SUBJECT:

PHYSICS

CLASS:
S.S.S. 3

TERM: First

©Deeper Life High School. 2023

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 SCHEME OF WORK
FIRST TERM.

WEEKS TOPICS CONTENT

1 Revision/Gravitational Field (a)Gravitational force between two

masses(Newton’s law of universal
gravitation) (b)`G’ as a universal constant
(c)Solar system(d) Kepter’s laws(e)Natural
and Artificial satellites (f)Escape velocity.

Electric force between two point charges,

2 Electric Field Electric field intensity, Electric potential,
capacitors and capacitance

Electric circuit, types of electric cell,

3 Electric cell and Electrolysis electrolysis and applications of electrolysis.

4 Electric Measurement (a) Resistivity and Conductivity, conversion of

Galvanometer to Ammeter and voltmeter,
measuring resistance

(a)Concept of magnetic field (b)Magnetic field

around (i)A bar magnet (ii)A straight conductor
carrying current (iv)A solenoid (c)Magnets:
5 Magnetic fields (i)Temporary and permanent (ii)Making magnets
(d)Application of electro-magnet.

Electromagnetic Fields (a) Electromagnetic Field: (i) Concept of

6 electromagnetic field (ii) Interaction between
magnetic field and currents in: A current
carrying wire in a magnetic field (iii)A
current carrying solenoid in a magnetic field,
Applications of electromagnetic field (i)
Electric motor (ii)Moving coil galvanometer
7 MID-TERM BREAK
a) Electromagnetic induction:(i)Faraday’s
8 Electromagnetic induction law (ii)Lenz’s law,(b) Applications of
Electromagnetic induction (i) A.C and D.C
generator (ii) Induction coil, (iii) Transformer
(c)Eddy currents, Power Transmission.
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 (a) Alternating current circuits (i)
9 Simple A.C. Circuits Nomenclature in a.c circuits(ii) Peak and
r.m.s values (iii)Series circuits containing
resistance, and capacitance, inductance

10 Simple A.C. Circuits (iii)Series circuits containing resistance,

capacitance and inductance (iv)Reactance and
impedance (b)Power in an a.c. circuit.

11 Revision.

12 EXAMINATION
13 EXAMINATION

WEEK : ONE

TOPIC: GRAVITATIONAL FIELD

LESSON OBJECTIVES: By the end of the lesson the students should be able to:

i. Define the term Gravitational field.

ii. Calculate the gravitational force between two masses.
iii. Explain the meaning of “G’ and show the relationship between G and g.
iv. State Kepler’s laws to the motion of the solar system.
v. Distinguish between Natural and Artificial satellites.
vi. Explain the term Escape velocity.

ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: The students have been taught force field in SS1

SUB-TOPIC 1: Gravitational force between two masses (Newton’s law of universal gravitation)

CONTENT: A gravitational field is a region of space surrounding a body that has the property of mass.
Sir Isaac Newton, in 1666, propounded the universal law of gravitation.
The law states that, ‘’ the force of attraction between two given particles of masses M and m is directly
proportional to the product of the masses and inversely proportional to the square of their distance of
separation’’.
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Mathematically,
Fg ∝ Mm and
1
𝐹𝑔 ∝ 𝑟 2
𝑀𝑚
∴ 𝐹𝑔 ∝ 𝑟2
𝐺𝑀𝑚
∴ 𝐹𝑔 = − − − − − −(1)
𝑟2

𝐹𝑔 𝑟 2
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝐺 = 𝑀𝑚

Where 𝐹𝑔 is the gravitational force in Newton, N,

𝐺 is the universal or gravitational constant of value 6.7 × 10−11 and expressed in 𝑁𝑚2 /𝑘𝑔2
The gravitational field strength, also called acceleration due to gravity, ‘g’ is given by:
𝐹𝑔
𝑔= − − − − − −(2)
𝑚
𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝐹𝑔 = 𝑟2
𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀𝑚 1
∴𝑔= ÷𝑚 = ×𝑚
𝑟2 𝑟2
𝐺𝑀
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑔 = − − − − − (3) This is the relationship between gravitational constant G and acceleration due
𝑟2
to gravity g.
Therefore, we define gravitational field strength ‘g’ as force per unit mass. It is a vector quantity.

GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL 𝑽𝒈

The gravitational potential 𝑉𝑔 at a point is the work done in taking a unit mass from infinity to that point on the
surface of the earth.
𝑉𝑔 = 𝑔𝑟 − − − − − − − (4)
𝐺𝑀
𝑉𝑔 = ×𝑟
𝑟2
𝐺𝑀
∴ 𝑉𝑔 = − − − − − −(5)
𝑟

Where M is the mass of the earth and r is the radius of the earth of value 6.4 × 106 𝑚 𝑜𝑟 6400𝑘𝑚
At any point, distance r from the centre of the earth, the gravitational potential experienced by a body of mass m
is given by:
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 𝐺𝑚
𝑉𝑔 = − − − − − − (6)
𝑟
𝐺𝑚
Since the potential at infinity is taken to be zero. (𝑖. 𝑒, ∆𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 0 − 𝑉𝑔 = −𝑉𝑔 = − )
𝑟

The negative sign indicates that potential at infinity is higher than the potential close to the mass, that is, 𝑉𝑔
decreases as r increases.

PRACTICE EXERCISE: (5 fill in the gap question per subtopic, 3 short answer questions)

1. What is the gravitational potential due to a molecule of mass m at a distance r from it.?
(a) Gm r2 (b) Gm r (c) Gm2r (d) Gr2 m2

2. Calculate the escape velocity for a rocket fired from the earth’s surface at a point where the acceleration
due to gravity is 10m/s2 and the radius of the earth is 6.0 x 106m

3. If g = 9.8m/s2. G = 6.7 x 10-11Nm2kg-2, calculate the mass of the earth if the radius is 64000km. (a)6.14 x
1023kg (b) 5.99 x 1024kg (c ) 3.98 x 1026kg (d ) 4.02 x 1025kg
4. Two objects of mass 80kg and 50kg are separated by a distance of 0.2m. calculate the gravitational
attraction between them if G = 6.67 x 10-11 Nm2kg-2.
(a) 6.67 x 10-6 (b) 6.67x 106N (c) 5.92 x 10-6N (d) 5.92 x 106N.
5. Which of the following statements is/are correct about gravitational potential?
V = -Gm r

I. The negative sign indicates that work done is against the gravitational field.
II. The potential at infinity is zero
III. The potential at infinity is less than that at the surface of the earth.
IV. Gravitational potential is a vector quantity
(a)I and II only (b) III and IV Only (c) III only (d) I,II and III only (e) II and IV only.

THEORY

1. The average radius of Jupiter’s orbit round the sun of mass 2 x 1030Kg is 7.8 x 1011m. If the mass of Jupiter
is 1.9 x 10 27, find the gravitational force the sun exerts on Jupiter , G = 6.67 x 10-11Nm2kg-2

2. If the mass of a portion is 1.67 x 10-27kg and the mass of an electron is 9.11 x 10-31kg, calculate the force of
gravitation between:

i. a proton and an electronii. two electronsiii. two protons.

Take G= 6.67 x 10-11 Nm2kg-2, distance between the protons = 4.0m., distance between the electrons =
2 x 10-2m, distance between the proton and the electron = 5.4 x 10-11m

SUB-TOPIC 2: Satellites and Escape velocity

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CONTENT:

i. Meaning of satellite and types.

ii. Escape velocity
iii. Velocity of the satellite

Satellites are bodies, natural or artificial which move in orbits around the moon or planets. Artificial
satellites are made by man.

Artificial satellites
These include all man-made objects that were positioned to orbit the earth (I.e. to go round the earth)
artificial satellites are used for various purposes such as:
1. For telecommunication
2. For identification of place on the earth
3. To enhance military intelligence
4. Tor meteorological studies
5. Scientific study of the earth
6. For space science

ESCAPE VELOCITY 𝑽𝟎
Consider a rocket of mass m placed at the centre of the earth’s surface O. If it is fired from that point so that it
just escapes the earth’s gravitational field, it has a kinetic energy, k.e given as:
1
𝑘. 𝑒 = 𝑚𝑉0 2 − − − − − −(7)
2

But work is done(WD) in taking this rocket to a distance R so great that the gravitational field is negligibly
weak.
∴ 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝑚𝑔 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
This work done must be equal to the kinetic energy of the rocket at the point of take off

