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Machinability Study of Steels in Precision Orthogonal Cutting

Article in Materials Research · August 2012

DOI: 10.1590/S1516-14392012005000071

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Materials Research. 2012; 15(4): 589-595 © 2012
DDOI: 10.1590/S1516-14392012005000071

Machinability Study of Steels in Precision Orthogonal Cutting

Leonardo Roberto Silvaa*, Alexandre Mendes Abrãob, Paulo Fariac, João Paulo Davimd

a
Department of Materials Engineering, Federal Center for Technological Education of Minas Gerais – CEFET/MG,
Av. Amazonas, 5253, Nova Suíça, CEP 30480-000, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Minas Gerais – UFMG, Av. Antônio Carlos, 6627,
Pampulha, CEP 31270-901, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
c
Department of Production Engineering, University of Minas Gerais – UFMG, Av. Antônio Carlos, 6627,
Pampulha, CEP 31270-901, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
d
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Aveiro – UA,
Campus Santiago, 3810-193, Aveiro, Portugal

Received: February 26, 2012; Revised: April 27, 2012

The miniaturization of components and systems is advancing steadily in many areas of engineering.
Consequently, micro-machining is becoming an important manufacture technology due to the increasing
demand for miniaturized products in recent years. Precision machining aims the production of advanced
components with high dimensional accuracy and acceptable surface integrity. This work presents an
experimental study based on Merchant and Lee & Shaffer theories applied to precision radial turning
of AISI D2 cold work tool and AISI 1045 medium carbon steels with uncoated carbide tools ISO
grade K15. The aim of this study is to evaluate the influence of feed rate on chip compression ratio (Rc),
chip deformation (ε), friction angle (ρ), shear angle (φ), normal stress (σ) and shear stress (τ) for both
work materials. The results indicated that the shear angle decreased and chip deformation increased
as the chip compression ratio was elevated without significant differences between both materials.
Additionally, higher cutting and thrust forces and normal and shear stresses were observed for the tool
steel. Finally, the Lee & Shaffer model gave shear plane angle values closer to the experimental data.

Keywords: orthogonal cutting, precision turning, merchant model, Lee & Shaffer model,
AISI D2 steel, AISI 1045 steel

1. Introduction
Micro-machining is becoming an important precision machine tools or prototype machine tools built by
manufacturing technology due to the increasing demand for researchers. Conventional machine tools used to precision
miniaturized products in recent years. This is mainly driven machining have improved considerably with regard to
by the needs for: greater reduction in size and weight; higher motion accuracy, stiffness and capability. In general, micro-
energy efficiency and higher portability in commercial and machining is performed on precision machine tools with
non-commercial applications. The value of many products power and dimensions typical of conventional machines,
can be substantially increased as their size and weight are however, the required power and the work size are much
reduced. The last decade has shown an ever-increasing smaller when micro-machining5-6.
interest in higher precision and miniaturization in a wide Micro-cutting of steel has recently caught research
range of manufacturing activities. Many industrial branches interest with the advent of miniaturized systems using a
require micro-components, for instance, telecommunication, variety of materials, especially for biomedical applications.
biomedical and micro-intelligent technology. Micro- The material and geometry of micro-tools are important
machining by shearing is capable of producing high factors to be considered. The feature size is limited by
dimensional and geometric accuracy, surface finish quality the size of the micro-tools and tungsten carbide tools are
and sub-surface integrity at reasonably low costs. Thus, it generally suitable for machining a variety of engineering
should be the first choice amongst various manufacturing materials. The size and quality of micro-products depends
processes. Furthermore, conventional machining processes on the properties of the machine tools used to produce them,
such as turning, milling and grinding have already been including their accuracy and their dynamic performance6.
well established1-4. On the other hand, as the feed rate and The principal difference between conventional and
depth of cut are reduced, special attention must be paid to micro-machining resides in the cutting mechanism. In
the cutting edge preparation, otherwise the chip will not be
general, the cutting mechanism in conventional machining
generated owing to the side flow effect.
is mainly shearing of the material ahead of the tool wedge,
Most of the experimental research concerning micro-
resulting in chip formation. In contrast, micro-machining
machining has been conducted on either conventional
relies on more complicated mechanisms depending on the
*e-mail: [email protected] degree of the size effect5. In micro-machining the so called
590 Silva et al. Materials Research

