Learning material

Unit-1

Lecture:-1

Theory
Soil quality and health, Distribution of Waste land and problem soils in India. Their categorization based
on properties. Reclamation and management of Saline and sodic soils, Acid soils, Acid Sulphate soils,
Eroded and Compacted soils, Flooded soils, Polluted soils. Irrigation water – quality and standards,
utilization of saline water in agriculture. Remote sensing and GIS in diagnosis and management of
problem soils.Multipurpose tree species, bio remediation through MPTs of soils, land capability and
classification, land suitability classification. Problematic soils under different Agroeco systems.

Soil Quality Concepts

Soil quality is how well soil does what we want it to do. More specifically, soil quality is the capacity of a
specific kind of soil to function, within natural or managed ecosystem boundaries,to sustain plant and
animal productivity, maintain or enhance water and air quality, and support human health and habitation.
Soil Organic Matter and Soil Biology play a major role in soil Quality.

People have different ideas of what a quality soil is. For example:
For people active in production agriculture, it may mean highly productive land, sustaining or enhancing
productivity, maximizing profits, or maintaining the soil resource for future generations.
 For consumers, it may mean plentiful, healthful, and inexpensive food for present and future
generations.
 For naturalists, it may mean soil in harmony with the landscape and its surroundings.
 For the environmentalist, it may mean soil functioning at its potential in an ecosystem with
respect to maintenance or enhancement of biodiversity, water quality, nutrient cycling, and
biomass production.

The Inherent and Dynamic Qualities of Soil

Soil has both inherent and dynamic qualities. Inherent soil quality is a soil’s natural ability to
function. For example, sandy soil drains faster than clayey soil. Deep soil has more room for roots than
soils with bedrock near the surface. These characteristics do not change easily. Dynamic soil quality is
how soil changes depending on how it is managed. Management choices affect the amount of soil organic
matter, soil structure, soil depth, and water and nutrient holding capacity. One goal of soil quality
research is to learn how to manage soil in a way that improves soil function. Soils respond differently to
management depending on the inherent properties of the soil and surrounding landscape.

Ecological definition of soil quality

“Defining and Assessing Soil Quality” (SSSA Special Pub. #35):- – The capacity of soil tofunction,
within land use and ecosystem boundaries, to sustain biological (plant and animal) productivity, maintain
(or enhance) environmental (water and air) quality, and promote plant, animal and human health”.

Soil Health
The soil health refers to self-regulation, stability, resilience, and lack of stress symptoms in a soil as an
ecosystem. Soil health describes the biological integrity of the soil community-the balance among
organisms within a soil and between soil organisms and their environment."

Soil Quality vs Soil Health • “The terms soil quality and soil health are often used interchangeably”
(“Methods for Assessing Soil Quality),but noted preferences:- – Producers prefer “soil health”, which
portrays soil as a living,dynamic organism that functions holistically rather than an inanimate mixture of
sand, silt and clay. • Characterized on the basis of descriptive and qualitative properties. – Soil
scientistsprefer “soil quality”, which describes quantifiable physical, chemical and biological
characteristics. • To scientists, soil “health” requires value judgements.

Soil Quality Indicators: Measures of Soil Functional State

Scientists use soil quality indicators to evaluate how well soil functions since soil function oftencannot be
directly measured. Measuring soil quality is an exercise in identifying soil propertiesthat are responsive to
management, affect or correlate with environmental outcomes, and arecapable of being precisely
measured within certain technical and economic constraints. Soilquality indicators may be qualitative
(e.g. drainage is fast) or quantitative (infiltration= 2.5 in/hr).

Ideal indicators should:

1)correlate well with ecosystem processes
2)Integrate soil physical, chemical, and biological properties & processes
3) be accessible to many users
4) be sensitive to management & climate
5) be components of existing databases
6) be interpretable

Difference in simplest form : Soil health is the status of soil , while soil quality is theservice , soil is
providing towards the plant .

Selected indicator Rationale for selection

Organic matter Defines soil fertility and soil structure, pesticide and waterretention, and use in process
models
Topsoil-depth Estimate rooting volume for crop production and erosionAggregation Soil structure,
erosion resistance, crop emergence an earlyindicator of soil management effectTexture Retention and
transport of water and chemicals, modeling useBulk density Plant root penetration, porosity, adjust
analysis to volumetric basisInfiltration Runoff, leaching and erosion potentialpH Nutrient availability,
pesticide absorption and mobility, process modelsEC Defines crop growth, soil structure, water
infiltration; presently
lacking in most process modelsSuspected pollutants Plant quality, and human and animal healthSoil
respiration Biological activity, process modeling; estimate of biomass activity, early warning of
managementeffect on organic matterForms of N Availability of crops, leaching potential, mineralization/
immobilizationrates, process modelingExtractable N, P and K Capacity to support plant growth,
environmental quality indicator.

Healthy Soil for Life

Soil health, also referred to as soil quality, is defined as the continued capacity of soil to functionas a vital
living ecosystem that sustains plants, animals, and humans. This definition speaks to the importance of
managing soils so they are sustainable for future generations. To do this, weneed to remember that soil
contains living organisms that when provided the basic necessitiesof life - food, shelter, and water -
perform functions required to produce food and fiber.The term soil health is used to describe the state of a
soil in:

Sustaining plant and animal productivity and biodiversity (Soil biodiversity);

Maintaining or enhance water and air quality;
Supporting human health and habitation
Healthy soil gives us clean air and water, bountiful crops and forests, productive grazing lands,diverse
wildlife, and beautiful landscapes. Soil does all this by performing five essentialfunctions:
Regulating water - Soil helps control where rain, snowmelt, and irrigation water goes.Water and
dissolved solutes flow over the land or into and through the soil.
Sustaining plant and animal life - The diversity and productivity of living things dependson soil.
Filtering and buffering potential pollutants - The minerals and microbes in soil are responsible for
filtering, buffering, degrading, immobilizing, and detoxifying organic andinorganic materials, including
industrial and municipal by-products and atmosphericdeposits.
Cycling nutrients - Carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and many other nutrients are stored, transformed,
and cycled in the soil.
Physical stability and support - Soil structure provides a medium for plant roots. Soilsalso provide
support for human structures and protection for archeological treasures.

Ecological functions of soil (FAO 1995) and their indicatorsEcological Functions of Soil Indicators
of Proper
Functioning
Production function High levels of crop yields and incomesBiotic environmental function/living space
function High levels of species richness andfunctional dominance of beneficial organisms – High levels
of crop yields andincomes and high quality food and habitationClimate-regulative function/storage
function High levels of carbon stocks and slowrates of greenhouse gas emissionsHydrologic function
Adequate availability of water/reducedrisks floodsWaste and pollution control function High levels of
crop yields and incomes
and high quality food and habitationArchive or heritage function Connective space function.
Lecture:-3

Distribution of Waste land and problem soils in India.

Wasteland
Wasteland Survey and Reclamation Committee, Ministry of food and Agriculture, govt, of India1961) has
defined wastelands as those lands which are either not available for cultivation or left out without being
cultivated for some reason or other.

Bhumla and Khare (1987) gives a working definition of wastelands. According to them“Those lands
are wastelands (a) which are ecologicaly unstable, (b) whose top soilhas nearly been completely lost, and
(c) which have developed toxicity inthe root zones or growth of most plants, both annual crops and trees”.
Definition:
Wastelands include degraded forests, overgrazed pastures, drought-struck pastures, eroded
valleys, hilly slopes, waterlogged marshy lands, barren land etc.As per this definition wastelands are
classified into twocategories- culturable wastelands and unculturable wastelands.
1. The culturable category includes all possible wasteland areas which can bebrought under vegetation
(though after adequate treatment).
2. On the other hand, unculturable wastelands are the lands which cannot bedeveloped for vegetative
cover. In other words, land which is barren and cannotbe put to any productive use, such as agriculture,
and forest cover is unculturablewasteland.

Six types of wastelands are found and these are described below:
Gullied land/ravinous land
1. Gullied land- the gullies are the result of the localized surface runoff affecting the
friableunconsolidated material resulting in the formation of perceptible channels resulting
inundulating terrain having a maximum depth of 3m. They are the first stage of excessiveland
dissection followed by their networking which leads to the develop ment of ravenous land.
Ravinous land - this category of land contains system of gullies running more orless parallel lo
each other in deep alluvium and entering a nearby river flowing muchlower than the surrounding
table lands as are found along the courses of many rivers.

2. Undulating upland with or without scrub

This is the land of undulating nature prone to degradation. This may or may not havescrub cover. Such
land occupies topographically high locations with 3° to 10° slope,often showing flat tops as in the case of
standstones, laterite and basaltic plateau areaswith gentle tops and gentle to moderate slopes.

3. Surface waterlogged and marshy land

This is the land where water table is at /or near the surface and water stands for most ofthe year.
Waterlogging occurs due to the rise of sub-soil water-table and this happensalmost all the over-irrigated
areas. This problem is generally seen in the areas of canalirrigation where due to the seepage of water
from canals, the sub-soil becomessaturated with water.Marsh is the land which permanently or
periodically is inundated by water and ischaracterized by vegetation that includes grasses and reeds.
Marshes are classified intosalt, brackish and fresh water categories depending on the salinity of water.

4. Shifting cultivation area Such land is the result of cyclic land use consisting of felling oftrees and
burning of forest areas for growing crops. This results in extensive soil lossesleading to land degradation.

5. Degraded/under utilized notified forest land Lands as notified under the forest actand those lands
with various types of forest cover in which denudation of vegetationcover is less than 20% of canopy
cover, are classified as degraded land.
6. Degraded pastures/grazing land All those grazing lands in non-forest areas, whetheror not they are
permanent pastures or meadows, which have become degraded due tolack of proper soil conservation and
drainage measures fall under this category.

