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System overview
This article is about the physiological components involved in vision. For the ability to interpret the surrounding environment, see Visual perception.
Structure "Visual sensor" redirects here. For electronic visual sensors, see Visual sensor network.
Development "Visual" redirects here. For the album, see Visual (album).

Other functions The visual system is the physiological basis of visual perception (the ability to detect and process light).
Visual system
The system detects, transduces and interprets information concerning light within the visible range to
Clinical significance
construct an image and build a mental model of the surrounding environment. The visual system is
Other animals associated with the eye and functionally divided into the optical system (including cornea and lens) and the
History neural system (including the retina and visual cortex).

See also The visual system performs a number of complex tasks based on the image forming functionality of the
References eye, including the formation of monocular images, the neural mechanisms underlying stereopsis and
assessment of distances to (depth perception) and between objects, motion perception, pattern
Further reading
recognition, accurate motor coordination under visual guidance, and colour vision. Together, these facilitate
External links higher order tasks, such as object identification. The neuropsychological side of visual information
The visual system includes the eyes, the
processing is known as visual perception, an abnormality of which is called visual impairment, and a
connecting pathways through to the visual
complete absence of which is called blindness. The visual system also has several non-image forming cortex and other parts of the brain (human
visual functions, independent of visual perception, including the pupillary light reflex and circadian system shown).
photoentrainment.

This article describes the human visual system, which is representative of mammalian vision, and to a
lesser extent the vertebrate visual system.

System overview [ edit ]

The eye is the sensory organ of the visual

Optical [ edit ]
system. The iris, pupil, and sclera are visible
Together, the cornea and lens refract light into a small image and shine it on the retina. The retina Identifiers
transduces this image into electrical pulses using rods and cones. The optic nerve then carries these FMA 7191
pulses through the optic canal. Upon reaching the optic chiasm the nerve fibers decussate (left becomes Anatomical terminology
right). The fibers then branch and terminate in three places.[1][2][3][4][5][6][7] [edit on Wikidata]

Neural [ edit ]

Most of the optic nerve fibers end in the lateral geniculate

nucleus (LGN). Before the LGN forwards the pulses to V1
of the visual cortex (primary) it gauges the range of objects
and tags every major object with a velocity tag. These tags
predict object movement.

The LGN also sends some fibers to V2 and

V3.[8][9][10][11][12]

V1 performs edge-detection to understand spatial

Representation of optic pathways from each of the
organization (initially, 40 milliseconds in, focusing on even
4 quadrants of view for both eyes simultaneously
small spatial and color changes. Then, 100 milliseconds in,
upon receiving the translated LGN, V2, and V3 info, also
begins focusing on global organization). V1 also creates a bottom-up saliency map to guide attention or gaze
shift.[13]

V2 both forwards (direct and via pulvinar) pulses to V1 and receives them. Pulvinar is responsible for saccade
and visual attention. V2 serves much the same function as V1, however, it also handles illusory contours,
determining depth by comparing left and right pulses (2D images), and foreground distinguishment. V2 connects This diagram linearly (unless
to V1 - V5. otherwise mentioned) tracks the
projections of all known structures that
allow for vision to their relevant
V3 helps process 'global motion' (direction and speed) of objects. V3 connects to V1 (weak), V2, and the inferior
endpoints in the human brain. Click to
temporal cortex.[14][15] enlarge the image.

V4 recognizes simple shapes, and gets input from V1 (strong), V2, V3, LGN, and pulvinar.[16] V5's outputs
include V4 and its surrounding area, and eye-movement motor cortices (frontal eye-field and lateral intraparietal area).

V5's functionality is similar to that of the other V's, however, it integrates local object motion into global motion on a complex level. V6 works in
conjunction with V5 on motion analysis. V5 analyzes self-motion, whereas V6 analyzes motion of objects relative to the background. V6's primary input is
V1, with V5 additions. V6 houses the topographical map for vision. V6 outputs to the region directly around it (V6A). V6A has direct connections to arm-
moving cortices, including the premotor cortex.[17][18]

The inferior temporal gyrus recognizes complex shapes, objects, and faces or, in conjunction with the hippocampus, creates new memories.[19] The
pretectal area is seven unique nuclei. Anterior, posterior and medial pretectal nuclei inhibit pain (indirectly), aid in REM, and aid the accommodation
reflex, respectively.[20] The Edinger-Westphal nucleus moderates pupil dilation and aids (since it provides parasympathetic fibers) in convergence of the
eyes and lens adjustment.[21] Nuclei of the optic tract are involved in smooth pursuit eye movement and the accommodation reflex, as well as REM.

