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CONSUMER
PSYCHOLOGY
Journal of Consumer Psychology 20 (2010) 459 – 470

The aesthetics of luxury fashion, body and identify formation

Alladi Venkatesh a , Annamma Joy b,⁎, John F. Sherry Jr. c , Jonathan Deschenes d
a
The Paul Merage School of Business, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697-3125, USA
b
University of Bristish Columbia, 3333 University Way, Kelowna, Canada V1V 1 V7
c
Mendoza College of Business University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556, USA
d
HEC, Montreal, Canada H3T 2A7
Received 30 September 2009; revised 24 June 2010; accepted 29 June 2010
Available online 2 August 2010

Abstract

In this paper we theorize and empirically investigate how female consumers' attitudes and preferences relating to bodily appearance are linked
to their perceptions of the aesthetics of fashion. Our theoretical work is informed by three streams of research: aesthetics of production, aesthetics
of reception and aesthetic labor. These three converge to illuminate our study. Using the ZMET technique, we uncover four themes: fashion as
wearable art, body and self-identity, bodily appearance and high fashion brands, and aesthetic labor through fashion. Our focus on the aesthetics of
fashion and identity formation provides a segue into the broader discussion of the growing importance of aesthetics in understanding consumer
behavior.
© 2010 Society for Consumer Psychology. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Luxury fashion aesthetics; Fashion and self-identity; Fashion and body

Introduction Our theoretical approach integrates and goes beyond recent

work by consumer researchers on the aesthetics of the body (Joy &
In this paper, we theorize and empirically investigate how Sherry, 2003; Thompson & Hirschman, 1995), fashion theory
consumers' attitudes and preferences relating to bodily (Barthes, 1983[1967]; McCracken, 2005; Scott, 2005; Solomon,
appearance are linked to their perceptions of the aesthetics of 1985), gender subjectivities and gender-based appeals (Kaiser,
fashion. We address the link between embodiment and Freeman, & Chandler, 1993; Sengupta & Dahl, 2008) and identity
consumer experiences and identity formation in order to formation (Oyserman, 2009; Shavitt, Torelli, & Wong, 2009;
elucidate the contours of aesthetic experience. Wang & Calder, 2009). Our empirical work employs a modified
As some fashion researchers (Davis, 1992; Dwyer, 2004; ZMET approach (Ringberg, Odekerken-Schröder, & Christensen,
Entwistle, 2009) have noted, there seems to be a natural 2007; Zaltman & Coulter, 1995), an analytical technique using
relationship between bodily appearance and fashion choices, qualitative data based on visual images as interpreted by
but this link has not been adequately investigated within the consumers. We focus on three theoretical notions that collectively
field of consumer research. Our study attempts to examine key form the basis of our study: aesthetics of production, aesthetics of
issues that lie at the intersection of aesthetics, fashion, and the reception and aesthetic labor.
body based on consumer narratives, and explores how the In the field of culture and fashion theory, there has been a fair
underlying themes emerging from such narratives provide amount of attention paid to fashion and bodily appearance as a
empirical and theoretical insights into bodily appearance and way to recognize the aesthetics of production that includes dress,
the aesthetics of fashion. clothing, and costumes (Entwhistle, 2000; Miller, 2007). In
addition, consumer researchers have begun to pay attention to
developments relating to the reception of aesthetic images
⁎ Corresponding author. (Schroeder, 2002; Venkatesh & Meamber, 2008). On a more
E-mail address: [email protected] (A. Joy). sociological level, the notion of aesthetic labor enters the picture,
1057-7408/$ - see front matter © 2010 Society for Consumer Psychology. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jcps.2010.06.011
 15327663, 2010, 4, Downloaded from https://myscp.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1016/j.jcps.2010.06.011 by S.P. Jain Institute Of Management And Research - Mumbai, Wiley Online Library on [21/07/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
460 A. Venkatesh et al. / Journal of Consumer Psychology 20 (2010) 459–470

indicating that consumers live in an “aesthetic economy” (Postrel, projects” and “life themes.” Thus we see an interplay of tensions
2003) and that norms of attire and appearance are influenced by between the dominant fashion discourses and consumers' own
socio-cultural forces. These different strands of research raise a set preferred styles and personal notions of body appearance. This
of questions that guide our study: leads us to the aesthetics of reception.