Wasteland status in India: Estimated Area under the wastelands provided by differentorganization
Source Area (m.ha.)

Ministry of Agriculture and the JNU, Deptt. Of Geography (1986) 175National Land Use and Wasteland
Development Council (First Meeting 1986) 123
Society for Promotion of Wasteland Development (1982) 145
Ministry of Rural Development & NRSA (2000) 64

State wise wastelands of India- NRSA (Information as on year 2003)

State Wasteland (Area: In square km)
Andhra Pradesh 45267.15
Arunachal Pradesh 18175.95
Assam 14034.08
Bihar 5443.68
Chhattisgarh 7584.15
Goa 531.29
Gujarat 20377.74
Haryana 3266.45
Himachal Pradesh 28336.80
J & K 70201.99
Jharkhand 11165.26
Karnataka 13536.58
Kerala 1788.80
Madhya Pradesh 57134.03
Maharashtra 49275.41
Manipur 13174.74
Meghalaya 3411.41
Mizoram 4469.88
Nagaland 3709.40
Orissa 18952.74
Punjab 1172.84
Rajasthan 101453.86
Sikkim 3808.21
Tripura 1322.97
Tamil Nadu 17303.29
Uttarakhand 16097.46
Uttar Pradesh 16984.16
West Bengal 4397.56
Union Territory 314.38
Total 552692.26
Total geographical area of India: 3287263 sq. km
The main causes of formation of wastelands are:
(a) Indiscriminate and over utilisation of forest produces
(b) Over-grazing
(c) Side effects of development projects
(d) Mis-use and unscientific land management.
Causes of Land Degradation
Causes of Degradation Area (million hectares) Percentage of total area
Water erosion 107.12 61.7
Wind erosion 17.79 10.24
Ravines 3.97 2.28
Salt-affected 7.61 4.38
Waterlogging 8.52 4.90
Mines & quarry wastes - -
Degraded land due to shifting cultivation 4.91 2.82
Degraded forest lands 19.49 11.22
Special problems 2.73 1.57
Coastal sandy areas 1.46 0.84
TOTAL 173.64 100.0
Source : Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India (1985)
A list of Pedotransfer Functions: Mathematical functions that relates soil characteristics and
properties with one another for evaluation of soil quality
1. CEC
2. Phosphate sorption capacity
3. Change in organic matter
4. B.D.
5. Water retention
6. Porosity increases
7. Hydraulic conductivity
8. Soil Productivity

Table 2 Major soil groups in India

Soils Area (Mha)
Red and laterite soils 117.2
Black soils 73.5
Alluvial soils 58.4
Desert soils 30.0
Other soils {saline–alkali soils, forest and hill soils, peaty and marshy soils} 49.6

Salt-affected soils occur at a tune of 6.73 Mha in our country.

Lecture-4
Problem Soils
The soils which possess characteristics that make them uneconomical for the cultivation of
crops without adopting proper reclamation measures are known as problem soils.

Types of problem soils

1. Physical problem soils
2. Chemical Problem soils
3. Biological Problem soils
4. Nutritional problem soils as a result of above constraints

Soils with Physical problems

1.1. Slow permeable soils/Impermeable soils and their management
Occurrence and Causes
In Tamil Nadu, the area under slow permeable soils is around 7,54,631 ha (7.5% of TGA).
Slowpermeable soil is mainly due to very high clay content, infiltration rate < 6cm/day, so more
runoffwhich eventually leads to soil erosion and nutrient removal. Since the capillary porosity is high
itleads to impeded drainage, poor aeration and reduced conditions.

Remedial measures
(i) Incorporation of organics: Addition of organics namely FYM/composted coir pith/press mud at12.5 t
ha-1 found to be optimum for the improvement of the physical properties
(ii) Formation of ridges and furrows: For rainfed crops, ridges are formed along the slopes for providing
adequate aeration to the root zone.
iii) Formation of broad beds: To reduce the amount of water retained in black clay soils duringfirst 8
days of rainfall, broad beds of 3-9 m vide should be formed either along the slope oracross the slope with
drainage furrows in between broad beds.
iv). providing open/ subsurface drainage
v). Huge quantity of sand /red soil application to change the texture
vi). Contour /compartmental bunding to increase the infiltration
vii). Application of soil conditioners like vermiculite to reduce runoff and erosion

1.2. Soil surface crusting

Occurrence and Causes
In Tamil Nadu, surface crusting is prevalent in Trichy, Thanjavur, Pudukottai, Cuddalore andSivaganga
districts and mostly in red soil areas. In Tamil Nadu, the area under soil crusting isaround 4,51,584 ha
( 4.49% TGA). Surface crusting is due to the presence of colloidal oxides ofiron and aluminium in soils
which binds the soil particles under wet regimes. On drying it forms ahard mass on the surface. It is
predominant in Alfisols but also occur in other soils too. (Fig : 4)
Impact on soil properties
Prevent germination of seeds and retards root growthResults in poor infiltration and accelerates surface
runoff
Creates poor aeration in the rhizosphereAffects nodule formation in leguminous crops
Remedial measures
When the soil is at optimum moisture regime, ploughing is to be done.Lime or gypsum @ 2 t ha-1 may be
uniformly spread and another ploughing given for blendingof amendment with the surface soil.Farm yard
manure or composted coir pith @ 12.5 t ha-1 or other organics may be applied to
improve the physical properties of the soils
Scraping the surface soil by tooth harrow will be useful.
Bold grained seeds may be used for sowing on the crusted soils.
More number of seeds/hill may be adopted for small seeded crops.
Sprinkling water at periodical intervals may be done wherever possible.
Resistant crops like cowpea can be grown.

1.3. Sub soil hard pan

Occurrence and Causes

Sub soil hard pan is commonly found in red soils. Though soil is fertile, crops cannot absorbnutrients
from the soil which leads to reduction in crop yields. In Tamil Nadu, it is prevalent inCoimbatore, Erode,
Dharmapuri, Trichy, Cuddalore, Villupuram, Pudukottai, Sivagangai,Madurai and Salem districts
particularly under rainfed conditions. In Tamil Nadu, the area undersubsoil hardpan is around 10, 54,661
ha (10.48% TGA) The reasons for the formation of subsurface hard pan in red soils is due to the
illuviation of clay to the sub soil horizons coupled withcementing action of oxides of iron, aluminium and
calcium carbonate.

Impact on soil physical properties

The sub soil hard pan is characterized by high bulk density(>1.8 Mg m-3) which in turn
lowersinfiltration, water holding capacity, available water and movement of air and nutrients with
concomitant effect on the yield of crops.

Chiselling technology to overcome the sub soil hard pan

The field is to be ploughed with chisel plough, a tractor drawn heavy iron plough at 50 cminterval in both
the directions. Chiselling helps to break the hard pan in the sub soil besides itploughs up to 45 cm depth.
Farm yard manure or press mud or composted coir pith at 12.5 t ha-1 is to be spread evenly on the
surface. The field should be ploughed with country plough twicefor incorporating the added manures. The
broken hard pan and incorporation of manures makethe soil to conserve more moisture.

1.4. Shallow soils

Occurrence and Causes
In Tamil Nadu, shallow soils occur over an area of around 1,16,509 ha ( 1.16.% TGA). Shallowsoils are
formed due to the presence of parent rocks immediately below the soil surface ( 15-20cm depth).
Impact
The shallow soil restricts root elongation and spreading. Due to shallowness less volume of soilis
available exhaustive soil nutrients.
Management
Growing shallow rooted crops.
Frequent renewal of soil fertility
Growing crops that can withstand shallowness (Mango, country goose berry, fig,tamarind, ber and
cashew etc)

1.5. Highly permeable soils

Occurrence and Causes
Sandy soils containing more than 70 per cent sand fractions occur in coastal areas, river deltaand in the
desert belts. Such soils occur in Coimbatore, Trichy, Kanyakumari, Tuticorin,Thanjavur and Tirunelveli
districts and in part of coastal areas in Tamil Nadu. A total area of24,12,086 ha in Tamil Nadu are
affected by excessively permeable soils

Impact
Excessive permeability of the sandy soils results in poor water retention capacity, very highhydraulic
conductivity and infiltration rates. These soils being devoid of finer particles andorganic matter, the
aggregates are weakly formed, the non-capillary pores dominating with verypoor soil structure. So
whatever the nutrients and water added to these soils are not utilized bythe crops and subjected to loss of
nutrients and water. In addition, it is not providing anchorageto the crops grown.

Management technology
The soils should be ploughed uniformly. Twenty four hours after a good rainfall or irrigation, thesoil
should be rolled 10 times with 400 kg stone roller of 1 m long or an empty tar drum filledwith 400 kg
sand at optimum moisture (13 %). Then shallow ploughing should be given andcrops can be raised.
Application of clay soil up to a level 100 t ha-1 based on the severity of theproblem and availability of
clay materials. Application of organic materials like farm yardmanure, compost, press mud, sugar factory
slurry, composted coir pith, sewage sludge etc.Providing asphalt sheet, polythene sheets etc. below the
soil surface to reduce the infiltrationrate. Crop rotation with green manure crops like Sunhemp, sesbania,
daincha, kolinchi etc.
Frequent irrigation with low quantity of water. Frequent split application of fertilizers and slowrelease
fertilizers like neem coated urea
1.6. Heavy clay soils
Clay soils are referred as heavy soils. To be classified as clay soil, it should be made up ofabout 40% clay
particles, the finest particles found in soil.This is also slowly permeable soils.