“size effect” is identified as critical in defining process 1 + Rc2 − 2 Rc sin γ

performance. Size effects refers to the phenomenon whereby ε= (5)
Rc cos γ
the reduction of the undeformed chip thickness to levels
below the cutting edge radius, or gain size of the workpiece The shear plane angle (φ) is the angle at which the
material begins to influence workpiece material deformation shear stress equals the shear strength of the work material,
mechanisms, chip formation and flow7. therefore the shear deformation occurs preferably at this
Davim et al.8 compared finite element model (FEM) angle. Determination of shear angle has been the subject
simulations with experimental and analytical findings matter of a number of studies. According to Merchant9,11-13,
concerning precision radial turning of AISI D2 steel using it can be calculated by taking the derivative of the shear
uncoated carbide cutting tools. FEM machining simulation stress (Equation 3) with respect to φ and considering its value
employs a Lagrangian finite element based machining zero (relative maximum of the function τ), see Equation 6:
model applied to predict cutting and thrust forces, cutting
π 1
temperature and plastic strain distribution. The results φM = − (ρ − γ ) (6)
4 2
show that the difference between the experimental and
simulated cutting force was approximately 20% and was Alternatively, Lee & Shaffer14 obtained the shear plane
not drastically affected by the friction coefficient employed relationship presented in Equation 7 by assuming that the
in the FEM model. material was an ideal rigid-plastic solid and the shear plane
The model proposed by Merchant9 has been extensively would be located in the direction of maximum shear, the
applied to metal cutting since its advent owing to the fact work of separation not being included in this derivation.
that it provides quite reliable data with regard to the plastic
π
deformation in the primary shear plane, thus allowing the φ LS = −ρ+ γ (7)
4
prediction of the imposed forces and stresses.
The chip compression ratio (R c), as defined by According to9,11-13, the mean friction angle (ρ) can be
Merchant9-10, is given by: estimated using the cutting and thrust forces (Fc and Ft) and
the rake angle (γ) as indicated in Equation 8:
t⋅
Rc = (1) Fc sin γ + Ft cos γ
t ρ = arctan µ = (8)
Fc cos γ − Ft sin γ
Where t’ is the chip thickness and t is the undeformed chip
thickness, i.e., t = f for orthogonal cutting. The aim of this work is to compare the results from the
The shear plane angle (φ) can be determined models proposed by both Merchant9 and Lee & Shaffer14
experimentally from the chip compression ratio9, 11-13 using with experimental data when precision radial turning
Equation 2: AISI D2 cold work tool steel and AISI 1045 medium carbon
steel using grade K15 uncoated carbide inserts without chip
cos γ breaker at various feed rate values under dry cutting.
φ = arctan (2)
Rc − sin γ

Where γ is the rake angle. 2. Experimental Procedure

From the cutting forces and the shear plane angle, the Bars of AISI D2 cold work die steel and AISI 1045
shear and normal stresses along the shear plane can be medium carbon steel were used as work materials. Table 1
calculated9,11-13 using, respectively, Equations 3 and 4: presents the chemical compositions and mechanical
 F cos φ − Ft sin φ 
properties of these materials.
τ= c  sin φ (3) Radial turning tests were carried out using ISO
 c⋅t
grade K15 uncoated cemented carbide inserts (Sandvik
Coromant geometry N151.2-540-40-3B and grade H13A).
 F sin φ + Ft cos φ  The experimental setup is shown in Figure 1. The inserts
σ = c  sin φ (4)
 c⋅t were mounted on a tool holder coded LF 151.22-2020-40,
thus resulting in the following angles: clearance angle
Where Fc is the cutting force (N), Ft is the thrust force α = 0°, cutting edge inclination angle λ = 0° and rake angle
(N) and c is the width of cut (mm). As a result, the chip γ = 0°. A fresh cutting edge was used for each test, therefore,
deformation (ε) can be obtained from Rc and γ11: tool wear was considered negligible throughout the

Table 1. Chemical composition in % weight and mechanical properties of work materials.

Work C Mn Si Cr Mo V Tensile strength Yield strength Elongation Hardness
material (MPa) (MPa) (%) (HB)
AISI D2 1.55 0.50 0.30 12.0 0.80 0.90 710 – 1260 ≥320 ≥16 260
Steel
AISI 1045 0.45 0.65 0.25 - - - 600 – 720 ≥360 ≥18 205
Steel
2012; 15(4) Machinability Study of Steels in Precision Orthogonal Cutting 591