1. What meanings do consumers derive from fashion images Aesthetics of reception—bodily discourses and identity formation
and what metaphors do they use to describe their bodily
experiences with and exposure to high fashion? In almost all cultures, the aesthetic notions of the body are
2. How do consumers integrate their perception of bodily central to one's identity (Joy & Sherry, 2003). Some researchers
appearance, aesthetics of fashion, and identity? have found a linkage between consumer choices and identity based
3. What type of aesthetic effort is exerted by consumers to look motivation (Oyserman, 2009; Shavitt et al., 2009). The cultural
good in their attire and adornments? logic of the role of the body in reference to self-identity varies
depending on whether the body is viewed as celebrated or
Theoretical framework commodified (Joy & Venkatesh, 1994). Bodies are also viewed
differently based on sub-cultural idioms and representations. Thus,
Before presenting our theoretical framework, we offer some for example, adolescent discourses on sexuality are associated with
working definitions of fashion and aesthetics. Given the vast their bodily tropes. Fashion designers think of the body as
literature on these subjects with many divergent views, there is malleable and subject to artistic engagement through identity-
no single definition that will do justice to their full meanings. enhancement trappings. However, in the world of advertising
For our purpose, we define “fashion” as the most admired style gratuitous sex appeals have also raised some concerns because of
in clothes and bodily adornments. By implication it is “the their implications to bodily discourses (Sengupta & Dahl, 2008).
cultural construction of the embodied identity”(Steele, 2004). Consumers are exposed to culturally dominant meanings in the
Likewise, the term “aesthetics” refers to visual forms of objects fashion world and attribute their own personal meanings to fashion
and sensory experiences associated with, texture, harmony, objects (Solomon, 1985; Thompson & Haytko, 1997). They derive
order and beauty (Venkatesh & Meamber, 2008). Neither meanings from the fashion world and also directly or vicariously
fashion nor aesthetics are timeless and therefore, the aesthetics experience fashion objects—directly by adorning them and
of fashion is constantly evolving based on prevailing tastes and vicariously through exposure to fashion models or attractive
cultural dispositions (Slater, 2002). people or through magazine displays and media exposure.

The Fashion System and the Aesthetics of Production Aesthetic labor and fashion

An early proponent of “the fashion system,” Roland Barthes While theories of the phenomenology of body aesthetics
(1983[1967]) provided the foundational theoretical work on point to its central importance in consumer culture, fashion
fashion as a semiotic system of language and signs. His study theorists describe how clothing and dress have contributed to
included a thorough examination of fashion magazines and the intensification of aesthetic norms of the body.
focused on the “written garment.” He examined clothing/fashion Contemporary theories of fashion have shifted their focus from
as an integral part of the visual sign system, and analyzed the the liberatory and celebratory notions of fashion to normative
relationship between images and text in the production and expectations. In examining this close relationship, Miller (2007)
diffusion of fashion culture. He was one of the first theorists to concludes that while “sartorial fashion” provides a serious
elaborate the notion of fashion as a sign system, which also aesthetic basis and clothes are integral to artistic discourse, they
underscores the practice of media culture as it relates to fashion. are also subject to the demands of aesthetic economy and body
McCracken (2005) used a cultural production framework culture (Postrel, 2003). One consequence of this is that consumers
and considered the fashion system from a structural/cultural follow and welcome the standards and guidelines set by their
perspective, for the system can be manipulated for symbolic reference groups. Another consequence is that this has led to
purposes through a transfer of cultural meanings. In general, feminist critique which views fashion as exploitative of the female
there are cultural/social contexts that provide the broad canvas body. As noted by Hanson (1990), “Fashion calls attention to
in which fashion meanings are incorporated. This is what illusions grounded in embodiment…[A]ttention to dress is
McCracken calls the meaning transfer system within a cultural inseparable from attention to the body… and both are subject to
framework. Meanings are also generated through interactions the political economy of male gaze and historic resentment.”
with reference groups to which the individuals may belong. These discourses lead us to the concept of “aesthetic labor.”
Ultimately, individuals ascribe their own meanings to objects Aesthetic labor is a construct that helps us integrate these
based on their own judgments and evaluations. It is quite different streams of theorizing. This has been also been addressed
possible that these different levels of meanings—cultural, recently in the consumer literature (Pettinger, 2004). With the
group-oriented and individual—may be in conflict with each entry of women into the professional workforce, fashion ideas are
other. Thus consumers resolve these issues by developing no longer limited to private/personal situations. The term,
meaning structures that best define their own self-identity. aesthetic labor, is used by Warhurst and Nickson (2001)
Consumers modify and adapt these lessons to their “life contextually to refer to embodied capacities and attributes “that
 15327663, 2010, 4, Downloaded from https://myscp.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1016/j.jcps.2010.06.011 by S.P. Jain Institute Of Management And Research - Mumbai, Wiley Online Library on [21/07/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
A. Venkatesh et al. / Journal of Consumer Psychology 20 (2010) 459–470 461