Main production constraints

Heavy have very hard consistence when dry and very plastic and sticky ("heavy") when wet.Therefore the
workability of the soil is often limited to very short periods of medium (optimal)water status. However,
tillage operations can be performed in the dry season with heavymachinery. Mechanical tillage in the wet
season causes serious soil compaction.They are imperfectly to poorly drained, leaching of soluble
weathering products is limited.This is due to the very low hydraulic conductivity. Once the soil has
reached its fieldcapacity, practically no water movement occurs. Flooding can be a major problem inareas
with higher rainfall. Surface water may be drained by open drains.Most of the heavy clay soils belonging
to Vertisols are chemically rich and are capableof sustaining continuous cropping. They do not
necessarily require a rest period forrecovery; because the pedoturbation continuously brings subsoil to the
surface.However, the overall productivity normally remains low, especially where no irrigation water
isavailable. Nitrogen is normally deficient as well as phosphorus. Potassium contents arevariable.
Secondary elements and micronutrients are often deficient. In semi-arid areas freecarbonate and gypsum
accumulations are common.

There are two broad groups of vertisols

Self-mulching Vertisols. These have a fine (granular or crumb) surface soil structureduring thedry season.
When such soils are ploughed, the clods, after being subjected to repeat wettingand drying, disintegrate.
Crusty Vertisols. These have a thin, hard crust in the dry season. Whenploughed, crusty Vertisols produce
large, hard clods that may persist for 2 to 3 years beforethey have crumbled enough to permit the
preparation of a good seedbed. Such soils requiremechanical tillage if they are to be cultivated.The
structural stability of high clay soils remains low. They are therefore very susceptible towater erosion.
Slopes above 5 per cent should not be used for arable cropping, and on gentlerslopes contour cultivation
with a groundcover crop is advisable. When terracing, sufficientsurface drainage must be provided. The
strategies suggested for slowly permeable soils alsohold good for clay soil.

1.7. Fluffy paddy soils

Occurrence and Causes
In Tamil Nadu, fluffy paddy soils are prevalent in Cauvery delta zone and in many parts of thestate. It is
formed due to the continuous rice-rice cropping sequence. In Tamil Nadu about25,919 ha of land is
affected by fluffiness (0.26 % of TGA).The traditional method of preparing the soil for transplanting rice
consists of puddling whichresults in substantial break down of soil aggregates into a uniform structure
less mass. The solidand liquid phases of the soil are thus changed. Under continuous flooding and
submergence ofthe soil for rice cultivation in a cropping sequence of rice-rice-rice, as in many parts of
TamilNadu, the soil particles are always in a state of flux and the mechanical strength is lost leadingto the
fluffiness of the soils. This is further aggravated by in situ incorporation of rice stubblesand weeds during
puddling.

Impact of fluffiness
Sinking of draught animals and labourers is one of the problems during puddling in rice fieldswhich is an
invisible drain of finance for the farmers due to high pulling power needed for thebullocks and slow
movement of labourers during the puddling operations. Further, it leads to lowbulk density and very rapid
hydraulic conductivity which in turn affects anchorage to the rootsand the potential yield of crops is
adversely affected.

Management Methodology
Irrigation should be stopped 10 days before the harvest of rice crop
After the harvest of rice, when the soil is under semi-dry condition proctor moisture level,
compact the field by passing 400 kg stone roller or an empty tar drum filled with 400 kgsand 8 times.
Usual preparatory cultivation is carried out after compaction.

2.Chemical Problem soils

2.1.Salt - affected soils

The salt-affected soils occur in the arid and semiarid regions where evapo-transpiration greatly
exceedsprecipitation. The accumulated ions causing salinity or alkalinity include sodium, potassium,
magnesium, calcium,chlorides, carbonates and bicarbonates. The salt- affected soils can be primarily
classified as saline soil and sodic soil.The state-wise distribution of salt affected soils in India is presented
in the following table.

Saline soils
Saline soils defined as soils having a conductivity of the saturation extract greater than 4 dS m-1 and
anexchangeable sodium percentage less than 15 Saline soils defined as soils having a conductivity of the
saturation extractgreater than 4 dS m-1 and an exchangeable sodium percentage less than 15. The pH is
usually less than 8.5. Formerly thesesoils were called white alkali soils because of surface crust of white
salts.67

Formation
The process by which the saline soil formed is called Salinization. Saline soils occur mostly in arid or
semi aridregions. In arid regions saline soils occur not only because there is less rainfall availableto leach
and transport the salts but also because of high evaporation rates, which tend further to concentrate the
salts insoils and in surface waters

Major production constraints

Presence of salts leads to alteration of osmotic potential of the soil solution. Consequently water intake by
plantsrestricted and thereby nutrients uptake by plants are also reduced. In this soil due to high salt levels
microbial activity isreduced. Specific ion effects on plants are also seen due to toxicity of ions like
chloride, sulphate, etc.

Management of saline soils

The reclamation of saline soils involves basically the removal of salts from the saline soil through the
processes ofleaching with water and drainage. Provision of lateral and main drainage channels of 60 cm
deep and 45 cm wide andleaching of salts could reclaim the soils. Sub-surface drainage is an effective
tool for lowering the water table, removal ofexcess salts and prevention of secondary salinisation. of ions
like chloride, sulphate, etc.

Management of saline soils

The reclamation of saline soils involves basically the removal of salts from the saline soil through the
processes ofleaching with water and drainage. Provision of lateral and main drainage channels of 60 cm
deep and 45 cm wide and leaching ofsalts could reclaim the soils. Sub-surface drainage is an effective
tool for lowering the water table, removal of excess salts andprevention of secondary salinisation.

Irrigation management
Proportional mixing of good quality (if available) water with saline water and then using for irrigation
reduces theeffect of salinity. Alternate furrow irrigation favours growth of plant than flooding. Drip,
sprinkler and pitcher irrigationhave been found to be more efficient than the conventional flood irrigation
method since relatively lesser amount of wateris used under these improved methods.

Fertilizer management
Addition of extra dose of nitrogen to the tune of 20-25% of recommended level will compensate the
lowavailability of N in these soils. Addition of organic manures like, FYM, compost, etc helps in
reducing the ill effect ofsalinity due to release of organic acids produced during decomposition. Green
manuring (Sunhemp, Daincha, Kolingi) andor green leaf manuring also counteracts the effects of salinity.

Crop choice / Crop management

Crops are to be chosen based on the soil salinity level. The relative salt tolerance of different crops is as
follows:

Unit:-2

Soil / cultural management

Planting the seed in the centre of the raised bed / ridge may affect the germination as it is the spot of
greatest saltaccumulation. A better salinity control can be achieved by using sloping beds with seeds
planted on the sloping side justabove the water line. Alternate furrow irrigation is advantageous as the
salts can be displaced beyond the single seed row.Application of straw mulch had been found to curtail
the evaporation from soil surface resulting in the reduced saltconcentration in the root zone profile within
30 days.
Saline soil
2.2. Alkali / Sodic soils

Alkali or sodic soil is defined as a soil having a conductivity of the saturation extract less than 4 dS m-1
and anexchangeable sodium percentage greater than 15. The pH is usually between 8.5 – 10.0. Most
alkali soils, particularly inthe arid and semi-arid regions, contain CaCO3 in the profile in some form and
constant hydrolysis of CaCO3 sustains therelease of OH- ions in soil solution. The OH- ions so released
result in the maintenance of higher pH in calcareous alkalisoils than that in non – calcareous alkali soils.

Expected loss of soil productivity due to ESP in different soils

ESP Loss in productivity (%)
Alluvium derived soils Black soils
(Inceptisols / Alfisols) (Vertisols)
Up to 5 Nil Up to 10
5-15 <10 10-25
15-40 10-25 25-50
>40 25-50 >50
Formation
Soil colloids adsorb and retain cations on their surfaces. Cation adsorption occurs as a consequence of the
electricalcharges at the surface of the soil colloids. While adsorbed cations are combined chemically with
the soil colloids, theymay be replaced by other cations that occur in the soil the soil colloids. While
adsorbed cations are combined chemicallywith the soil colloids, they may be replaced by other cations
that occur in the soil solution. Calcium and magnesium arethe principal cations found in the soil solution
and on the exchange complex of normal soils in arid regions. When excesssoluble salts accumulate in
these soils, sodium frequently becomes the dominant cation in the soil solution resulting alkalior sodic
soils.

Major production constraints

Excess exchangeable sodium in alkali soils affects both the physical and chemical properties of soils.
a)Dispersion of soil colloids
b)Specific ion effect

Reclamation of alkali / sodic soils

Physical Amelioration
This is not actually removes sodium from exchange complex but improve physical condition of soil
through improvementin infiltration and aeration. The commonly followed physical methods include
Deep ploughing is adopted to break the hard pan developed at subsurface due to sodium and improving
free-movement water.This also helps in improvement of aeration.
Providing drainage is also practiced to improve aeration and to remove further accumulation of salts at
root zone.
Sand filling which reduces heaviness of the soil and increases capillary movements of water.
Profile inversion – Inverting the soil benefits in improvement of physical condition of soil as that of
deep ploughing.

Chemical Amelioration
Reclamation of alkali / sodic soils requires neutralization of alkalinity and replacement of most of the
sodium ionsfrom the soil – exchange complex by the more favourable calcium ions. This can be
accomplished by the application ofchemical amendments (the materials that directly or indirectly furnish
or mobilize divalent cations, usuallyfor the replacement of sodium from the exchange complex of the
soil) followed by leaching to remove soluble salts andother reaction products. The chemical amendments
can be broadly grouped as follows:
Direct Ca suppliers: Gypsum, calcium carbonate, phospho-gypsum, etc.
Indirect Ca suppliers: Elemental Sulphur, sulphuric acid, pyrites, FeSO4, etc
Among them gypsum is, by far, the most commonly used chemical amendment. Calcium carbonate is
insoluble innature which of no use in calcareous sodic soils (have already precipitated CaCO3) but can be
used in non calcareoussodicsoils (do not have precipitated CaCO3) since pH of this soils are low at
surface and favouringsolubilisation of CaCO3.Some of indirect suppliers of Ca viz. Elemental sulphur,
sulphuric acid, iron sulphate are also used for calcareous sodicsoils. These materials on application
solubilise the precipitated CaCO3 in sodic soils and releases Ca for reclamation.