The suprachiasmatic nucleus is the region of the hypothalamus that halts production of melatonin (indirectly) at first light.[22]

Structure [ edit ]

The eye, especially the retina

The optic nerve
The optic chiasma
The optic tract
The lateral geniculate body
The optic radiation
The visual cortex
The visual association cortex.

These are components of the visual pathway also called the optic pathway [23] that can be
divided into anterior and posterior visual pathways. The anterior visual pathway refers to structures
involved in vision before the lateral geniculate nucleus. The posterior visual pathway refers to
structures after this point.

Eye [ edit ]
The human eye (horizontal section)
Main articles: Eye and Anterior segment of eyeball The image projected onto the retina is inverted due to
the optics of the eye.
Light entering the eye is refracted as it passes through the cornea. It then passes through the pupil
(controlled by the iris) and is further refracted by the lens. The cornea and lens act together as a
compound lens to project an inverted image onto the retina.

Retina [ edit ]
Main article: Retina

The retina consists of many photoreceptor cells which contain particular protein molecules called opsins. In
humans, two types of opsins are involved in conscious vision: rod opsins and cone opsins. (A third type,
melanopsin in some retinal ganglion cells (RGC), part of the body clock mechanism, is probably not involved in
conscious vision, as these RGC do not project to the lateral geniculate nucleus but to the pretectal olivary
nucleus.[24]) An opsin absorbs a photon (a particle of light) and transmits a signal to the cell through a signal
transduction pathway, resulting in hyper-polarization of the photoreceptor.

Rods and cones differ in function. Rods are found primarily in the periphery of the retina and are used to see at
low levels of light. Each human eye contains 120 million rods. Cones are found primarily in the center (or fovea)
of the retina.[25] There are three types of cones that differ in the wavelengths of light they absorb; they are
usually called short or blue, middle or green, and long or red. Cones mediate day vision and can distinguish color
and other features of the visual world at medium and high light levels. Cones are larger and much less numerous
than rods (there are 6-7 million of them in each human eye).[25]
S. Ramón y Cajal, Structure of the
Mammalian Retina, 1900 In the retina, the photoreceptors synapse directly onto bipolar cells, which in turn synapse onto ganglion cells of
the outermost layer, which then conduct action potentials to the brain. A significant amount of visual processing
arises from the patterns of communication between neurons in the retina. About 130 million photo-receptors
absorb light, yet roughly 1.2 million axons of ganglion cells transmit information from the retina to the brain. The processing in the retina includes the
formation of center-surround receptive fields of bipolar and ganglion cells in the retina, as well as convergence and divergence from photoreceptor to
bipolar cell. In addition, other neurons in the retina, particularly horizontal and amacrine cells, transmit information laterally (from a neuron in one layer to
an adjacent neuron in the same layer), resulting in more complex receptive fields that can be either indifferent to color and sensitive to motion or
sensitive to color and indifferent to motion.[26]

Mechanism of generating visual signals [ edit ]

The retina adapts to change in light through the use of the rods. In the dark, the chromophore retinal has a bent shape called cis-retinal (referring to a cis
conformation in one of the double bonds). When light interacts with the retinal, it changes conformation to a straight form called trans-retinal and breaks
away from the opsin. This is called bleaching because the purified rhodopsin changes from violet to colorless in the light. At baseline in the dark, the
rhodopsin absorbs no light and releases glutamate, which inhibits the bipolar cell. This inhibits the release of neurotransmitters from the bipolar cells to
the ganglion cell. When there is light present, glutamate secretion ceases, thus no longer inhibiting the bipolar cell from releasing neurotransmitters to the
ganglion cell and therefore an image can be detected.[27][28]

The final result of all this processing is five different populations of ganglion cells that send visual (image-forming and non-image-forming) information to
the brain:[26]