enable employees to ‘look good and sound right’ in their jobs.” consequence of this type of engagement is that interviews are
These authors focus on service industries where appearances long but are productive. In our study, the interviews typically
matter as service professionals are performing their duties. This is lasted between one and two hours. Each image conjured a story,
especially important in fields where style and design are and informants were very involved and enthusiastic when they
considered significant, and where emotional labor (Hochschild, described why they had chosen certain images and what they
1983) figures prominently. As a consequence, aesthetic labor may read in these images. Fig. 1 provides all the images that were
result in the exploitation of (female) embodiment in workplace used by participants that we report in this paper. In Fig. 2, we
requirements, especially in service dominant environments. Thus link our empirical findings with the theoretical concepts
there is corporate production of aesthetic labor as part of the discussed earlier by using the ZMET framework that includes
aesthetics of the organization. However, one counterargument to originator constructs, connector constructs and destination
this is that there is no reason to believe that only females are constructs (Zaltman & Coulter, 1995). Unlike in the theory
exploited and men are not, for it is really a function of the type of testing procedures customarily found within the nomological
work done and not who (or which gender) does it. framework, ZMET approach begins with basic theoretical
In the balance of this paper, we empirically investigate how constructs that motivate or ground the study and subject them to
the attention to the body plays a crucial role in aesthetic empirical analysis where the goal is to examine how the
experiences of consumers in relation to their conceptions of theoretical constructs unfold from subject inputs.
fashion. It has become a truism in studies of fashion that Our informants were primarily between the ages of 20 and 50.
garments cannot signify without a body, real or imagined, and The participants were chosen through a snowballing technique and
that even an unworn garment refers to the materiality of an were given detailed instructions appropriate to the ZMET process.
eventual wearer (Entwhistle, 2000). Given that all our informants are women, our study represents a
female voice; future work should be extended to male consumers,
Methodology to understand their expressions and preferences. Table 1 provides a
brief description of each participant.
Visual image elicitation The interviews were audiotaped, transcribed, and then used
for analysis. Analysis involved close reading of the transcripts,
In this study we employed a modified ZMET technique to better including identifying central and meaningful themes as they
understand fashion and bodily concepts that guide consumers in emerged. The themes were refined until we were satisfied that
their perceptions of fashion and aesthetics of body (Ringberg et al., they were captured in the quotes (Spiggle, 1994). The
2007; Zaltman & Coulter, 1995). ZMET has been widely used by organizing theme that integrated our interpretation was the
consumer researchers for it combines cultural models of narrative aesthetics of the body through perceptions of fashion.
understanding with cognitive principles. ZMET is useful in delving
into and providing in-depth understanding of key perceptual Empirical analysis and results
concepts. It consists of a series of steps combining different
projective techniques to explore how individuals understand Four themes emerged from our analysis: (1) High Fashion
consumer phenomenon and products. We had informants collect Clothing as “Wearable Art,” (2) Body and Self-Identity in the
ten to twelve images of what high fashion meant to them. We used Context of Trendy but Timeless High Fashion Values, (3)
these images to probe issues related to the body, beauty, and actions Synechdochal References to the Body via High Fashion Brands,
taken by individuals to look good. Such a visual elicitation and (4) Aesthetic Labor, Body Image, and Fashion Models.
technique is designed to uncover rich descriptions of the people, the Under each theme, we present the visual images selected by our
context, and products in the picture. The resulting narratives reflect subjects (see Fig. 1a–q).
the transportation experience (Wang & Calder, 2009) of consumers
Theme 1. High Fashion Clothing as “Wearable Art”
engaged in aesthetic practice. Recent advances in cognitive
The first striking theme to emerge from analysis is the notion of
research have shown that the bulk of people's thoughts and
“high fashion clothing” as wearable art. This contrasts with the
feelings are below the level of consciousness, the result being that
general view of fashion as not being in the realm of art because, as a
those within easy reach represent the tip of the iceberg (Zaltman &
form of bodily adornment, it is fickle and impermanent. Those who
Coulter, 1995).
have supported the idea of fashion as art emphasize the visual
We believe that by allowing the informants to express
beauty of clothes (Miller, 2007; Thompson & Haytko, 1997). The
themselves through pictures and by shifting the focus from the
body is central to such an engagement; indeed, it constitutes the
person to the images, we can overcome some of the hesitation
basic canvas for all human performance.
people have about discussing topics that are central to their
The following excerpt from an interview with Alicia (30-
concerns. It allows them to connect to submerged feelings,
something office worker) clarifies the importance of the body in
symbols, and metaphors (Zaltman & Zaltman, 2008). Since
the creation of high fashion as “wearable art.” Alicia showed us
most thoughts occur through images and have an embodied
two images (see Fig. 1a and b) and noted:
content (Joy & Sherry, 2003), the ZMET technique is well
suited to plumbing the link between fashion, art, and the body. “Haute couture is undeniably an art form. The first image I
Since the images were chosen by informants themselves, have chosen is Monet's ‘water lilies.’ The use of color and
participants were actively involved with the project. A texture in this painting makes it enjoyable and although the
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462 A. Venkatesh et al. / Journal of Consumer Psychology 20 (2010) 459–470

structure looks deceptively simple, the combined techniques Clearly the body is implicated in the description of the dress
make it interesting to view. I believe luxury goods are and the reference to nature. Worn by a tall, attractive model, the
created the same way. The second image communicates this daffodil dress comes alive. The structure and construction of the
well. The yellow dress the woman is wearing looks like a dress, which looks deceptively simple, is as complex as the
daffodil. The structure of the dress is that of a blossoming creation of the world-renowned work of art, Monet's Water
flower. It is definitely wearable art.” Lilies. There is sensuousness and beauty in the dress, which

a b

c d

e f g

h i
Fig. 1. Images.
 15327663, 2010, 4, Downloaded from https://myscp.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1016/j.jcps.2010.06.011 by S.P. Jain Institute Of Management And Research - Mumbai, Wiley Online Library on [21/07/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
A. Venkatesh et al. / Journal of Consumer Psychology 20 (2010) 459–470 463

j k l m

n o p

q
Fig. 1 (continued).