Other sources
Distillery spent wash
Distillery spent wash is acidic (pH 3.8-4.2) with considerable quantity of magnesium. About 2 lakhlitres
of distilleryspent wash can be added to an acre of sodic soil in summer months. Natural oxidation is
induced for a period of six weekswith intermittent ploughing once in a month. In the second month (after
45-60 days) fresh water may be irrigated anddrained. Such a treatment reduces the pH and exchangeable
sodium percentage

Distillery effluent
Distillery effluent contains macro and micronutrients. Because of its high salt content, it can be used for
one timeapplication to fallow lands, About 20 to 40 tonnes per ha of distillery effluent can be sprayed
uniformly on the fallow land.It should not be allowed for complete drying over a period of 20 to 30 days.
The effluent applied field has to be thoroughlyploughed two times for the oxidation and mineralization of
organic matter. Then the crops can be cultivated in the effluentapplied fields by conventional methods.

Pulp and paper mill effluents

Pulp and paper effluents contain lot of dissolved solids and stabilized organic matter and if properly
treated cansafely be used for irrigation with amendments viz. pressmud @ 5 tonnes ha-1, fortified
pressmud @ 2.5 tonne ha-1 ordaincha as in situ green manure.

Crop choice
Rice is preferred crop in alkali / sodic soil as it can grow under submergence, can tolerate fair extent of
ESP andcan influence several microbial processes in the soil. Agroforestry systems like silviculture,
silvipastureetc. can improvethe physical and chemical properties of the soil along with additional return
on long-term basis. Some grasseslike Brachariamutica(Para grass) and Cynodondactylon(Bermuda grass)
etc. has been reported to produce 50% yield at
ESP level above 30.
The sodicity tolerance ratings of different crops is given in table.

Relative tolerance of crops to sodicity

ESP (range*) Crop
2-10 Deciduous fruits, nuts, citrus, avocado
10-15 Safflower, black gram, peas, lentil, pigeon pea
16-20 Chickpea, soybean
20-25 Clover, groundnut, cowpea, pearl millet
25-30 Linseed, garlic, cluster bean
30-50 Oats, mustard, cotton, wheat, tomatoes
50-60 Beets, barley, sesbania
60-70 Rice
*Relative yields are only 50% of the potential in respective sodicity ranges.
Relative tolerance of fruit trees to sodicity
Tolerance to sodicity ESP Trees
High 40-50 Ber, tamarind, sapota, wood apple,
date palm
Medium 30-40 Pomegranate
Low 20-30 Guava, lemon, grape
Sensitive 20 Mango, jack fruit, banana

2.3. Saline-alkali/ sodic soils

.
Saline-alkali / sodic soil is defined as a soil having a conductivity of the saturation extract greater than 4
dS m-1 an dan exchangeable sodium percentage greater than 15. The pH is variable and usually above
8.5depending on the relative amounts of exchangeable sodium and soluble salts. When soils dominated
by exchangeable sodium, the pH will be more than 8.5 and when soils dominated by soluble salts, the pH
will be less than 8.5.

Formation
These soils form as a result of the combined processes of salinisation and alkalization. If the excess
soluble salts of these soils are leached downward, the properties of these soils may change markedly and
become similar to those of sodic soil.

Management of saline alkali soils

The reclamation / management practices recommended for the reclamation of sodic soil can be followed
for the management of saline – sodic soil.

2.4. Acid soils

Soil acidity refers to presence of higher concentration of H+ in soil solution and at exchange sites. They
are characterized by low soil pH and with low base saturation. The ranges in soil pH and associated
degree of acidity are as follows:

pH range Nature of acidity

3-4 Very strong
4-5 Strong
5-6 Moderate
6-7 Slight
In acid soil regions (ASR) precipitation exceeds the evapo- transpiration and hence leaching is
predominantcausing loss of bases from the soil. When the process of weathering is drastic, the subsoil and
in many cases, the wholeprofile becomes acidic.

Occurrence
Acid soils occupy approximately 60% of the earth land area and are arise under humid climate conditions
fromcarbonaceous less soil forming rocks in all thermal belts of the earth.
• World wide – 800 M ha
• India - 100 M ha
• Tamil Nadu - 2.6 M ha (20% of GA)
95% of soils of Assam and 30% of geographical area of Jammu and Kashmir are acidic. In West Bengal,
2.2 M ha, inHimachal Pradesh, 0.33 M ha, in Bihar, 2 Mha and all hill soils of erstwhile Uttar Pradesh
come under acid soils. About80% of soils in Orissa, 88% in Kerala, 45% in Karnataka and 20% in
Maharastra are acidic. The laterite zone in TamilNadu is covered with acid soil and about 40,000 ha are
acidic in Andhra Pradesh.

Sources of soil acidity

Leaching due to heavy rainfall
Acidic parent material and alumina silicate minerals
Acid forming fertilizers
Humus and other organic acids
Carbon dioxide and hydrous oxides
Acid rain

Production constraints
Increased solubility and toxicity of Al, Mn and Fe
Deficiency of Ca and Mg,
Reduced availability of P and Mo and
Reduced microbial activity

Management of acid soils

Management of the acid soils should be directed towards enhanced crop productivity either through
addition of
amendments to correct the soil abnormalities or by manipulating the agronomic practices depending upon
the climatic andedaphic conditions.

Soil amelioration
Lime has been recognized as an effective soil ameliorant as it reduces Al, Fe and Mn toxicity and
increases basesaturation, P and Mo availability of acid soils. Liming also increases atmospheric N
fixation as well as N mineralization inacid soils through enhanced microbial activity. However, economic
feasibility of liming needs to be worked out beforemaking any recommendation.

Liming materials
Commercial limestone and dolomite limestone are the most widely used amendments. Carbonates, oxides
and hydroxidesof calcium and magnesium are referred to as agricultural lime. Among, the naturally
occurring lime sources calcitic, dolomitic and stromatolitic lime stones are important carbonates. The
other liming sources are marl, oyster shells and several industrial wastes like steel mill slag, blast furnace
slag, lime sludge from paper mills, press mud from sugar mills, cement wastes, precipitated calcium
carbonate, etc equally effective as ground limestone and are also cheaper. Considering the efficiency of
limestone as 100%, efficiencies of basic slag and dolomite are 110 and 94 % respectively. Basic slag and
press mud are superior to calcium oxide or carbonates for amending the acid soils. Fly ash, a low- density
amorphous ferro-alumino silicate, also improves pH and nutrient availability.

Lime requirement of an acid soil may be defined as the amount of liming material that must be added to
raise the pH to prescribed value. Shoemaker et al. (1961) buffer method is used for the determination of
lime requirement of an acid soil.

Crop choice
Selection of crops tolerant to acidity is an effective tool to counter this soil problem and breeding of such
varieties is of specific importance for attaining higher productivity, particularly in areas where liming is
not an economic proposition. The crops can be grouped on the basis of their performance in different soil
pH range.

Relative tolerance of crops to soil acidity

Maize, sorghum, wheat, barley 6.0-7.5

Millets 5.0-6.5
Rice 4.0-6.0
Oats 5.0-7.7

Legumes
Field beans, soybean, pea, lentil etc. 5.5-7.0
Groundnut 5.3-6.6

Others
Sugarcane 6.0-7.5
Cotton 5.0-6.5
Potato 5.0-5.5
Tea 4.0-6.0

2.5. Acid Sulphate soils

Acid sulphate are drained coastal wetland soils that have become acid (pH<4) due to oxidation of the
pyriticminerals in the soil. Undrained soils containing pyrites need not be acid and they are called
potential acid sulphate soils.

Types of acid sulphate soils

Potential acid sulphate soils
ASS which have not been oxidised by exposure to air are known as potential acid sulfate soils (PASS).
They areneutral in pH (6.5–7.5) , contain unoxidised iron sulfides, are usually soft, sticky and saturated
with water and areusually gel-like muds but can include wet sands and gravels have the potential to
produce acid if exposed to oxygen

Actual acid sulphate soils

When PASS are exposed to oxygen, the iron sulfides are oxidised to produce sulfuric acid and the soil
becomesstrongly acidic (usually below pH 4). These soils are then called actual acid sulfate soils (AASS).
They have a pH of lessthan 4, contain oxidised iron sulfides, vary in texture and often contain jarosite (a
yellow mottle produced as a by- productof the oxidation process).

Occurrence in India
Soil with sufficient sulphides (FeS2 and others) to become strongly acidic when drained are termed acid
sulphatesoils or as the Dutch refer to those soils cat clays. When allowed to develop acidity, these soils
are usually more acidicthan pH 4.0. Before drainage, such soils may have normal soil pH and are only
potential acid sulphate soils. Generallyacid sulphate soils are found in coastal areas where the land is
inundated by salt water. In India, acid sulphate soil is,mostly found in Kerala, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh,
Tamil Nadu and West Bengal.

