FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

CONSOLIDATION OF SOIL

A stress increase caused by the construction of foundations or other loads com- presses
the soil layers. The compression is caused by (a) deformation of soil
particles, (b) relocations of soil particles, and (c) expulsion of water or air from the void
spaces. In general, the soil settlement caused by load may be divided into three broad
categories.

1. Immediate settlement – caused by the elastic deformation of dry, moist, and saturated
soils without any change in the moisture content.

2. Primary consolidation settlement – caused by a volume change in saturated cohesive

soils because of the expulsion of water that occupies the void spaces.

3. Secondary consolidation settlement – caused by plastic adjustment of soil fabrics. It

follows the primary consolidation settlement under a constant effective stress.

Basic Settlement formula:

where:
H = thickness of the stratum
eo = void ratio before the vertical load is applied
e = void ratio after the vertical load is applied

1. Primary Consolidation Settlement of Normally Consolidated Fine-Grained

Soils (usually clay soils).

where:
H = thickness of the stratum
Cc = compression index
eo = initial void ratio
po = initial vertical effective soil stress (clay)
pf = final vertical effective soil stress (clay)

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2. Primary Consolidation Settlement of Over Consolidated Fine-Grained Soils

(usually clay soils).

For f < pc:

For f > pc:

where:
Cs = swell index
pc = preconsolidation pressure

Compression Index

1. Terzaghi and Peck (1967):

For remolded clay:

For undisturbed clay:

where:
LL = liquid limit (in %)

2. Rendon-Herrero (1983):

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3. Nagaraj and Murty (1985):

where:
LL = liquid limit (in %)

4. Nishida:

Swell Index
The swell index is smaller in magnitude than the compression index and can generally be
determined from laboratory test.
1. In most cases:

2. Nagaraj and Murty (1985):

where:
LL = liquid limit (in %)

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Calculation of Primary Consolidation Settlement under a Foundation

In the previous chapter, we have seen that the increase in vertical stress caused by a load
applied over a limited area decreases by depth. To estimate the one-dimensional
settlement of a foundation, we can use the equations of this section. However, the
increase in effective stress ave should be the average increase in pressure below the
center of the foundation.

Assuming the pressure increase varies parabolically, the average increase in pressure may
be estimated using Simpson’s Rule.

where:
t = stress increase at the top of clay layer.
m = stress increase at the middle of clay layer.
b = stress increase at the bottom of clay layer.

Example 1:
A soil profile is shown in the figure. A uniformly distributed load,  = 75 kPa, is
applied at the ground surface. Assume C s = Cc/6.
Determine the settlement of the clay layer caused by primary consolidation if:
a) The clay is normally consolidated:
b) The preconsolidation pressure pc is 200 kPa:
c) The preconsolidation pressure pc is 100 kPa:
q = 75 kPa

Sand 2m
dry = 16 kN/m3

Sand 5m
sat = 18 kN/m3

Clay
sat = 19 kN/m3 3m
eo = 0.75

LL = 40%

Ans. a) 125.25 mm, b) 20.875 mm; c) 101.41 mm

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FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

Example 2:
A square column foundation 1.5 m  1.5 m is shown in the figure. It carries an axial load
of 446 kN and has its bottom resting on the ground water table located 1.4 m below the
ground surface.
a. Compute the average increase in pressure in the clay layer below the center
of the foundation using 2:1 method.
b. Compute the effective pressure at the mid-height of the clay layer.
c. Compute the settlement of the clay layer caused by primary consolidation if
the preconsolidation pressure of the clay is 96 kPa.

446 kN

Sand
1.4 m
dry = 15.6 kN/m3

Sand
sat = 19.2 kN/m3 1.5m  1.5m 1.10 m

Clay
sat = 18.8 kN/m3
Cc = 0.25, Cs = 0.06 1.8 m
e = 0.72

Ans. a) 39.11 kPa, b) 40.26 kPa, c) 18.51 mm

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PROBLEMS SET

1. From the figure shown, the water table is located 2 m below the ground surface. A
uniform load  = 110 kPa is acting at the top of the water surface.
a) Compute the saturated unit weight of sand.
b) Compute the overburden pressure at the mid-height of the clay.
c) Compute the primary consolidation settlement.
q = 110 kPa

Sand 2m

Sand
e = 0.54 3m
Gs = 2.60

Clay
Gs = 2.70 5m
e = 0.50
LL = 35%

Ans. a) 19.94 kN/m3, b) 91.49 kPa; c) 257.16 mm

2. A square footing having a dimension of 3.0 m  3.0 m carries an axial load of 1200
kN. The bottom of the footing is 2 m from the ground surface consisting of layer of
sand overlying 4 m layer clay. The water table is located 2 m below the ground
surface. 1200 kN

Sand 2m
dry = 16.4 kN/m3

3m  3m
Clay
sat = 20.5 kN/m3 4m
LL = 50%
e = 0.80

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a) Compute the increase in the vertical pressure.

b) Compute the overburden pressure at the midpoint of clay.
c) Compute the primary consolidation settlement.
Ans. a) 58.30 kPa, b) 54.18 kPa, c) 253.8 mm

3. From the given soil profile, the ground is subjected to a uniform increase in vertical
pressure 12 N/cm2. Calculate the primary consolidation if:
a) The clay is normally consolidated:
b) The preconsolidation pressure pc is 250 kPa:
c) The preconsolidation pressure pc is 320 kPa:
q = 12 N/cm2

Sand
4.4 m
dry = 17.6 kN/m3

Sand
 = 10.4 kN/m3 5.8 m

Clay
LL = 50% 7.6 m
 = 30%
solids = 25.51 kN/m3

Ans. a) 354.46 mm, b) 152.50 mm; c) 70.89 mm

4. From the given soil profile:

a) Compute the effective stress at the mid-height of the clay layer.
b) Compute the void ratio at the end of primary consolidation.
c) Compute the primary settlement of the normally consolidated clay.

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q = 80 kPa

Sand 2m
dry = 14.8 kN/m3

Sand
sat = 17.4 kN/m3 3m

Clay
sat = 19.2 kN/m3
1.8 m
eo = 0.72
LL = 36%

Ans. a) 60.82 kPa, b) 0.63, c) 87.76 mm

5. Form the given profile shown, given B = 1.5 m and L = 2.5 m. The footing
carries a load of 280 kN.
a) Compute the average effective pressure at the mid-height of clay layer
b) Compute the average increase of effective pressure in the clay layer
using 2:1 method.
c) Compute the primary consolidation settlement of the foundation.

280 kN

Sand
dry = 15.2 kN/m3 1.5 m

Sand
sat = 18 kN/m3 1.5m  2.5m 1.2 m

Clay
Gs = 2.70
 = 30% 2.4 m
LL = 38

Ans. a) 43.68 kPa, b) 15.94 kPa, c) 45.14 mm

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