echoes some of the concerns of recent contemporary art with its trash; yet when combined into a form, it becomes purposeful
refocus on beauty (Beckley & Shapiro, 2002). The dress is and picturesque. This creativity is what makes high fashion
attractive, allowing consumers to form some identification with clothes an art form.”
the products and have an emotional attachment to them. Alicia's The deliberate and constructed nature of couture is what
comments reflect the condition that Miller (2007) discusses Melissa refers to. By extension it calls attention to the individual
when she asks the question, “Is fashion art?” who wears such a beautifully crafted ensemble to look like a
Melissa (35-year-old teacher) makes a subtler reference to the work of art herself.
body when she talks about artistic creations of fashion designers: Sarah (a 50-year-old consultant) likewise refers to high
fashion as elegant works of art.
“The image of the illuminated shoe [Fig. 1c] displays an
artistic creation assembled with elaborate pieces that seem “High fashion clothes are often beautiful, emphasizing being
to be delicately and complexly placed. My initial thought slender, curvy, soft, delicate and feminine. The dress of this
was that the creator of this piece had taken an everyday woman (image of woman in white wedding dress—see
necessity and transformed it into a beautiful work of art. The Fig. 1e) is delicate with intricate lace—but there is a wonderful
second image is that of a deer [Fig. 1d] which had been symmetry and balance that is strikingly beautiful.”
created through the amalgamation of many abandoned items There is a projection of an image of beauty exemplified in
from a garbage dump. There is nothing beautiful about this picture—almost impossible to attain if an individual is not
 15327663, 2010, 4, Downloaded from https://myscp.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1016/j.jcps.2010.06.011 by S.P. Jain Institute Of Management And Research - Mumbai, Wiley Online Library on [21/07/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
464 A. Venkatesh et al. / Journal of Consumer Psychology 20 (2010) 459–470

Theoretical Framework Empirical Analysis

Originator Connector Destination
Constructs Constructs Constructs

Wearable Art
Aesthetic
Production
Fashion
System

Identity
Formation

Body
Aesthetic
Reception
High Fashion
Representation
and Brands
Aesthetics
Aesthetic
Labor

Body
Image and
Fashion (Role)
Models

Fig. 2.

six feet tall and a size two. But this is also the image many jewelry. The second meaning is more abstract. What I mean
women dream of for their wedding day. is that while high fashion trends and designs will continue to
Our informants' comments on the idea of fashion as change, the fundamental values of luxury, prestige, and
wearable art are in sync with the descriptions offered by sophistication are in fact timeless.”
fashion theorist Hollander (1993). He considers it axiomatic that While timelessness is an important quality in the fashion
“dress is a form of visual art, a creation of images with a visible world, remixing and refashioning is a continuous process. In this
self as its medium.” sense, fashions change, but the meaning or substance of fashion
Theme 2. Body and Self-Identity in the Context of Trendy may not, or at least not as rapidly; that is, on the one hand, what is
but Timeless High Fashion Values artful and trendy today might cease to be so in the next decade,
Fashion calls attention to the physicality of the body as well and on the other hand, something about fashion consciousness
as the culturally evolving discourse around it. While fashions go may be timeless. This is what Appadurai (1996; 85) refers to as
through a life cycle, luxury fashion is portrayed as “timeless.” the tension between the aesthetics of ephemerality and the
Similarly, while the body does age and change, the concepts of aesthetics of duration.
beauty and sex appeal are not fickle. Referring to the picture of Tanya (40-year-old fashion writer) spoke of the late 1980s
Carmen Dell Orefice, (see Fig. 1f) Tina noted: “when everybody dressed in black—it was severe and matched
the somber mood of a time of recession.” But black is classic
“She is such a classy lady. She is the epitome of what is and timeless. Tanya's knowledge of the fashion world gives her
high fashion. She is a classic beauty—she does not seem to some insight into how colors and palettes are recycled in society
have faded away. At seventy-seven she is still doing photo based on the fluctuations of the economy. So black can be
shoots.” viewed as both timeless and trendy.
Linda (30-year-old homemaker) added: Cara (20-something student) also links high fashion to
beauty and sex appeal (Fig. 1g).
“I believe the theme of timelessness can be seen in two
distinct ways. The most literal interpretation of the theme is “The image that represents beauty is a picture of a rose. The
that luxury goods are in fact timeless—like watches and image of sex appeal is represented by a woman lying on the
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A. Venkatesh et al. / Journal of Consumer Psychology 20 (2010) 459–470 465