Formation of Acid Sulphate Soils

Land inundated with waters that contain sulphates, particularly salt waters, accumulate sulphur
compounds, whichin poorly aerated soils are bacterially reduced to sulphates. Such soils are not usually
very acidic when first drained inwater.When the soil is drained and then aerated, the sulphide (S2-) is
oxidized to sulphate (SO2-4) by a combination ofchemical and bacterial actions, forming sulphuric acid
(H2SO4). The magnitude of acid development depends on theamount of sulphide present in the soil and
the conditions and time of oxidation. If iron pyrite (FeS2) is present, theoxidized iron accentuates the
acidity but not as much as aluminium in normal acid soils because the iron oxides are less
soluble than aluminium oxides and so hydrolyze less.

Characteristics
Acid sulphate soils contain a sulphuric horizon which has a pH of the 1 : 1 soil : water ratio of less than
3.5,plussome other evidences of sulphide content (Yellow colour). Such strong acidity in acid sulphate
soils results toxicities of
aluminium and iron, soluble salts (unless leached), manganese and hydrogen sulphide (H2S) gas.
Hydrogen sulphide (H2S)often formed in lowland rice soils causing akiochi disease that prevents rice
plant roots from absorbing nutrients.

Management of Acid Sulphate Soils

Management techniques are extremely variable and depend on many specific factors viz, the extent of
acid formation, thethickness of the sulphide layer, possibilities of leaching or draining the land etc. The
general approaches for reclamation are
suggested bellow:Keeping the area flooded. Maintaining the reduced (anaerobic). Soil inhibits acid
development, the use of the area to rice
growing. Unfortunately, droughts occur and can in short time periods cause acidification of these soils.
The water used to floodthe potential acid sulphate soils often develop acidity and injure crops.
Controlling water table. If a non-acidifying layer coversthe sulphuric horizon, drainage to keep only the
sulphuric layer under water (anaerobic) is possible. Liming and leaching. Limingis the primary way to
reclaim any type of acid soil. If these soils are leached during early years of acidification, lime
requirementsare lowered. Leaching, however, is difficult because of the high water table commonly found
in this type of soil and lowpermeability of the clay. Sea water is sometimes available for preliminary
leaching.

2.6. Calcareous soil

Calcareous soil that contains enough free calcium carbonate (CaCO3)and give effervescence visibly
releasingCO2 gas when treated with dilute 0.1 N hydrochloric acid. The pH of calcareous soil is > 8.5 and
it is also regarded as analkaline (Basic) soil.

Formation
The soil are formed largely by the weathering of calcareous rocks and fossil shell beds like varieties of
chalk, marl, lime stone and frequently a large amount of phosphates. Soils are often very fertile. Soils also
can become calcareousthrough long term irrigation with water contains small amounts of dissolved
CaCO3 that can accumulate with time.Calcareous soils can contain from 3% to >25% CaCO3 by weight
with pH values with a range of 7.6 to 8.3.

Management of Calcareous soil

Fertilizer management in calcareous soils is different from that of non calcareous soils because of the
effect of soilpH on soil nutrient availability & chemical reactions that affect the loss or fixation of some
nutrients. The presence ofCaCO3 directly or indirectly affects the chemistry & availability of nitrogen (N)
Phosphorus(P), Magnesium(Mg),Potassium (K), Manganese (Mn), Zinc (Zn) and iron (Fe). The
availability of copper (Cu) also is affected. Application ofacid forming fertilizers such as ammonium
sulphate and urea fertilizers, sulphur compounds, organic manures and greenmanures considered as
effective measures to reduce the pH of soil to neutral pH value.

Polluted soil:-

2.7. Man made polluted soils

Soil contamination is the presence of man-made chemicals or other alteration of the natural soil
environment. Thistype of contamination typically arises from the rupture of underground storage tanks,
application of pesticides, percolationof contaminated surface water to subsurface strata, leaching of
wastes from landfills or direct discharge of industrialwastes to the soil. The most common chemicals
involved are petroleum hydrocarbons, solvents, pesticides, lead and otherheavy metals. This occurrence
of this phenomenon is correlated with the degree of industrialization and intensity ofchemical usage. The
concern over soil contamination stems primarily from health risks, both of direct contact and
fromsecondary contamination of water supplies.The unscientific disposal of untreated or under-treated
effluents has resulted in accumulation of heavy metals inland and water bodies. Heavy metal
contamination due to the sewage and sludge application to soils imposes a majorlimitation on potential
land use. Cultivated areas under peri-urban agriculture are worst affected by this problem. The
heavy metals accumulating in soil may get entry into the human and animal food chain through the crops
grown on it. In Tamil Nadu State, where 55% of India’s tanning industry is located, over 35 000 ha of
land have become unfit foragriculture. Pollution from tannery effluent has rendered areas unsuitable for
rice and sugar cane, declining by 40% and80% respectively. The quality of coconuts produced on
contaminated land deteriorated, making them no longercommercially viable. Villagers also reported skin
rashes from contact with well water. In many areas of Tamil Nadupollution to groundwater forced
villagers to travel 4-5 km for water. Much of this contaminated groundwater becameunsuitable for
irrigation, and estimated 600-900 wells in the region fell into disuse.

Heavy metals prevailing in soils and their regulatory limits

Elements Conc. range Regulatory limit
(mg kg-1) (mg kg-1)
Lead 1-6900 600
Cadmium 0.1-345 100
Arsenic 0.1-102 20
Chromium 0.005-3950 100
Mercury 0.01-1800 270
Copper 0.03-1550 600
Zinc 0.15-5000 1500

Management of soil pollution

Bioremediation
Bioremediation can be defined as any process that uses microorganisms, fungi, green plants or their
enzymes toreturn the environment altered by contaminants to its original condition. Bioremediation may
be employed to attackspecific soil contaminants, such as degradation of chlorinated hydrocarbons by
bacteria. An example of a more generalapproach is the cleanup of oil spills by the addition of nitrate and /
or sulfate fertilizers to facilitate the decomposition of
crude oil by indigenous or exogenous bacteria.

Important and widely reported hyper-accumulators used for metal

Remediation Microorganisms used for metal remediation

3.Biological problems in soils

3.1.SOC and microbial population

Biological problems often results from management practices and anthropogenic influence. Soil organic
carbon(SOC) is the main source of energy for soil microorganisms and a trigger for nutrient availability
through mineralization.Humus participates in aggregate stability, and nutrient and water holding capacity.
Organic acids (e.g., oxalic acid),commonly released from decomposing organic residues and manures,
prevents phosphorus fixation by clay minerals andimprove its plant availability, especially in subtropical
and tropical soils. An increase in SOM, and therefore total C, leads togreater biological diversity in the
soil.

Problems
A direct effect of poor SOC is reduced microbial biomass activity, and nutrient mineralization due to a
shortage ofenergy sources. In non- calcareous soils, aggregate stability, infiltration, drainage, and airflow
are reduced. Low SOCresults in less diversity in soil biota with a risk of the food chain equilibrium being
disrupted, which can cause disturbancein the soil environment (e.g., plant pest and disease increase,
accumulation of toxic substances).

Improving Carbon Levels

No till farming, continuous application of manure and compost, and use of summer and/or winter cover
crops.Burning, harvesting, or otherwise removing residues decreases SOC.

3.2. Earthworms
Earthworms play a key role in modifying the physical structure of soils by producing new aggregates and
pores,which improves soil tilth, aeration, infiltration, and drainage. Earthworms produce binding agents
responsible for theformation of water-stable macro-aggregates. They improve soil porosity by burrowing
and mixing soil. As they feed,earthworms participate in plant residue decomposition, nutrient cycling and
redistribution of nutrients in the soil profile.Their casts, as well as dead or decaying earthworms, are a
source of nutrients. Roots often follow earthworm burrows anduptake available nutrients associated with
casts.

Problems
Low or absent earthworm populations are an indicator of little or no organic residues in the soil and/or
high soiltemperature and low soil moisture that are stressful not only to earthworms, but also for
sustainable crop production.Earthworms stimulate organic matter decomposition. Lack of earthworms
may reduce nutrient cycling and availability forplant uptake. Additionally, natural drainage and aggregate
stability can be reduced.

Improving Populations
The practices that boost earthworm populations are Tillage Management (no-till, strip till, ridge till), Crop
Rotation(with legumes) and Cover Crops, Manure and Organic By-product Application , Soil Reaction
(pH) Management andproper irrigation or drainage

3.3. Soil Respiration

Carbon dioxide (CO2) release from the soil surface is referred to as soil respiration. This CO2 results
from severalsources, including aerobic microbial decomposition of soil organic matter (SOM) to obtain
energy for their growth andfunctioning (microbial respiration), plant root and faunal respiration, and
eventually from the dissolution of carbonates insoil solution. Soil respiration is one measure of biological
activity and decomposition and also known as carbonmineralization.Soil respiration reflects the capacity
of soil to support soil life including crops, soil animals, and microorganisms.In the laboratory, soil
respiration can be used to estimate soil microbial biomass and make some inference about nutrientcycling
in the soil. Soil respiration also provides an indication of the soil's ability to sustain plant growth.

Problems
Reduced soil respiration rates indicate that there is little or no microbial activity in the soil. It may also
signify thatsoil properties that contribute to soil respiration (soil temperature, moisture, aeration, available
N) are limiting biologicalactivity and SOM decomposition. With reduced soil respiration, nutrients are
not released from SOM to feed plants andsoil organisms. This affects plant root respiration, which can
result in the death of the plants. Incomplete mineralization ofSOM often occurs in saturated or flooded
soils, resulting in the formation of compounds that are harmful to plantroots,(e.g. methane and alcohol).
In such anaerobic environments, denitrification and sulphur volatilization usually occur,contributing to
greenhouse gas emissions and acid deposition.

Improving Soil Respiration

The rate of soil respiration under favorable temperature and moisture conditions is generally limited by
the supplyof SOM. Agricultural practices that increase SOM usually enhance soil respiration.