1. M cells, with large center-surround receptive fields that are sensitive to depth, indifferent to color, and rapidly adapt to a stimulus;
2. P cells, with smaller center-surround receptive fields that are sensitive to color and shape;
3. K cells, with very large center-only receptive fields that are sensitive to color and indifferent to shape or depth;
4. another population that is intrinsically photosensitive; and
5. a final population that is used for eye movements.[26]

A 2006 University of Pennsylvania study calculated the approximate bandwidth of human retinas to be about 8960 kilobits per second, whereas guinea
pig retinas transfer at about 875 kilobits.[29]

In 2007 Zaidi and co-researchers on both sides of the Atlantic studying patients without rods and cones, discovered that the novel photoreceptive
ganglion cell in humans also has a role in conscious and unconscious visual perception.[30] The peak spectral sensitivity was 481 nm. This shows that
there are two pathways for vision in the retina – one based on classic photoreceptors (rods and cones) and the other, newly discovered, based on photo-
receptive ganglion cells which act as rudimentary visual brightness detectors.

Photochemistry [ edit ]
Main article: Visual cycle

The functioning of a camera is often compared with the workings of the eye, mostly since both focus light from external objects in the field of view onto a
light-sensitive medium. In the case of the camera, this medium is film or an electronic sensor; in the case of the eye, it is an array of visual receptors.
With this simple geometrical similarity, based on the laws of optics, the eye functions as a transducer, as does a CCD camera.

In the visual system, retinal, technically called retinene1 or "retinaldehyde", is a light-sensitive molecule found in the rods and cones of the retina. Retinal
is the fundamental structure involved in the transduction of light into visual signals, i.e. nerve impulses in the ocular system of the central nervous
system. In the presence of light, the retinal molecule changes configuration and as a result, a nerve impulse is generated.[26]

Optic nerve [ edit ]

Main article: Optic nerve

The information about the image via the eye is transmitted to the brain along the optic nerve. Different
populations of ganglion cells in the retina send information to the brain through the optic nerve. About 90% of the
axons in the optic nerve go to the lateral geniculate nucleus in the thalamus. These axons originate from the M,
P, and K ganglion cells in the retina, see above. This parallel processing is important for reconstructing the visual
world; each type of information will go through a different route to perception. Another population sends
information to the superior colliculus in the midbrain, which assists in controlling eye movements (saccades)[31]
as well as other motor responses.

A final population of photosensitive ganglion cells, containing melanopsin for photosensitivity, sends information
via the retinohypothalamic tract to the pretectum (pupillary reflex), to several structures involved in the control of
circadian rhythms and sleep such as the suprachiasmatic nucleus (the biological clock), and to the ventrolateral
preoptic nucleus (a region involved in sleep regulation).[32] A recently discovered role for photoreceptive ganglion
cells is that they mediate conscious and unconscious vision – acting as rudimentary visual brightness detectors Information flow from the eyes
(top), crossing at the optic chiasma,
as shown in rodless coneless eyes.[30]
joining left and right eye information in
the optic tract, and layering left and
Optic chiasm [ edit ] right visual stimuli in the lateral
geniculate nucleus. V1 in red at bottom
Main article: Optic chiasm of image. (1543 image from Andreas
Vesalius' Fabrica)
The optic nerves from both eyes meet and cross at the optic chiasm,[33][34] at the base of the hypothalamus of
the brain. At this point, the information coming from both eyes is combined and then splits according to the visual
field. The corresponding halves of the field of view (right and left) are sent to the left and right halves of the brain, respectively, to be processed. That is,
the right side of primary visual cortex deals with the left half of the field of view from both eyes, and similarly for the left brain.[31] A small region in the
center of the field of view is processed redundantly by both halves of the brain.

Optic tract [ edit ]

Main article: Optic tract

Information from the right visual field (now on the left side of the brain) travels in the left optic tract. Information from the left visual field travels in the right
optic tract. Each optic tract terminates in the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) in the thalamus.