Table 1 Theme 3. Synechdochal References to the Body Via High

List of participants.
Fashion Brands
Name Age Occupation The next theme deals with the aesthetics of fashion as it
Alicia 30 something Office worker relates to the products that refer synecdochally to a woman's
Mellissa 35 Teacher body. Tara (30-year-old administrator) showed us her image of
Sarah 50 something Consultant high heels (Fig. 1i) and noted:
Cara 20 something Student
Linda 30 Housewife “This image symbolizes the confidence that women have
Tanya 40 something Fashion writer with high fashion shoes. A pair of heels can add “oomph” to
Brenda 20 something Student
Tara 30 Administrator
any outfit and I think women feel empowered because they
Seville 40 something Shop assistant are taller when they wear heels. Fashion models demon-
Tina 20 something Student strate confidence, composure, and poise when they strut on
Sabrina 40 something Graphic designer the catwalk and consumers are able to see themselves in the
Katelyn 30 something Store manager outfits and shoes in particular.”
Katie 30 Fashion store assistant
Amanda 35 Photographer Tara's view is compelling. What looks like an effortless strut
Zara 40 something Executive by models is an art form that is painstakingly learned. Being a
Jenny 20 something Student
Zinnia 30 something Housewife
model takes a lot of effort, which we recognize as aesthetic
Shayla 40 something Manager labor that is performed to please various clients.
Katrina 20 something Student Seville (40-something shop assistant) had a slightly different
Mabel 50 something Housewife take on the high-heeled shoes—an image of a shoe by Christian
Emily 20 something Student Louboutin (see Fig. 1j):
Maeve 20 something Student
Kendra 20 something Student “Consumers purchase these shoes because they want to be
Jennie 20 something Student
Sheila 30 something Housewife
seen in them. I think the fashion brand wears the consumer
Mara 40 something Store assistant rather than consumer wearing the brand. People are more
Leyla 30 something Bank teller likely to notice the product because they see the red soles on
Emma 50 something Salesperson high-heel pumps- a dead giveaway it is a Christian Louboutin
Bonny 20 something Student shoe.”
Brianna 40 something Office worker
Seville's comments on the distinctive style of particular
brands suggests that inanimate objects can become animate and
ground with a focus on her legs and red high heels. Sexual even dwarf the importance of the individual wearing the brand.
connotations are quite evident. Currently beauty is viewed She also refers to choices based on the beauty of the shoes. Here
as being thin for women, tall, and sexually appealing.” we refer to the work of Kirmani (2009) who argues at hat there
is a close relationship between one's self-identity and brand-
In all discussions of the body thus far, there is an underlying related consumption.
reference to culturally constituted meanings (McCracken, 2005). But Cindy (30-something graduate student) talks about how
Culture shapes our bodies, thoughts, feelings, desires, and values. the brand can give the wearer sex appeal:
It allows us to express ourselves in aesthetically pleasing ways,
just as it helps us to define how to continually remake our bodies “The soul of the luxury brand is its design, which has to be
and ourselves. Culture, however, cannot exist without the both timeless yet modern, and exude sex appeal. Choo and
animating power of embodied thought and action. Christian Louboutin conjure up images of privilege and
For example, Brenda (20-plus student) showed us an image luxury. Despite the success of the sneaker, high heels
of a powerful woman holding what looks like a surgical needle remain, as enhancements of stature, status, and sex appeal.”
in her right hand (see Fig. 1h):
Like foot binding, corsets, and body piercing in the past,
“Her eyes indicate strength and confidence. She is assertively women continue to tamper with their bodies in the name of
looking over her shoulder, possibly demonstrating the beauty—the high heel is particularly damaging to women and
instrument in her hand to someone. The instrument could be contributes to back and knee problems. These marks (on the
interpreted as a surgical needle. The authority and prestige that body) are material, and they issue from power-saturated
doctors have can be reflected in the way she holds it. A woman discursive and material fields (Parkins, 2008).
in high fashion clothes gives off this aura of power.” Other items that have great appeal and reflect the body are
Brenda's description certainly gives us the feeling of strength handbags and jewelry. Many women want to own designer
and power that women have in society today. Brenda seems to handbags. Tina, a young (20-something) student, observed,
imply that the image of socially constructed power defines self- while showing off her Gucci tote (see Fig. 1k):
identity. In this context, as the next theme shows, high fashion
brands are a way to enhance this notion of identity through “My father bought me this for my birthday—Gucci Sukey
bodily experiences. large tote. It's just a canvas tote with some cream leather
 15327663, 2010, 4, Downloaded from https://myscp.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1016/j.jcps.2010.06.011 by S.P. Jain Institute Of Management And Research - Mumbai, Wiley Online Library on [21/07/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
466 A. Venkatesh et al. / Journal of Consumer Psychology 20 (2010) 459–470