3.4. Soil Enzymes

Soil enzymes increase the reaction rate at which plant residues decompose and release plant available
nutrients.Enzymes are specific to a substrate and have active sites that bind with the substrate to form a
temporary complex. Theenzymatic reaction releases a product, which can be a nutrient contained in the
substrate.

Problems
Absence or suppression of soil enzymes prevents or reduces processes that can affect plant nutrition. Poor
enzymeactivity (e.g., pesticide degrading enzymes) can result in an accumulation of chemicals that are
harmful to theenvironment; some of these chemicals may further inhibit soil enzyme activity.

Improving Enzyme Activity

Organic amendment applications, crop rotation, and cover crops can be used to enhance enzyme activity
Thepositive effect of pasture is associated with the input of animal manure and less soil
disturbance..Agricultural methods that modify soil pH (e.g., liming) can also change enzyme activity.

4. Eroded soils
Soil erosion is defined as the detachment and transportation of soil mass from one place to another
through theaction of wind, water in motion or by the beating action of rain drops. Erosion extensively
occurs in poorly aggregatedsoils (low humus) and in a higher percentage of silt and very fine sand.
Erosion increases when soil remains bare orwithout vegetation. In India about 86.9% soil erosion is
caused by water and 17.7% soil erosion is caused by wind. Out ofthe total 173.6 Mha of total degraded
land in India, soil erosion by wind and water accounts for 144.1 Mha (Govt. of India,1990). The surface
soil is taken away by the runoff causing loss of valuable topsoil along with nutrients, both native
andapplied. In India about 5334 million tones(16.35 tonnes/ha/year) of soil is being eroded annually due
to agriculture andassociated activities and 29% of the eroded materials are permanently lost into the sea.

Types of erosion
Natural or geologic erosion ranges from very little in undisturbed lands to extensive in steep arid lands.
Geological erosion takesplace, as a result of the action of water, wind, gravity and glaciers and it takes
place, at such slow rates that the loss of soil iscompensated for the formation of new soil under natural
weathering processes. It is sometimes referred to as normal erosion.
Accelerated erosion caused by the disturbances of people (cutting forests, cultivating lands, constructing
roads and buildingsetc.) and is increasing as the population increases. In this erosion, the removal of soil
takes place at a much faster rate than that ofsoil formation. It is also referred to as abnormal erosion.

4.1. Causes of Water Erosion

Water erosion is due to the dispersive action, and transporting power of water. Water erosion of soil starts
when raindropsstrike bare soil peds and clods, resulting the finer particles to move with the flowing water
as suspended sediments. The soilalong with water moves downhill, scouring channels along the way.
Each subsequent rain erodes further amounts of soil untilerosion has transformed the area into barren soil.
Water erosion may occur due to the removal of protective plant covers bytillage operation, burning crop
residues, overgrazing, overcutting forests etc. inducing loss of soil.

Raindrop / Splash Erosion.

Rain drop splash erosion results from soil splash caused by the impact of falling rain drops. The
continued impact ofraindrops compacts the soil and further seals the surface-so that water cannot
penetrate into the soil and as a result causing moresurface run off.

Sheet Erosion
Sheet erosion is the removal of a fairly uniform layer of surface soil by the action of rainfall and runoff
water onlands having a gentle or mild slope, and results in the uniform "skimming off of the cream" of the
top soil with every hardrain, In this erosion, shallow soils suffer greater reduction in productivity than
deep soils. It is slow process but dangerous.Movement of soil by rain drop splash is the primary cause of
sheet erosion.

Rill Erosion
Rill erosion is the removal of surface soil by running water, with the formation of narrow shallow
channels that canbe levelled or smoothed out completely by normal cultivation. Rill erosion is more
apparent than sheet erosion. Rillerosion is more serious in soils having a loose shallow top soil. This type
of soil erosion may he regarded as a transitionstage between sheet and gully erosion.

Gully Erosion
Gully erosion is the removal of soil by running water, with the formation of channels that cannot be
smoothed outcompletely by normal agricultural operation or cultivation. Gully erosion is an advanced
stage of rill erosion. Unattendedrills get" deepened "and widened every year and begin to attain the form
'of "gullies. During every rain, the rain waterrushes down these gullies, increasing their width, depth and
length.(Fig :8)

Stream Channel Erosion

eam channel erosion is the scouring of material from the water channel and the cutting of banks by
flowing orrunning water. This erosion occurs at the lower end of stream tributaries. Stream bank erodes
either by runoff flowing overthe side of the stream bank, or by scouring or undercutting. Scouring is
influenced by the velocity and direction of flow,depth and width of the channel and soil texture.

Harmful Effects of Water Erosion/Constraints

Water erosion causes various damages to the lands as follows:
(i)Loss of top fertile soil: The surface soil lost as runoff consists of fertile soils and fresh or active
organic matter.
(ii)Accumulation of sand or other unproductive coarse soil materials on other productive lands. In the
plains, fertile landshave been made unproductive by the deposition or accumulation of soil material
brought down from the hills by streamsand rivers.
(iii)Silting of lakes and reservoirs. Soil erosion from the catchment areas of reservoirs results in the
deposition of soil, thus reducing their storage capacity
(iv)Silting of drainage and water channels. Deposition of silt in drainage ditches in natural streams and
rivers reduces theirdepth and capacity and overflows and flooding of downstream areas increase with
damage to agricultural crops andalso man-made structures.
(v)Decreases water table: With the increase in runoff, the amount of water available for entering the soil
is decreased. Thisreduces the supply of water to replenish the ground water in wells, the yield of well is
reduced.
(vi)Fragmentation of land.Water erosion especially gully erosion may divide the land into several
valleys and ridges and
thus fields become smaller and more numerous. Crop rows are shortened, movement from field to field is
obstructed and aresult the value of land is decreased.

4.2. Wind erosion

Soil erosion by wind has caused an accumulation of eroded particles in loess, a type of soil which makes
up someof the world's most fertile and productive regions. Soil conditions conducive to wind erosion are
most commonly found inarid and semi-arid areas where rainfall is insufficient and no vegetative cover on
the land. The most serious damage causedby wind erosion is the change in soil texture. Since the finer
soil particles are subject to movement by wind, wind erosiongradually removes silt, clay and organic
matter from the top soil, leaving the coarser soil material.

Wind erodes the soil in three steps

The soil particles are carried by the wind in three ways namely saltation, suspension and surface
creep.Saltation: It is a process of soil movement in a series of bounces or jumps. Soil particles having
sizes ranging from 0.05 to0.5 mm generally move in this process. Saltation movement is caused by the
pressure of the wind on the soil particle, andcollision of a particle with other particles. The height of the
jumps varies with the size and density of the soil particles, theroughness of the soil surface, and the
velocity of the wind.
Suspension:.Suspension represents the floating of small sized particles in the air stream. Movement of
such fine particlesin suspension is usually started by the impact of particles in saltation. Once these fine
particles are picked up by theparticles in saltation and enter the turbulent air layers, they can be lifted
upward in the air and .they are often carried forseveral miles before being redeposit elsewhere. Dust
particles will fall on the surface only when the wind subsides or therain washes them down.

Surface Creep: Surface creep is the rolling or sliding of large soil particles along the ground surface.
They are too heavyto be lifted by the wind and are moved primarily by the impact of the particles in
saltation rather than by direct force of thewind. The coarse particles tend to move closer to the ground
than the fine ones.

Threshold Velocity: Threshold velocity is the minimum wind velocity required to initiate the movement
of soil particles.Threshold velocity varies with the soil conditions and nature of ground surface.

Impact of erosion on crop yield

∙Erosion reduces the capacity of the soil to hold water leading to severe water stress.
∙Erosion contributes to losses of plant nutrients, which wash away with the soil particles. Because
subsoilsgenerally contain fewer nutrients than top-soils, more fertilizer is needed to maintain crop yields.
This, inturn, increases production costs. Moreover, the addition of fertilizer alone cannot compensate for
all the nutrientslost when topsoil erodes.
∙Erosion reduces yields by degrading soil structure, increasing soil erodibility, surface sealing
∙and crusting. Water infiltration is reduced, and seedlings have a harder time breaking through the soil
crust.Erosion reduces productivity because it does not remove topsoil uniformly over the surface of a
field. Typically,parts of an eroded field still have several inches of topsoil left; other parts may be eroded
down to the subsoil.This makes it practically impossible for a farmer to manage the field properly, to
apply fertilizers and chemicals
uniformly and obtain uniform results. He is also unable to time his planting, since an eroded part of
the field maybe too wet when the rest of the field is dry and ready.

Best Management Practices: that are used to control erosion factors of both wind and water are
Crop rotation- improves the overall efficiency of nitrogen uptake and utilization in the soil. If certain
covercrops are planted in the winter, erosion and runoff is prevented when the ground thaws, and
nutrients are trapped
in the soil and released to the spring crops.
Contour cultivation- On gently sloping land, a special tillage practice carried out on the contour of the
field canreduce the velocity of overland flow. Contour cultivation should not be carried out on steep
slopes because it willmerely make the erosion situation worse.

Strip cropping- It is a technique in which alternate strips of different crops are planted in the same field.
Thereare three main types: contour strip cropping, field strip cropping, and buffer strip cropping. If the
strips are
planted along the contour, water damage can be minimized; in dry regions, if the strips are planted
crosswise tothe contour, wind damage is also minimized.

Terraces- Constructing bench-like channels is otherwise known as terraces, enables water to be

storedtemporarily on slopes to allow sediment deposition and water infiltration. There are three types of
terraces: benchterraces

contour terraces, and parallel terraces. It will control erosion in wetter areas by reducing the length of the
slope.