Lateral geniculate nucleus [ edit ]

Main article: Lateral geniculate nucleus

The lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) is a sensory relay nucleus in the thalamus of the brain. The LGN consists of
six layers in humans and other primates starting from catarrhines, including cercopithecidae and apes. Layers 1, 4,
and 6 correspond to information from the contralateral (crossed) fibers of the nasal retina (temporal visual field);
layers 2, 3, and 5 correspond to information from the ipsilateral (uncrossed) fibers of the temporal retina (nasal
visual field). Layer one contains M cells, which correspond to the M (magnocellular) cells of the optic nerve of the
Six layers in the LGN opposite eye and are concerned with depth or motion. Layers four and six of the LGN also connect to the opposite
eye, but to the P cells (color and edges) of the optic nerve. By contrast, layers two, three and five of the LGN
connect to the M cells and P (parvocellular) cells of the optic nerve for the same side of the brain as its respective
LGN. Spread out, the six layers of the LGN are the area of a credit card and about three times its thickness. The LGN is rolled up into two ellipsoids
about the size and shape of two small birds' eggs. In between the six layers are smaller cells that receive information from the K cells (color) in the retina.
The neurons of the LGN then relay the visual image to the primary visual cortex (V1) which is located at the back of the brain (posterior end) in the
occipital lobe in and close to the calcarine sulcus. The LGN is not just a simple relay station, but it is also a center for processing; it receives reciprocal
input from the cortical and subcortical layers and reciprocal innervation from the visual cortex.[26]

Optic radiation [ edit ]

Main article: Optic radiation

The optic radiations, one on each side of the brain, carry information from the thalamic lateral geniculate nucleus
to layer 4 of the visual cortex. The P layer neurons of the LGN relay to V1 layer 4C β. The M layer neurons relay to
V1 layer 4C α. The K layer neurons in the LGN relay to large neurons called blobs in layers 2 and 3 of V1.[26]

There is a direct correspondence from an angular position in the visual field of the eye, all the way through the optic
tract to a nerve position in V1 (up to V4, i.e. the primary visual areas. After that, the visual pathway is roughly
separated into a ventral and dorsal pathway).

Visual cortex [ edit ]

Main article: Visual cortex

Scheme of the optic tract with
image being decomposed on the
The visual cortex is the largest system in the human brain and is responsible
way, up to simple cortical cells for processing the visual image. It lies at the rear of the brain (highlighted in the
(simplified) image), above the cerebellum. The region that receives information directly
from the LGN is called the primary visual cortex, (also called V1 and striate
cortex). It creates a bottom-up saliency map of the visual field to guide attention or eye gaze to salient visual
locations,[35] hence selection of visual input information by attention starts at V1[36] along the visual pathway. Visual
information then flows through a cortical hierarchy. These areas include V2, V3, V4 and area V5/MT (the exact
connectivity depends on the species of the animal). These secondary visual areas (collectively termed the
Visual cortex:
extrastriate visual cortex) process a wide variety of visual primitives. Neurons in V1 and V2 respond selectively to V1; V2; V3; V4; V5 (also called MT)
bars of specific orientations, or combinations of bars. These are believed to support edge and corner detection.
Similarly, basic information about color and motion is processed here.[37]

Heider, et al. (2002) have found that neurons involving V1, V2, and V3 can detect stereoscopic illusory contours; they found that stereoscopic stimuli
subtending up to 8° can activate these neurons.[38]

Visual association cortex [ edit ]

Main article: Two-streams hypothesis

As visual information passes forward through the visual hierarchy, the complexity of the neural representations
increases. Whereas a V1 neuron may respond selectively to a line segment of a particular orientation in a
particular retinotopic location, neurons in the lateral occipital complex respond selectively to complete object
(e.g., a figure drawing), and neurons in visual association cortex may respond selectively to human faces, or to a
particular object.

Along with this increasing complexity of neural representation may come a level of specialization of processing
into two distinct pathways: the dorsal stream and the ventral stream (the Two Streams hypothesis,[39] first
proposed by Ungerleider and Mishkin in 1982). The dorsal stream, commonly referred to as the "where" stream, Visual cortex is active even during
is involved in spatial attention (covert and overt), and communicates with regions that control eye movements resting state fMRI.
and hand movements. More recently, this area has been called the "how" stream to emphasize its role in guiding
behaviors to spatial locations. The ventral stream, commonly referred to as the "what" stream, is involved in the
recognition, identification and categorization of visual stimuli.