trimming using the famous Gucci monogram fabric. Maybe designs. As Katie (30-something fashion store assistant)
it's a bit played out. Logo bags are not nearly what they use observed:
to be. It was only $850—but it drapes so well on my
shoulder and makes me look graceful.” “They [fashion models] are walking ads for the designer and
help to attract the attention of potential customers. The
majority of high fashion brands seem to prefer the
Tina's description of the Gucci tote is an observation about
nondescript models. The lighting and shadows are strategi-
the physical glamour that fashion brands lend to the body. She is
cally positioned to highlight certain features of the model
neither tall nor beautiful, but she perceives that this bag slung
and her specific look. It definitely looks like the work of a
over her shoulder gives her a new look that is aesthetically
highly skilled and highly paid photographer and stylist” (see
pleasing.
Fig. 1o).
Sabrina (40-something designer) also noted that she had
bought a Dior Gaucho bag because it made her look glamorous There is a difference in relationship between body and
(see Fig. 1l). While Sabrina is mindful of the cost of looking clothing in fashion representation and in the lived world. De
unique and glamorous, she is lost in the beauty of the gaucho Perthuis (2005) argues that there is a co-dependency between
bag, which to her epitomizes what is classic. The body is the two to the point where one cannot be understood without
implicated in her statement that “it goes with everything,” reference to the other. On the other hand, according to Barthes
whether she is covered up in winter or dressed down in summer. (1983[1967]), all that is natural is dissolved into the artifice of
Sarah (quoted earlier) also told us how she “fell in love” with fashion. He makes the distinction between the manufactured
a ring she bought at Bulgari (see Fig. 1m): “I bought a three- garment and the represented garment, which does not contain
band ring in 18K gold from Bulgari. Its iconic and linear design the modalities of the worn garment. “The fashion model's body
features the central spiral and two lateral rims with the double is divested of anything that is functional—so that the body
logo engraved. I bought it for my 50th birthday. The ring really refers only to the garment.”
dazzled me when I first saw it.” Attention is drawn to the face of the model on the catwalk (as
Sarah's comments about how wearing the ring changes her opposed to a photo shoot) to represent a high fashion brand,
as a person reveal the transformative power of high fashion although the model is the personification of the consumer's
brands. It bespeaks the kratophany of sacred consumption dream. The body of the model is very important to the
(Belk, Wallendorf, & Sherry, 1989). It makes her a calmer and presentation of the image. Amanda (35-year-old photographer)
gentler person. has this to say:
Focusing on a body part—the lips in this instance—was how “The model always uses particular body techniques—for
Katelyn (30-year-old manager) talked about the body (see instance, the positioning of the eyes. She never looks at
Fig. 1n). She showed us an image of a woman's face—the focus anyone in the crowd who are seated below her on the
was on her lips and expression: catwalk. She looks into the camera and almost looks as if
she is above the rest of us. This is true of her walk as well. It
“The appeal of this picture comes mainly from the is very contrived and communicates a particular image” (see
provocative way the woman's head and fingers are Fig. 1p).
positioned. The way her head is tilted back suggests
vulnerability and yet it is also an inviting gesture. Also, the The model represents the fashion house/brand in the ads, but
way her fingers are loosely placed over her chin with one she can be hired by several brands to display their products.
finger lightly caressing her lip is very provocative as well. While good looks and height are important, the versatility of the
Her mouth is slightly open, which emphasizes her inviting model to represent different ideas and fashion themes is central
position. The girl as well as the red lipstick against the black to her success in the fashion world. There is an element of
background grabs your attention. It represents sex appeal in consumer fantasizing here. Models must invest in styling their
an arresting fashion.” bodies and personalities in order to be successful in their
business.
Katelyn is very astute about showing us how sex appeal is Another take on models and their bodies is more negative,
important to the way in which a woman sees herself, as well as and is referred to by Zara (40-year-old executive) (see Fig. 1q):
how others—particularly men—see her. The reference to the “Eating disorders have become epidemic and are now the
body is clear, body part by body part, although the overall most deadly of all mental illnesses. The high fashion
glamorous look that is appropriated is holistic. However, the standards of beauty are rarely obtained and should continue
glamorous look is not always liberatory, as shown in our next to receive criticism of how they are manipulating body
theme, aesthetic labor. image for various reasons.”
Theme 4. Aesthetic Labor, Body Image, and Zara's profound ideas are echoed even in the fashion world
Fashion Models where some countries (e.g., Spain) have made some require-
An emergent theme that relates to issues of embodiment is ments in terms of weight and size. The body becomes a
the persona of the fashion model, which becomes the canvas caricature of the self when a model is 5-feet, 11-inches tall and
that designers manipulate as they develop and display their weighs 110 pounds. If we take the position that Barthes (1983
 15327663, 2010, 4, Downloaded from https://myscp.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1016/j.jcps.2010.06.011 by S.P. Jain Institute Of Management And Research - Mumbai, Wiley Online Library on [21/07/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
A. Venkatesh et al. / Journal of Consumer Psychology 20 (2010) 459–470 467