Grassed Waterways - They force storm runoff water to flow down the center of an established grass strip
and can carry very large quantities of storm water across a field without erosion. Grass waterways are
also used asfilters to remove sediment, but may sometimes lose their effectiveness when too much
sediment builds up in thewaterways. To prevent this, it is important that crop residues, buffer strips, and
other erosion control practicesand structures be used along with grass waterways for maximum
effectiveness.

Diversion structures- These are channels that are constructed across slopes that cause water to flow to a
desired outlet. They are similar to grass waterways and are used most often for gully control.

Drop structures - Are small dams used to stabilize steep waterways and other channels. They can handle
large amounts of runoff water and are effective where falls are less than 2.5 meters

Riparian strips - These are merely buffer strips of grass, shrubbery, plants, and other vegetation that grow
on the banks of rivers and streams and areas with water conservation problems. The strips slow runoff
and catch sediment. In shallow water flow, they can reduce sediment and the nutrients and herbicides
attached to it by 30%to 50%.

No-till planting- This planting system prepares a seedbed 2 inches wide or less, leaving most of the
surface undisturbed and still covered with crop residues. The result is a wetter, colder environment that
protects the seed and soil with its insulating effect of the surface residue.

Strip Rotary- Tillage A strip four to eight inches wide and two to four inches deep is prepared by a rotary
tiller, while the rest of the soil is left undisturbed. The soil is conserved because of the crop residues
between the tillage strips

Till Planting -This plowing technique sweeps the crop residues into the area between the rows of crops.
Soil density between these rows remains relatively high because of the absence of tillage. This soil is
difficult for raindrops to detach and runoff to move.

∙Annual Ridges - Also known as permanent ridges or ridge tillage, the annual ridges are formed by using
a rolling disk bedder, and planting is done after only minor spring seedbed preparation. The extent of soil
conservation depends on the amount of residue left and the row direction. Planting on the contour plus
increased surface residues greatly reduce soil loss.

Chiseling- This system does not turn the soil over, but rather leaves it rough and cloddy with plenty of
crop residue remaining. The soil density and amount of covering depends on the depth, size, shape,
spacing, and so on of the chisel blades. The residue and rough, cloddy surface of the soil reduces
raindrops impact and reduces runoff velocities thus reducing erosion.

Disking- This system pulverizes the soil and gives great soil density The effect is similar to that of
chiseling with results also depending on the depth, size, spacing, and so on of the disk blades. The deeper
the disking, thefewer the residues that remain on the surface.
Sustaining soil health is the imminent need of the hour
Soil health is defined as the continued capacity of soil to function as a vital living system, which include
sustainingbiological productivity of soil, maintain the quality of surrounding air and water environments,
as well as promote plant,animal, and human health. Soil function include sustaining biological diversity,
activity and productivity, regulating waterand solute flow, filtering, buffering, degrading organic and
inorganic materials, storing and cycling nutrients and carbon,providing physical stability and support.Soil
health deals with both the inherent and dynamic soil quality. The former relates to the natural (genetic)
characteristics of the soil (e.g., texture), which are the result of soil-forming factors. They are generally
cannot easily be
amended. On the other hand, the dynamic soil quality component is readily affected by management
practices and relatesto the levels of compaction, biological functioning, root proliferation, etc which is of
most interest to growers becausegood management allows the soil to come to its full potential.Soil quality
or health cannot be determined by measuring only crop yield, water quality, or any other single
outcome but with indicators which are measurable properties of soil or plants that provide clues about
how well the soilcan function.

Flooded soil:-
Undercontinualflooding,swampsoilsdevelopcharacteristicswhicharefundamentallydifferentfromthoseofupl
andsoils.Althoughitisnotessentialthatthefarmerhaveacompletetechnicalunderstandingofthedifferencesbetw
eenthetwotypesofsoils,itisimportanttoknowaboutsomebasicpropertiesoffloodedsoilssothatmanagementpra
cticeswillbeappropriateforlocalconditions.Thischapterdescribesbasicpropertiesoffloodedsoilsandrecomme
ndsmeasuresthatmaybeadoptedtohelpovercomethesortsofsoilproblemsmostoftenencounteredinswampfarm
ingsystems.Inaddition,theproblemofirontoxicityisdiscussed.

I.CharacteristicsofFloodedSoils:-Threemajorchanges-physical,biological,chemical-
occurwhenasoilisflooded.Abriefreviewofthesechangeswillhelpleadtoabetterunderstandingofsoilmanageme
ntpracticeswhichwillmaximizeyieldsinirrigatedrice.

1.PhysicalChanges:-
Uponflooding,theporespaces(airspaces)inthesoilbecomesaturatedwithwater.Asaresult,thesoilswells,andhar
dclodssoftenandbreakintosmallaggregates.Puddlingcompletelydestroystheremainingstructuralaggregates(c
lodsandclumps)andtransformsthesoilintoasludge,orsoupymixture.Thisslowsthedryingofthesoil,sincetheexc
hangeofairbetweentheatmosphereandthesoilisimpeded,andsincethewaterparticlesareheldbysoilparticlesand
preventedfrompercolatingdownwardandescaping.
2.BiologicalChanges:-
Theabsenceofsoilair(andparticularlyoxygen)inflooded,puddledsoilscausesachangeinthevarietiesofmicrobe
s,ormicroscopicorganismswhichliveinthesoil.Microbesexistingintheabsenceofoxygenareknownasanaerobi
cmicrobes,andtheytendtobemuchslower,lessefficientdecomposersoforganicmatterthantheiraerobiccousins.
Consequently,therateofdecayoforganicmattertendstobeslowinfloodedsoils.Also,theendproductsproducedb
yanaerobicdecompositiondiffer'somearetoxictorice,particularlythosereleasedduringthefirsttwoweeksafterd
ecompositionbegins.Thiscanbeimportantintimingorganicmatterincorporationsbetweenplantings:ifthefarme
rplantstooearlyintoafloodedplotcontainingplowed-understubbleand/
orchaff,thetoxicitiesproducedduringnormaldecompositionmaystuntthegrowthoftherice.

3.ChemicalChanges:-Floodedsoilsdeveloptwodistinctchemicalzones.
(seefigurebelow)Theupperzone,athin1-
10mm,absorbsoxygenfromthewater,turnsbrownincolor,andreactstonitrogenlikeanunfoldedsoil.Thiszoneisc
alledtheoxidizedzone,inreferencetoitschemicalconditionofbeingoxidized.Thelowerzone,whichextendsdow
nasfarasthewater,isextremelylowinavailableoxygen,turnsdarkblueorgrayincolor,andtakesonchemicalprope
rtiesquitedifferentfromthoseoftheoxidizedlayerabove.Thislowerzoneisknownasthereducedzone.

Whenasoilisflooded,thenitrogenintheincorporatedplant(andanimal)residuesischangedtotheammoniumform
(NH4),whichisstableunderfloodedconditionsandwilllaterbeusedbygrowingriceplants.Ifthesoilisallowedtod
rythoroughly(e.g.,whenitisdrainedforplowing),amicrobacteriologicalchangetakesplaceduringwhichtheam
moniumformofnitrogenischangedtothenitrateform(NO3).

When the soil is later are-flooded, part of the nitrogen held in the nitrate form is changed into nitrogen
gases(N2,NO3) and escapes into the air.Between20-700kg/ha of nitrogen can be lost through this process,
known as denitrification,so it is extremely important to keep the Plot thoroughly flooded at all times after
initial irrigation has taken place.

II. Management of Problem Soils

1:All swamp farming systems are not created equal. Although swamps tend to look the same from the
ground, often they vary considerably below the surface. Some swamps are shallow and sandy, others
depend peaty, and still others filled with rock or clay deposits. Because soil characteristics significantly
affect plant growth, the farmer should know what steps should be taken to minimize soil-related
problems.

2) The key to management of problem soil slies in anticipating potential problems before they occur and
taking the steps necessary to head them off. Problem soils can be attacked three ways' variety

 Through the selection of an appropriate variety,

 Through proper swamp development.
 Through effective management practices. Never wait until after the crop is in the ground to begin
thinking about soil problems, since by then it will be too late to change varieties or modify the
water control systems.

Unit:-3

THE QUALITY OF IRRIGATION WATER

3.1 The suitability of irrigation water depends upon several factors, such as, water quality, soil type, plant
characteristics, irrigation method, drainage, climate and the local conditions. The integrated effect of
these factors on the suitability of irrigation water (SI) can be qualitatively expressed by the relationship:
SI = QSPCD
Where:-
Q = quality of irrigation water, that is, total salt concentration, relative proportion of cations, etc;
S = soil type, texture, structure, permeability, fertility, calcium carbonate content, type of clay minerals
and initial level of salinity and alkalinity before irrigation;
P = salt tolerance characteristics of the crop and its varieties to be grown, and growth stage;
C = climate, that is, total rainfall, its distribution and evaporation characteristics; and
D = drainage conditions, depth of water table, nature of soil profile, presence of hard pan or lime
concentration and management practices.
3.1.1 These factors act interactively. For example; in a particular climate, all the factors enumerated in
3.1, are likely to vary and interact either positively or negatively in relation to salt accumulation and
degree of harmful effect on soil properties and crop growth. As such, a single suitable criterion is hard to
be adopted for widely varying conditions. However, a general broad guideline has been developed for use
by the field practitioners.
3.2 Besides these factors, presence of some ions in water such as calcium, sulphate, potassium and nitrate
is favorable for crop growth, as water of more salinity can be used in presence of these ions.