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 1
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝑚𝑉0 2
2
∴ 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝑚𝑔 × 𝑅 = 𝑚𝑔𝑅
𝐺𝑀
𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑔 = 2
𝑅
𝐺𝑀
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝑚 ( 2 ) 𝑅
𝑅
𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 =
𝑅
But 𝑘. 𝑒 = 𝑊𝐷
1 𝐺𝑀𝑚
∴ 𝑚𝑉0 2 =
2 𝑅
2 2𝐺𝑀
∴ 𝑉0 =
𝑅
2𝐺𝑀
∴ 𝑉0 = √ − − − − − −(8)
𝑅
𝐺𝑀
But 𝑔𝑅 = 𝑅
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑉0 = √2𝑔𝑅 − − − − − −(8)
We thus define the escape velocity 𝑉0 as the velocity which is sufficient enough for a body to just escape the
earth’s gravitational field.
Since 𝑔 = 9.8𝑚/𝑠 2 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅 = 6,400,000𝑚
𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝑉0 = √2 × 9.8 × 6.4 × 106 = 11,200𝑚/𝑠(40,320𝑘𝑚/ℎ).

VELOCITY OF A SATELLITE

Consider a satellite of mass m moving round the earth of mass M in an orbit as shown below:

Satellite
r
Orbit

Earth
R

If R is the radius of the earth, r is the radius of the orbit and v is the velocity with which the satellite is moving,
We have that centripetal force (due to the satellite) = gravitational force (due to the earth)
𝑚𝑣 2 𝐺𝑀𝑚
∴ = = 𝑚𝑔
𝑟 𝑅2

𝑚𝑣 2
∴ = 𝑚𝑔
𝑟
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 ∴ 𝑣 2 = 𝑔𝑟
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑣 = √𝑔𝑟 − − − − − −
PRACTICE EXERCISE: (5 fill in the gap question per subtopic, 3 short answer questions)

1. When a satellite is launch with an escape velocity, it … (a) leaves the earth’s gravitational field (b) is
launched into parting orbit (c) has an acceleration equal to that of gravity (d) has zero gravity
2. A satellite is in a parking orbit if its period is A. less than the period of the earth B. more than the period
of the earth C. equal to the period of the earth D. the square of the period of the earth.
3. A gyroscope is a part of a satellite that A. aligns the satellite in its orbit B. monitors weather condition
c. receives signals D. reduces air resistance.
4. If the radius r of the earth is 6.4 × 106 𝑚 and the acceleration due to gravity ‘g’ is 9.8𝑚/𝑠 2 , calculate
the escape velocity of a rocket from the earth’s gravitational field.
A. 11 × 10−3 𝑚/𝑠
B. 11 × 103 𝑚/𝑠
C. 1.1 × 10−3 𝑚/𝑠
D. 11𝑚/𝑠
5. Calculate the gravitational attraction between two spheres whose centres are 4m apart and whose
masses are 16kg and 24kg respectively. (𝐺 = 6.67 × 10−11 𝑁𝑚2 𝑘𝑔−2 ).
A. 1.1 × 104 𝑁
B. 2.1 × 104 𝑁
C. 1.6 × 10−9 𝑁
D. 4.1 × 10−11 𝑁

THEORY

(a) (i)Define escape velocity. (ii) State two differences between the acceleration of free fall (g) and the
universal gravitational constant (G).
(b) (i) Derive the equation relating the universal gravitational constant, G, and the acceleration of free fall,
g, at the surface of the earth from Newton’s law of universal gravitation. (ii) State two assumptions for
which the relationship in 8(b)(i) holds
(c) Differentiate between a natural and an artificial satellite.

SUB-TOPIC 3: Parking Orbit and energy of a satellite.

CONTENT:

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 i. Period of a satellite.
ii. Parking Orbit.
iii. Energy of a satellite

PERIOD OF A SATELLITE
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
To get the time for one complete revolution, i.e, period, we use 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
Therefore, the period T is given as:
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 2𝜋𝑅
𝑇= =
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑣
But 𝑣 = √𝑔𝑅

2𝜋𝑅
∴𝑇=
√𝑔𝑅

By squaring both sides, we have,

4𝜋 2 𝑅 2 4𝜋 2 𝑅
𝑇2 = =
𝑔𝑅 𝑔

𝑅
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑇 = 2𝜋√𝑔 − − − − (10)

Since R= 6400km and g = 9.8𝑚/𝑠 2 , therefore, T = 5077.58s = 84.6mins. This is the period for an artificial
satellite in the orbit above the earth.