However, there is still much debate about the degree of specialization within these two pathways, since they are
in fact heavily interconnected.[40]

Horace Barlow proposed the efficient coding hypothesis in 1961 as a theoretical model of sensory coding in the
brain.[41] Limitations in the applicability of this theory in the primary visual cortex (V1) motivated the V1
Saliency Hypothesis that V1 creates a bottom-up saliency map to guide attention exogenously.[35] With
attentional selection as a center stage, vision is seen as composed of encoding, selection, and decoding
Intraparietal sulcus (red)
stages.[42]

The default mode network is a network of brain regions that are active when an individual is awake and at rest. The visual system's default mode can be
monitored during resting state fMRI: Fox, et al. (2005) have found that "The human brain is intrinsically organized into dynamic, anticorrelated functional
networks'" ,[43] in which the visual system switches from resting state to attention.

In the parietal lobe, the lateral and ventral intraparietal cortex are involved in visual attention and saccadic eye movements. These regions are in the
Intraparietal sulcus (marked in red in the adjacent image).

Development [ edit ]

Infancy [ edit ]

See also: Infant vision

Newborn infants have limited color perception.[44] One study found that 74% of newborns can distinguish red, 36% green, 25% yellow, and 14% blue.
After one month, performance "improved somewhat."[45] Infant's eyes do not have the ability to accommodate. The pediatricians are able to perform non-
verbal testing to assess visual acuity of a newborn, detect nearsightedness and astigmatism, and evaluate the eye teaming and alignment. Visual acuity
improves from about 20/400 at birth to approximately 20/25 at 6 months of age. All this is happening because the nerve cells in their retina and brain that
control vision are not fully developed.

Childhood and adolescence [ edit ]

Depth perception, focus, tracking and other aspects of vision continue to develop throughout early and middle childhood. From recent studies in the
United States and Australia there is some evidence that the amount of time school aged children spend outdoors, in natural light, may have some impact
on whether they develop myopia. The condition tends to get somewhat worse through childhood and adolescence, but stabilizes in adulthood. More
prominent myopia (nearsightedness) and astigmatism are thought to be inherited. Children with this condition may need to wear glasses.

Adulthood [ edit ]

Vision is often one of the first senses affected by aging. A number of changes occur with aging:

Over time, the lens become yellowed and may eventually become brown, a condition known as brunescence or brunescent cataract. Although many
factors contribute to yellowing, lifetime exposure to ultraviolet light and aging are two main causes.
The lens becomes less flexible, diminishing the ability to accommodate (presbyopia).
While a healthy adult pupil typically has a size range of 2–8 mm, with age the range gets smaller, trending towards a moderately small diameter.
On average tear production declines with age. However, there are a number of age-related conditions that can cause excessive tearing.

Other functions [ edit ]

Balance [ edit ]

Along with proprioception and vestibular function, the visual system plays an important role in the ability of an individual to control balance and maintain
an upright posture. When these three conditions are isolated and balance is tested, it has been found that vision is the most significant contributor to
balance, playing a bigger role than either of the two other intrinsic mechanisms.[46] The clarity with which an individual can see his environment, as well
as the size of the visual field, the susceptibility of the individual to light and glare, and poor depth perception play important roles in providing a feedback
loop to the brain on the body's movement through the environment. Anything that affects any of these variables can have a negative effect on balance
and maintaining posture.[47] This effect has been seen in research involving elderly subjects when compared to young controls,[48] in glaucoma patients
compared to age matched controls,[49] cataract patients pre and post surgery,[50] and even something as simple as wearing safety goggles.[51]
Monocular vision (one eyed vision) has also been shown to negatively impact balance, which was seen in the previously referenced cataract and
glaucoma studies,[49][50] as well as in healthy children and adults.[52]

According to Pollock et al. (2010) stroke is the main cause of specific visual impairment, most frequently visual field loss (homonymous hemianopia, a
visual field defect). Nevertheless, evidence for the efficacy of cost-effective interventions aimed at these visual field defects is still inconsistent.[53]

Clinical significance [ edit ]

Proper function of the visual system is required for sensing, processing, and understanding
the surrounding environment. Difficulty in sensing, processing and understanding light input
has the potential to adversely impact an individual's ability to communicate, learn and
effectively complete routine tasks on a daily basis.