WATER QUALITY CRITERIA FOR IRRIGATION

4.1 The following chemical properties shall be considered for developing water qualitycriteria for
irrigation:
a) Total salt concentration,
b) Sodium adsorption ratio,
c) Residual sodium carbonate or bicarbonate ion concentration,and
d) Toxic elements such as sodium, boron, fluoride, heavy metals etc.

5. WATER QUALITY RATING IN RELATION TO SOIL TYPE, RAINFALL AND

CROP TOLERANCE TO SALTS
5.1 Upper permissible limit of electrical conductivity (EC) are given in Table 3 keeping in view the soil
types, rainfall and three types of crops i.e. Sensitive (S), Semi-tolerant (ST) and Tolerant (T).

 Al (aluminum) 5.0 Can cause non-productivity in acid soils (pH < 5.5), but more alkaline soils at
pH > 7.0 will precipitate the ion and eliminate any toxicity.

 As (arsenic) 0.10 Toxicity to plants varies widely, ranging from 12 mg/l forSudan grass to less
than 0.05 mg/l for rice.

 Be (beryllium) 0.10 Toxicity to plants varies widely, ranging from 5 mg/l for Kale to 0.5 mg/l for
bush beans. Cd (cadmium) 0.01 Toxic to beans, beets and turnips at concentrations as low as 0.1
mg/l in nutrient solutions. Conservative limits recommended due to its potential for accumulation
in plants and soils to concentrations that may be harmful to humans.
 Co (cobalt) 0.05 Toxic to tomato plants at 0.1 mg/l in nutrient solution. Tends to be inactivated
by neutral and alkaline soils. Cr (chromium) 0.10 Not generally recognized as an essential growth
element. Conservative limits recommended due to lack of knowledge on its toxicity to plants.

 Cu (copper) 0.20 Toxic to a number of plants at 0.1 to 1.0 mg/l in nutrient solutions.F (fluoride)
1.03 in activatedby neutral and alkaline soils.

 Fe (iron) 5.0 Not toxic to plants in aerated soils, but can contribute tosoil acidification and loss of
availability of essentialphosphorus and molybdenum. Overhead sprinkling mayresult in unsightly
deposits on plants, equipment andbuildings.

 Li (lithium) 2.5 Tolerated by most crops up to 5 mg/l; mobile in soil.Toxic to citrus at low
concentrations(<0.075 mg/l). Actssimilarly to boron.

 Mn (manganese) 0.20 Toxic to a number of crops at a few-tenths to a few mg/l,

 but usually only in acid soils.

 Mo (molybdenum) 0.01 Not toxic to plants at normal concentrations in soil and

 water. Can be toxic to livestock if forage is grown in soilswith high concentrations of available
molybdenum.

 Ni (nickel) 0.20 Toxic to a number of plants at 0.5 mg/l to 1.0 mg/l;reduced toxicity at neutral or
alkaline pH.

 Pd (lead) 5.0 Can inhibit plant cell growth at very high concentrations.

 Se (selenium) 0.02 Toxic to plants at concentrations as low as 0.025 mg/land toxic to livestock if
forage is grown in soils withrelatively high levels of added selenium. An essentialelement to
animals but in very low concentrations.

 Sn (tin)Ti (titanium) ---- Effectively excluded by plants; specific toleranceunknown.W (tungsten)

 V (vanadium) 0.10 Toxic to many plants at relatively low concentrations.
 Zn (zinc) 2.0 Toxic to many plants at widely varying concentrations;reduced toxicity at pH > 6.0
and in fine textured ororganic soils.
  Adapted from National Academy of Sciences (1972) and Pratt (1972).
 The maximum concentration is based on a water application rate which is consistent with good
irrigation practices (10 000m3 per hectare per year). If the water application rate greatly exceeds
this, the maximum concentrations should be adjusted downward accordingly. No adjustment
should be made for application rates less than 10 000 m3 per hectare per year. The values given
are for water used on a continuous basis at one site.
 Under the tropical climatic condition this limit seems to be too conservative foe irrigation water
and need to be revised.

6. SALT TOLERANCE OF CROPS

6.1 There are intra-generic and inter-generic differences in salt tolerance of crops and this character of
crops and crop varieties could be exploited to use saline/alkali water. The data presents the relative
tolerance of salts to soil salinity, soil alkali and boron. These tables could be used to select crops
depending upon the kind and degree of the problem with water.

Medium tolerant highly tolerant

 Lentil Radish Spinach Barley
 Mash Cow pea Sugarcane Cotton
 Chickpea Broad bean Indian mustard Sugar beet
 Beans Vetch Rice (transplanted) Turnip
 Peas Cabbage Wheat Tobacco
 Carrot Cauliflower Pearl millet Safflower
 Onion Cucumber Oats Rapeseed
 Lemon Gourds Alfalfa Karnal grass
 Orange Tomato Blue panic grass Date palm
 Grape Sweet potato Para grass Ber
 Peach Sorghum Rhodes grass Mesquite
 Plum Minor millets Sudan grass Casuarina
 Pear Maize Guava Tamarix
 Apple Clover, berseemPomegranate Salvadora
 Acacia
Relative tolerance of crops to alkali stress
Characteristics ESP range* Crops
Sensitive 10-15 Safflower, mash, peas, lentil, pigeon pea, urdbean
16-20 Chickpea, soybean
20-25 Groundnut, cowpea, onion, pearl millet
Semi-tolerant 25-30 Linseed, garlic, guar
30-50 Indian mustard, wheat, sunflower
Tolerant 50-60 Barley, Sesbania
60-70 Rice (Transplanted)
*Relative yields are only 50% of the potential in respective alkali range.

Relative tolerance of crops to boron

Sensitive (<1 mg/l) Semi tolerant (1.0-2.0 mg/l) Tolerant (2.0-4.0 mg/l)
 Apple Sunflower Date palm
 Grape Potato Sugar beet
 Cherry Cotton Garden beet
 Peach Tomato Alfalfa
 Orange Radish Gladiolus
 Grapefruit Field pea Broad bean
 Lemon Barley Onion
 Wheat Turnip
Corn Cabbage
Rice Lettuce
Oat Carrot
Bell pepper Cauliflower
Sweet potato

.6.2 Tolerance to Chloride

The relative tolerance of crop to chloride in order of sensitive to tolerant are: dry bean,
onion, carrot, lettuce, pepper, corn, potato, alfalfa, Sudan grass, wheat, sorghum, sugar beet,
barley.
Irrigation:- Irrigation is the artificial application of water to the soil through various systems of
tubes,pumps,andsprays.Irrigation is usually used in areas where rainfall is irregular or dry times or
drought Is expected. There are many types of irrigation systems, in which water is supplied to the entire
field uniformly.Irrigation water can come from groundwater ,through springs or wells,surface
water,through rivers,lakes,or reservoirs,or even other sources,such as treated waste water or desalinated
water.As a result,it is critical that farmers protect their agricultural water source to minimize the potential
for contamination.As with any ground water removal, users of irrigation water need to be careful in not
pumping ground water out of anaquiferfasterthanitisbeingrecharged.

Types of Irrigation Systems

There are many different type so irrigation systems, depending on how the water is distributed throughout
the field. Some common types of irrigation systems include:

Surface irrigation:- Waterisdistributedoverandacrosslandbygravity,nomechanicalpumpinvolved.

Localized irrigation

Water is distributed under low pressure, through a piped network and applied to each plant.

Drip irrigation

A type of localized irrigation in which drops of water are delivered to earth root of plants. In this type of
irrigation, evaporation and runoff are minimized.

Sprinkler irrigation

Water is distributed by over head high-pressure sprinklers or guns from a central location in the field or
from sprinkler so moving platforms.

Center pivot irrigation

Waterisdistributedbyasystemofsprinklersthatmoveonwheeledtowersinacircularpattern.Thissystemiscomm
oninflatareasoftheUnitedStates.

Lateral move irrigation

Waterisdistributedthroughaseriesofpipes,eachwithawheelandasetofsprinklers,whicharerotatedeitherbyhan
dorwithapurpose-
builtmechanism.Thesprinklersmoveacertaindistanceacrossthefieldandthenneedtohavethewaterhosereconne
ctedforthenextdistance.Thissystemtendstobelessexpensivebutrequiresmorelaborthanothers.

Sub-irrigation

Waterisdistributedacrosslandbyraisingthewatertable,throughasystemofpumpingstations,canals,gates,anddi
tches.Thistypeofirrigationismosteffectiveinareaswithhighwatertables.

Manual irrigation

Waterisdistributedacrosslandthroughmanuallaborandwateringcans.Thissystemisverylaborintensive.

Importance of Irrigation

Theimportanceofirrigationcanbeexplainedinthefollowingpoints:

1)Insufficientanduncertainrainfalladverselyaffectsagriculture.Droughtsandfaminesarecausedduetolowrainf
all.Irrigationhelpstoincreaseproductivityeveninlowrainfall.

2)Theproductivityonirrigatedlandishigherascomparedtotheun-irrigatedland.

3)MultiplecroppingisnotpossibleinIndiabecausetherainyseasonisspecificinmostoftheregions.However,thec
limatesupportscultivationthroughouttheyear.Irrigationfacilitiesmakeitpossibletogrowmorethanonecropinm
ostoftheareasofthecountry.

4)Irrigationhashelpedtobringmostofthefallowlandundercultivation.

5)Irrigationhasstabilizedtheoutputandyieldlevels.

6)Irrigationincreasestheavailabilityofwatersupply,whichinturnincreasestheincomeofthefarmers.

Irrigationshouldbeoptimumbecauseevenover-
irrigationcanspoilthecropproduction.Excesswaterleadstowaterlogging,hindergermination,increasedsaltcon
centrationanduprootingbecauserootscan’twithstandstandingwater.Thusthepropermethodistobeusedfortheb
estcultivation.