuation Procedures, Deparment of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, 1978. Peale, JL, "Evacuation and Other Fite Safety Measures in High-Rise Buldings” Research Paper No. 648, National Re secarch Council of Canada, Division of Building Research, Ot- tawa, 1975, Pauls, JL, "Management and Movement of Building Occupants in Emergencies,” Research Paper No. 748, National Research Council of Canada, Division of Building Research, Otawa, 1978, Philips, AW, "You and the High-Rise Building Fie” Tel: ony Report 741, Society of Fire Protection Enginests, Boson, 1978, Krasny, JF, etal, "Development ofa Candidate Tes Method for the Measuremeat of te Propensity of Cigarettes to Cause Smoldering Ignition of Upholstered Furiture and Mattvesss,” [NBSIR 81-2363, Center for Fite Reseach, National Bureau of Standards, Washington, DC, 1981 (CER Par 1623, Standard for the Flammability of Matresses and -Manirees Pads, FF=8-72, 40 FR 59940, US. Consumer Product, Safety Commision, Washington, DC, 1972, Bejan J-L-, "Human Behavir in the MGM Grand Hotel Fite” Fire Journal, Nol. 16, No.2, 1982, pp. 37-81, 44-8, Keating, JP, and Lofter, EE, “The Logic of Fire Besape,"Pay= chology Today, 1981, pp. 14-19. Keating, 1B, “The Myth of Panic” Fire Journal, Vol. 76, No.3, 1982, pp. 57-51, 147, Shaty, A. "Real-Wodld Problems with Zoned Evacuation’ Fire Journal Vol. 71, No.2, 1983, pp. 32-33, 55. Macdonald, J N.,Non-Bvacuation in Comparmmented Fie Recieve Buildings Can Save Lives and Mater Sense, 8th NFPA Annual Mecting, New Orleans, LA, May 28,1984 Cohn, B.M., Study of Human Engincering Considerations in Emergency Eutng from Secure Spaces, Gage Babcock & Asso~ ciation, Ine, Chicago, 1978 Fire Jour:CHAPTER 3 Concepts of Egress Design 4-91 [NFPA Codes, Standards, and Recommended Practices Reference tothe following NEPA codes, standards, and recommended ‘practices will prove further information on concepts of egres design ‘iscusred i thi chapter (See the latert version of The NFPA Catalog Jor avallabilty of current editions of he following documents.) NEPA 1, Uniform Fire Code NEPA 13, Standard for Installation of Sprinkler Systeme [NEPA 10, Navional Electrical Code™ NEPA 80, Standard or Fire Doors and Other Opening Protectves NEPA 107°, Life Safety Code® NEPA IOLA, Guide om Alteative Approaches to Life Safery NEPA 253, Standard Method of Tet for Critical Radiant Flu of Floor Covering Systems Using a Radiant Heat Energy Source [BPA 255, Standard Method of Test of Surface Burning Characters. His of Building Materials [NEPA 260, Standard Methods of Tests and Clasifiation System for CCigareste Ignition Resistance of Components of Uphalatered Parniture [NEPA 261, Standard Method of Tet for Determining Resistance of ‘Mock Up Upholstered Furniture Material Assemblies to Ignition dy Smoldering Cigareter [NFPA 286, Standard Methods of Fee Tests for Evaluating Contrib sion of Wall and Ceiling Interior Finish to Room Fire Grovah [NEPA 914, Code for Fire Protection of Historic Sractures [NEPA 3000, Bulding Construction and Safry Code™ References “Design and Construction of Building Exits” Miscellaneous Publica tion MSI, 1935, National Bure of Standards, Washington, DC, pp 30-87 (Out af pint) UL9DA, Standard for Emergency Lighting and Power Equipment