[1967]) does, that there is a difference between the photo shoot We provide a discussion of our results by integrating them
body of the model and the lived body, then we will have to into our theoretical framework. Using ZMET terminology
ignore what the model does in her lived existence. Her lived proposed by Zaltman and Coulter (1995), we categorize the
body should not really matter. But this is not the case in practice constructs identified in the theoretical framework as originator
as females are under constant pressure to dress up in their constructs and connector constructs and the themes emerging
professional or working lives, as noted by Hochschild (1983). from our empirical analysis as destination constructs (Fig. 2).
For example, a related theme that emerged from our In one informant's description of fashion as “wearable art,” we
interviews had to do with how participants drew inspiration find the inextricable link between two meanings of aesthetics, one
from the fashion world in order to look good. In some cases, it concerning form and appearance, the other concerning art and
became an obsession, as is reflected in the earlier discussion of representation (Kumar & Garg, 2010). This association between
anorexic models. It led to some participants talking about art and aesthetics seems to attract consumers to the realm of
having cosmetic surgery in order to look good. In other fashion. At the same time, the “wearability” of fashion suggests
instances, they were just inspired to wear attractive clothes and the privileging of bodily appearance. Other responses confirm
to have makeup that brought out the best in them. Zara such an artistic meaning of fashion, which materializes on the
continued: body. Thus the body becomes the geography of human persona
(Damhorst, 1999; Joy & Sherry, 2003; Krishna, Elder, & Caldara,
“I would like to work out sufficiently to look good like these
2010). There is also a view that the body undergoes changes over
runway models. I try to do weights at least three times a
time while fashion can be timeless. However, the symbolism of
week.”
the maturing body can be augmented with the help of bodily
Zara's preoccupation with her weight and looks is normal, adornments such as watches and jewelry. This affords an aesthetic
although inspired by media. But this is not always the case, as continuity for the consumer as she grows into and through the
Zinnia (30-year-old housewife) notes: world of fashion.
“I am starving myself daily and watching everything I eat. I The aesthetic view of fashion is further advanced not only in
also work out for long hours and yet I cannot look like these clothes that people wear, but also in various other products such
models [at least my body].” as high-heeled shoes; they betray an expression of art form and
empower the wearer of the fashion. Jewelry is also incorporated
Zinnia is only 5-feet, 5-inches tall and loves to wear designer into self-identity. Thus, one can see how bodily adornments
clothes. Her focus on her body is “objective,” something to be enhance self-identity and social position and give the individual
worked on. She feels that once she has gotten it to the point that a certain stature. In all such instances, the wearer looks to a
makes her happy, then it will feed into her definition of self. combination of clothes, jewelry, shoes, and other adornments
However, Shayla (40-year-old manager) takes body obses- as objects of desire and fulfillment, enhancing the somatic
sion to another level and says: value for the consumer. Identity formation is thus a material
process through which continuous changes are made. Further,
“I would like to look like Cindy Crawford. I am willing to
while such identity-based motivation (Oyserman, 2009; Shavitt
go under the knife to chisel and hone my face etc.,.”
et al., 2009) is compelling, affectively it can be both clarifying
Here the danger of total dissatisfaction with her body is and confusing (see also Cho & Scwartz, 2010). As a measure of
apparent. She feels compelled to do plastic surgery in order to the deep impact of the fashion world, our informants look to
look beautiful. Her self-worth seems to be tied into this fashion models as incorporating aesthetic values while at the
requirement of looking good (Sengupta & Dahl, 2008). same time they are troubled by the unattainable goals projected
In all of these examples, we see that individuals view the body by the models.
as both an externalized object to be worked on by the self, as well There is also a notion of self-identity associated with the
as an integral aspect of the self. The pressure for self-management, aesthetics of reception and the aesthetics of production that come
especially when it comes to keeping a trim body and looking through in our findings (Yang, Zhang, & Peracchio, 2010)
good, is very high. There is a lot of aesthetic labor that goes into issue). The aesthetics of reception takes into consideration how
sculpting oneself and one's appearance. Often, negative emotions consumers appropriate meanings of high fashion clothing and
and dissatisfaction with one's looks trigger aesthetic labor. accessories into their lives. The location of the subject is not
always obvious (as in the dress that unfolds like a daffodil) as it is
in the interaction between the participant and the location. When
Discussion and study implications Alicia looks at the yellow dress that resembles a daffodil, she is
not quite sure how she will look in that dress, although she does
This article has queried the bodily aspects of aesthetics under say that it is definitely wearable art. She is not lost in this dress, or
the theoretical framework that integrated the ideas of aesthetics de-centered in her encounter with this object. The dress is
of fashion and the body. Several themes emerged from our beautiful as is the daffodil with which she is familiar. The
empirical analysis: high fashion clothing as “wearable art,” mutually constitutive effect of the garment and discourse is
body image and self-identity, high fashion values, references to necessary to acknowledge in her attempts to make the garment
the body via fashion brands, and aesthetic labor and body intelligible. Interpretation and imagination are required, but
image. cannot be divorced from the material reality of the dress
 15327663, 2010, 4, Downloaded from https://myscp.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1016/j.jcps.2010.06.011 by S.P. Jain Institute Of Management And Research - Mumbai, Wiley Online Library on [21/07/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
468 A. Venkatesh et al. / Journal of Consumer Psychology 20 (2010) 459–470