In children, early diagnosis and treatment of impaired visual system function is an important
factor in ensuring that key social, academic and speech/language developmental
milestones are met.

Cataract is clouding of the lens, which in turn affects vision. Although it may be
accompanied by yellowing, clouding and yellowing can occur separately. This is typically a
result of ageing, disease, or drug use.

Presbyopia is a visual condition that causes farsightedness. The eye's lens becomes too
inflexible to accommodate to normal reading distance, focus tending to remain fixed at long
distance.

Glaucoma is a type of blindness that begins at the edge of the visual field and progresses
inward. It may result in tunnel vision. This typically involves the outer layers of the optic Visual pathway lesions
From top to bottom:
nerve, sometimes as a result of buildup of fluid and excessive pressure in the eye.[54]
1. Complete loss of vision, right eye
2. Bitemporal hemianopia
Scotoma is a type of blindness that produces a small blind spot in the visual field typically 3. Homonymous hemianopsia
caused by injury in the primary visual cortex. 4. Quadrantanopia
5&6. Quadrantanopia with macular sparing
Homonymous hemianopia is a type of blindness that destroys one entire side of the visual
field typically caused by injury in the primary visual cortex.

Quadrantanopia is a type of blindness that destroys only a part of the visual field typically caused by partial injury in the primary visual cortex. This is very
similar to homonymous hemianopia, but to a lesser degree.

Prosopagnosia, or face blindness, is a brain disorder that produces an inability to recognize faces. This disorder often arises after damage to the fusiform
face area.

Visual agnosia, or visual-form agnosia, is a brain disorder that produces an inability to recognize objects. This disorder often arises after damage to the
ventral stream.

Other animals [ edit ]

See also: Eye, Vision in birds, Parietal eye, Vision in fish, Arthropod visual system, and Cephalopod eye

Different species are able to see different parts of the light spectrum; for example, bees can see into the ultraviolet,[55] while pit vipers can accurately
target prey with their pit organs, which are sensitive to infrared radiation.[56] The mantis shrimp possesses arguably the most complex visual system of
any species. The eye of the mantis shrimp holds 16 color receptive cones, whereas humans only have three. The variety of cones enables them to
perceive an enhanced array of colors as a mechanism for mate selection, avoidance of predators, and detection of prey.[57] Swordfish also possess an
impressive visual system. The eye of a swordfish can generate heat to better cope with detecting their prey at depths of 2000 feet.[58] Certain one-celled
microorganisms, the warnowiid dinoflagellates have eye-like ocelloids, with analogous structures for the lens and retina of the multi-cellular eye.[59] The
armored shell of the chiton Acanthopleura granulata is also covered with hundreds of aragonite crystalline eyes, named ocelli, which can form images.[60]

Many fan worms, such as Acromegalomma interruptum which live in tubes on the sea floor of the Great Barrier Reef, have evolved compound eyes on
their tentacles, which they use to detect encroaching movement. If movement is detected, the fan worms will rapidly withdraw their tentacles. Bok, et al.,
have discovered opsins and G proteins in the fan worm's eyes, which were previously only seen in simple ciliary photoreceptors in the brains of some
invertebrates, as opposed to the rhabdomeric receptors in the eyes of most invertebrates.[61]

Only higher primate Old World (African) monkeys and apes (macaques, apes, orangutans) have the same kind of three-cone photoreceptor color vision
humans have, while lower primate New World (South American) monkeys (spider monkeys, squirrel monkeys, cebus monkeys) have a two-cone
photoreceptor kind of color vision.[62]

History [ edit ]

In the second half of the 19th century, many motifs of the nervous system were identified such as the neuron doctrine and brain localization, which
related to the neuron being the basic unit of the nervous system and functional localisation in the brain, respectively. These would become tenets of the
fledgling neuroscience and would support further understanding of the visual system.