experimental program. An average of three measurements linearity lower than 1% and sensitivity of –3,8 pC.N–1 for
was taken for making graphics and Table 2 and 3. Fc and –7,9 pC.N–1 for Ft. Chip thickness (t’) measurement
Dry radial turning experiments were conducted on a was undertaken with a Mitutoyo® digital micrometer (range
Kingsbury MHP 50 CNC lathe with 18 kW power and of 0-25 mm and resolution of 1 µm).
maximum spindle speed of 4500 rpm. Constant cutting speed
(vc) of 70 m/min and width of cut (c) of 2.7 mm values were 3. Results and Discussion
used, while the following feed rates (f) were tested: 10, 20,
40 and 80 µm.rev–1. Using the chip thickness value it is possible to calculate
The tool holder was mounted on a Kistler® piezoelectric the chip compression ratio (Rc) using Equation 1, the shear
dynamometer model 9121 with a load amplifier connected to plane angle (φ) through Equation 2 and finally the chip
a computer which was used for the acquisition of the cutting deformation (ε) using Equation 5. Table 2 gives the values
(Fc) and thrust (Ft) forces, as shown in Figure 2. Kistler of chip compression ratio, shear plane angle and chip
Dynoware® software was used for data acquisition. The deformation as a function of feed rate when precision radial
equipment, provided with a static and dynamic calibration turning AISI 1045 and AISI D2 steels.
record, presents a working range from 0 to 600 N to Fc It can be noticed in Figure 3 that the value of the
and from 0 to 300 N to Ft. Moreover, the above mentioned experimental shear plane angle (φ) decreases as the
dynamometer possesses a natural frequency of 1kHz, chip compression ratio (Rc) increases. The value of chip
compression ratio and therefore of the shear plane angle
provide an indicative of the amount of plastic deformation
at the shear zone, i.e., low φ values (high Rc values) mean
large amounts of strain in the shear plane.
Figure 4 presents the influence of the chip compression
ratio (Rc) on the chip deformation value (ε), where it
can be seen a smooth increase in ε as Rc is elevated,
irrespectively of the work material. The cutting and
thrust force values recorded at distinct feed rate values
(10, 20, 40 and 80 µm.rev–1) are presented in Figure 5. It
can be noticed that when machining AISI D2 steel, the
cutting and thrust forces present higher values owing to its
superior hardness and tensile strength (see Table 1). The
cutting force values increase drastically with feed rate and
the thrust force component increases slightly. In addition to
that, the forces recorded when cutting the tool steel present
less scatter compared with the carbon steel.
Figure 1. Workpiece and cutting tool used in the experimental work.

Table 2. Values of chip compression ratio (Rc), experimental shear plane angle (φ) and chip deformation (ε) as functions of feed rate when
precision turning of AISI 1045 and AISI D2 steels.
Feed rate (f) Undeformed chip Chip thickness (t’) Chip compression Experimental shear plane Chip
[µm.rev–1] thickness (t) [µm] ratio (Rc) angle (φ) deformation
[µm] [°] (ε)
AISI AISI AISI AISI AISI AISI AISI AISI
1045 D2 1045 D2 1045 D2 1045 D2
10 10 43.3 46.7 4.33 4.67 13.00 12.09 4.56 4.88
20 20 65 85 3.25 4.25 17.10 13.24 3.56 4.49
40 40 150 138.3 3.75 3.46 14.93 16.12 4.02 3.75
80 80 308.3 246.7 3.85 3.08 14.56 17.99 4.11 3.40

Table 3. Values of the friction angle (ρ), experimental shear plane angle (φ) and Merchant(φM) and Lee & Shaffer (φLS) shear plane angle
as functions of feed rate.
Feed rate Friction angle Experimental shear plane Merchant shear Lee & Shaffer shear
(f) [µm.rev–1] (ρ) [°] angle (φ) [°] plane angle (φM) [°] plane angle (φLS) [°]
AISI AISI AISI AISI AISI AISI AISI AISI
1045 D2 1045 D2 1045 D2 1045 D2
10 16.03 22.32 13.00 12.09 36.99 33.84 28.97 22.68
20 16.77 22.53 17.10 13.24 36.62 33.74 28.23 22.47
40 18.96 22.12 14.93 16.12 35.52 33.94 26.04 22.88
80 23.18 21.48 14.56 17.99 33.41 34.26 21.82 23.52
592 Silva et al. Materials Research

Figure 2. Radial machining forces measurement setup.