(Parkins, 2008). The dress can also be seen as “decorative art,” central to any discussion of aesthetics (Meyers-Levy & Zhu,
with its elaborate cutting, sewing, and draping. 2010). Future research might investigate the role of aesthetics not
The description of how designers create magnificent works just in craft-like products, but in a variety of technological devices
out of ordinary or unremarkable materials (Melissa's descrip- that are part of modern existence. Our study is limited to female
tion of the deer made of trash) reflects the aesthetics of consumers in the Western context. Future studies may need to
production. Keep in mind, however, that it is Melissa's take on explore male consumers and also non-Western cultural contexts.
the subject; it is her understanding of what designers do. In a
sense, she is able to understand the subjectivity of the designer Acknowledgments
as it is present in the produced works.
Fashion presumes a “bodily form” even as it rejects the We gratefully acknowledge the grant received by the second
material biological substance of that body as irrelevant author from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research
(De Perthuis, 2005). De Perthuis maintains that fashion shuns Council of Canada. No: 410-2004-1497. We thank our
ordinary men and women in its schema, because fashion would reviewers and the special editors for their constructive criticism
have no power if it were to allow the body to be any shape or in the writing of this manuscript.
size. Fashion does not promote the ideal body (as opposed to
natural body) but an imagined body. Dwyer (2004) likewise Appendix A. Methods Used to Gather data
argues for a post-structuralist evaluation of the fashion model's
body, not as an object of desire for women to yearn for, but a The method we used to gather data was a hybrid of the
body of desire produced by precise disciplinary training. Such a ZMETt technique and phenomenological interviews.
notion of desire is opposed to the view of desire as something
that an individual feels or a circulation of inner heat or fire Snowball sampling
(Belk, Ger, & Askergaard, 2003).
These three levels of aesthetics, forming the aesthetic We first invited eight women (students/staff) associated with
framework that progressively emerged from the findings, reveal the university to participate in our study. They were chosen
that the body is internalized in different ways when considering because they displayed varying levels of interest in high fashion
the consumer experience and conceptualization of high fashion. and luxury brands. Once they had completed the ZMET
The aesthetics of production, through aesthetic labor, con- technique we used the themes that had emerged from the stories
ceptualizes the body as a work in progress and focuses on how that they told to pursue further how high fashion affected their
the subject, through the acquisition of body skills (like learning understanding of themselves as well as their shopping
to walk on the catwalk) or physical alteration (like wearing experiences. Spiggle (1994), as well as Thompson (1997)
makeup or performing surgery), can become the fashion object. provide a detailed analysis of how to proceed with this approach
The aesthetics of reception, on the other hand, builds largely on including categorization, abstraction of categories, comparison
a dialogical relationship between the body and the subject. of instances within data, emergent themes and so on.
Indeed, informants referred, critically or not, to the challenge of The participants in turn provided us with names of others
keeping up with the fashion standards. Finally, the aesthetics of who they thought would be interested in being part of this study.
the work of art shows a relation opposite to that of the aesthetics This is how the snowballing technique proceeded until we felt
of production. The synechdochal relationship between the that enough information was garnered on the topic. In Table 1
object and its owner or wearer reveals that the object becomes we have listed participants of ages ranging from 20 to 50 and
the subject. holding different jobs. Again, the interest in high fashion varied
Our study explores some ways in which aesthetics can be across these participants although all were willing to participate.
applied to everyday aspects of people's lives. It points to the
aestheticization of everyday life through fashion and bodily ZMET Instructions
adornment (Deng, Hui, & Hutchison, 2010). At the same time, we
found the tension between the aesthetics of ephemerality and We gave all participants the following instructions for the
aesthetics of duration. Although our focus is on fashion, we ZMET technique:
envision many avenues for study and application in consumer
research, from the design of products such as ceramics and dinner/ - To collect 10-15 images of what high fashion and luxury
kitchenware to the design of personal technologies such as mobile brands mean to them. We gave them about 10-14 days to do
phones and other devices. Advertising is an apt venue as well, so. They were encouraged to gather images from various
given both the centrality and nascent understanding of sensuous, sources that they sought fit including personal photographs,
embodied appeals (Sengupta & Dahl, 2008; Yang et al., 2010). books, magazines and so on. In our study most of the images
Everything consumed at some level can be viewed through an were sourced from magazines, the Internet and photo
aesthetic lens, particularly when bracketed from the realm of albums.
utility. New product development and innovation are ripe for - Then on an individual basis we interviewed each of them
examination from an aesthetic perspective in our field (Hoegg, using the long interview process (McCracken, 1988).
Alba, & Dahl, 2010). The fact that sensory perceptions and - We used the following steps in our study : they were asked to
feelings are central to aesthetic judgment also makes the body rank order the pictures in terms of what they mean to them.
 15327663, 2010, 4, Downloaded from https://myscp.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1016/j.jcps.2010.06.011 by S.P. Jain Institute Of Management And Research - Mumbai, Wiley Online Library on [21/07/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
A. Venkatesh et al. / Journal of Consumer Psychology 20 (2010) 459–470 469

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