The notion that the cerebral cortex is divided into functionally distinct cortices now known to be responsible for capacities such as touch (somatosensory
cortex), movement (motor cortex), and vision (visual cortex), was first proposed by Franz Joseph Gall in 1810.[63] Evidence for functionally distinct areas
of the brain (and, specifically, of the cerebral cortex) mounted throughout the 19th century with discoveries by Paul Broca of the language center (1861),
and Gustav Fritsch and Eduard Hitzig of the motor cortex (1871).[63][64] Based on selective damage to parts of the brain and the functional effects of the
resulting lesions, David Ferrier proposed that visual function was localized to the parietal lobe of the brain in 1876.[64] In 1881, Hermann Munk more
accurately located vision in the occipital lobe, where the primary visual cortex is now known to be.[64]

In 2014, a textbook "Understanding vision: theory, models, and data" [42] illustrates how to link neurobiological data and visual behavior/psychological
data through theoretical principles and computational models.

See also [ edit ]

Achromatopsia Magnocellular cell

Akinetopsia Memory-prediction framework
Apperceptive agnosia Prosopagnosia
Associative visual agnosia Scotopic sensitivity syndrome
Asthenopia Recovery from blindness
Astigmatism Visual agnosia
Color blindness Visual modularity
Echolocation Visual perception
Computer vision Visual processing
Helmholtz–Kohlrausch effect – how color balance affects vision

References [ edit ]

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Further reading [ edit ]

Davison JA, Patel AS, Cunha JP, Schwiegerling J, Muftuoglu O (July 2011). "Recent studies provide an updated clinical perspective on blue light-
filtering IOLs" . Graefes Arch. Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol. 249 (7): 957–68. doi:10.1007/s00417-011-1697-6 . PMC 3124647 . PMID 21584764 .
Hatori M, Panda S (October 2010). "The emerging roles of melanopsin in behavioral adaptation to light" . Trends Mol Med. 16 (10): 435–46.
doi:10.1016/j.molmed.2010.07.005 . PMC 2952704 . PMID 20810319 .
Heiting, G., (2011). Your infant's vision Development. Retrieved February 27, 2012 from http://www.allaboutvision.com/parents/infants.htm
Hubel, David H. (1995). Eye, brain, and vision. New York: Scientific American Library. ISBN 978-0-7167-6009-2. OCLC 32806252 .
Kolb B, Whishaw I (2012). Introduction to Brain and Behaviour Fourth Edition. New York: Worth Publishers. ISBN 978-1-4292-4228-8.
OCLC 918592547 .
Marr, David; Ullman, Shimon; Poggio, Tomaso (2010). Vision: A Computational Investigation into the Human Representation and Processing of Visual
Information. Cambridge, Mass: The MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-51462-0. OCLC 472791457 .
Rodiek, R.W. (1988). "The Primate Retina". Comparative Primate Biology. Neurosciences. New York: A.R. Liss. 4.. (H.D. Steklis and J. Erwin,
editors.) pp. 203–278.
Schmolesky, Matthew (1995). "The Primary Visual Cortex" . NIH National Library of Medicine. PMID 21413385 .
The Aging Eye; See into Your future. (2009). Retrieved February 27, 2012 from https://web.archive.org/web/20111117045917/http://www.realage.com/
check-your-health/eye-health/aging-eye
Tovée, Martin J. (2008). An introduction to the visual system. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-88319-1.
OCLC 185026571 .
Vesalius, Andreas (1543). De Humani Corporis Fabrica [On the Workings of the Human Body].
Wiesel, Torsten; Hubel, David H. (1963). "The effects of visual deprivation on the morphology and physiology of cell's lateral geniculate body". Journal
of Neurophysiology. 26 (6): 978–993. doi:10.1152/jn.1963.26.6.978 . PMID 14084170 . S2CID 16117515 ..

External links [ edit ]

"Webvision: The Organization of the Retina and Visual System" – John Moran Eye Center at University of Utah
VisionScience.com – An online resource for researchers in vision science.
Journal of Vision – An online, open access journal of vision science.
i-Perception – An online, open access journal of perception science.
Hagfish research has found the "missing link" in the evolution of the eye. See: Nature Reviews Neuroscience.
Valentin Dragoi. "Chapter 14: Visual Processing: Eye and Retina" . Neuroscience Online, the Open-Access Neuroscience Electronic Textbook. The
University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston (UTHealth). Archived from the original on 1 November 2017. Retrieved 27 April 2014.

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Categories: Visual system Sensory systems

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