the rake and friction angles. Table 3 presents the results

obtained through both methods and Figure 7 compares
the values for the shear plane angle (φ) obtained by the
three methods. It can be seen that both materials presented
significant difference between experimental and analytical
values, possibly due to the low feed rate values used, which
provided larger deformation, associated to the fact that both
methods do not take work hardening into account.
The values predicted by Lee & Shaffer14 tend to be
closer to the experimental data, nevertheless, differences are
to be expected owing to the fact that elastic strain and the
Figure 3. Experimental shear plane angle versus chip compression influence of temperature are neglected. In addition to that,
ratio. according to Lee & Shaffer14 model the shear stress should
equal the normal stress on the shear plane, however this
is not observed. According to Bil et al.15, Lee & Shaffer14
model, which is relatively simpler than the others, gives
good predictions. These authors found simulated similar
to with those given by Lee & Shaffer14 model, especially
for a rake angle of 20°. Furthermore, the shear plane angle
calculated according to Merchant model considers the shear
stress value constant, which may not be accurate. According
to Childs et al.16, although Merchant9 and Lee & Shaffer14
models correctly show that the shear plane angle increases
as the rake angle is elevated and the friction angle is reduced,
this universal relationship is not supported experimentally.
Shaw10 regards Lee & Shaffer14 model as the best
starting point due to the fact that it considers the least
Figure 4. Chip deformation versus chip compression ratio. objectionable assumptions. In spite of that, correction
factors encompassing the presence of built up edge, the size
Figure 6 presents the evolution of the average cutting of the secondary shear zone, chip curl, tool wear and strain
and thrust forces as a function of feed rate when turning hardening should be incorporated in the model.
both materials, where it can be observed that the cutting Through Equations 3 and 4 it is possible to obtain the
and thrust forces increases drastically with feed rate. normal stress (σπ) and the shear stress (τπ) values. Figures 8
Nevertheless, the difference between the forces recorded and 9 show, respectively, the evolution of the normal stress
when turning die steel and carbon steel tend to decrease as (σπ) and the shear stress (τπ) values as feed rate increases.
feed rate is elevated. It can be observed that the normal stress (σπ) is always
From Equation 6, concerned with Merchant model, it is lower than the shear stress (τπ), both stresses tending to
possible to obtain the value of the shear plane angle (φM) from reduce as the feed rate is elevated. Moreover, higher normal
the friction angle value (ρ) calculated from Equation 8. This and shear stress values are obtained during the machining
procedure allows a comparison between the experimental of AISI D2 steel, in spite of the reduction in the difference
values and those derived from both Merchant9 and Lee & recorded for both materials as feed rate is elevated. This
Shaffer14 models, both analytical models depending on can be explained by the higher experimental shear plane
2012; 15(4) Machinability Study of Steels in Precision Orthogonal Cutting 593

Figure 5. Cutting and thrust forces evolution when cutting of AISI 1045 and AISI D2 steels at vc = 70 m/min with K15 uncoated cemented
carbide tool.
594 Silva et al. Materials Research

Figure 6. Effect of feed rate on average cutting and thrust forces when machining of AISI 1045 and AISI D2 steels at vc = 70 m/min with
K15 uncoated cemented carbide tool.

Figure 7. Comparison between Merchant9 and Lee & Shaffer14 models and the experimental results: shear plane angles (φ, φΜ and φLS)
versus (ρ-γ).

Figure 8. Effect of feed rate on normal stress. Figure 9. Effect of feed rate on shear stress.

angle values observed for the tool steel at feed rates of 4. Conclusions
40 and 80 µm.rev–1.
Summarizing the above considerations, it can be After precision radial turning of AISI D2 cold work
concluded that each observed cutting model reflects a tool steel and AISI 1045 medium carbon steel the following
particular aspect of metal cutting practice, in reality, the conclusions can be drawn:
cutting conditions may be created where one or another • Correlations between the chip compression ratio and
model is valid, but no one model covers the whole variation shear plane angle or chip deformation were obtained
of cutting conditions. for both materials. The shear angle decreased with
2012; 15(4) Machinability Study of Steels in Precision Orthogonal Cutting 595

the chip compression ratio. In contrast, the chip • Higher shear stress values were obtained in
deformation increased with the chip compression ratio. comparison with the normal stress. Both stresses
• The AISI D2 tool steel presented higher values for values were reduced as feed rate was elevated.
cutting and thrust forces, and consequently higher
normal and shear stresses.
• Comparing the experimental values for the shear Acknowledgements
plane angle with those provided by Merchant and
Lee & Shaffer models, the latter tended to get closer The authors would like to thank CAPES (Brazil) and
to the experimental data. FCT (Portugal) for funding this research project.

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Appendix 1. Notation.
c Width of cut φ Experimental shear plane angle
f Feed rate φM Merchant shear plane angle
Fc Cutting force φLS Lee & Shaffer shear plane angle
Ft Thrust force α Clearance angle
t Undeformed chip thickness γ Rake angle
t’ Chip thickness λ Cutting edge inclination angle
Rc Chip compression ratio ρ Friction angle
ε Chip deformation σπ Normal stress
τπ Shear stress

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