If the period of the satellite in its orbit is equal to the period of the earth about its axis, which is 24hours, the
satellite will stay at the same place above the earth as the earth rotates. Such orbit is called ‘’Parking Orbit’’.

𝑚𝑣 2 𝐺𝑀𝑚
Now, =
𝑅 𝑅2

𝐺𝑀
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝐺𝑀 = 𝑔𝑟 2 (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 = 𝑔𝑟 = 𝑉𝑔 )
𝑟

𝑚𝑣 2 𝑚𝑔𝑟 2
𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, =
𝑅 𝑅2

Now, multiplying through by R/m, we have:

𝑔𝑟 2
𝑣2 = 𝑅

2𝜋𝑅
Again, 𝑣 = 𝑇

2𝜋𝑅 2 𝑔𝑟 2
∴( ) =
𝑇 𝑅

4𝜋 2 𝑅 2 𝑔𝑟 2
=
𝑇2 𝑅

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 3 𝑔𝑇 2 𝑟 2
By simplification, 𝑅 = √ − − − − − −(11) Radius of Orbit.
4𝜋 2

Hence, the length the satellite is above the earth surface 𝑙 = 𝑅𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡 − 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ .

ENERGY OF THE SATELLITE

Supposing a satellite of mass m is revolving in an orbit of radius r round the earth of mass M with a velocity v,
then it will have both kinetic and potential energies.
𝑚𝑣 2 𝐺𝑀𝑚
Recall that = = 𝑚𝑔
𝑟 𝑅2

𝑚𝑣 2 𝐺𝑀𝑚
∴ =
𝑟 𝑟2

𝐺𝑀
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑣 2 = 𝑟

1
Now 𝑘. 𝑒. = 2 𝑚𝑣 2

Putting in the value of 𝑣 2 above, we have:

1 𝐺𝑀 𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑘. 𝑒. = 2 𝑚 × =
𝑟 2𝑟

𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑘. 𝑒. = − − − − − −(12)
2𝑟

𝐺𝑀𝑚
Also, 𝑝. 𝑒. = 𝑚𝑔ℎ = − 𝑟

𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀𝑚
∴ 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑘. 𝑒 + 𝑝. 𝑒 = +−
2𝑟 𝑟

𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡 = − − − − − − −(13)
2𝑟

WORKED EXAMPLES

1. Find the satellite orbit above the earth’s surface if the radius of that orbit is 6.5 × 106 𝑚.

Solution:

𝑙 = 𝑅𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡 − 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ

𝑙 = 6.5 × 106 − 6.4 × 106 = 100,000𝑚 = 100𝑘𝑚

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2. Determine the speed of revolution of a satellite round an orbit revolving at 85mins per revolution if the
satellite is at 110km above the earth’s surface.

Solution:

2𝜋𝑅
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 =
𝑇

Now, T = 85mins = 5100s, R = radius of the orbit = 110km + 6400km = 6510=6,510,000m

2𝜋 × 6510000
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = = 8020.3𝑚/𝑠
5100

KEPLER’S LAWS

Johannes Kepler in his working with data together with Tycho Brahe, put forth three laws which described the
motion of the planet across the sky.

The laws are:

1. The Law of Orbits: All planets move in elliptical orbits, with the sun at one focus.
2. The Law of Areas: A line that connects a planet to the sun sweeps out equal areas in equal times.
3. The Law of Periods: The square of the period of any planet is directly proportional to the cube of the
semi-major axis of its orbit.

Kepler’s laws were derived for orbits around the sun, but they apply to satellite orbits as well.

PRACTICE EXERCISE: (5 fill in the gap question per subtopic, 3 short answer questions)

1. State the relationship between radius of the orbit and the radius of the earth.
2. What is a satellite?
3. What is the value of g at the orbit?

CONCLUSION

TOPICAL TEST: (10 multiple Choice Questions, 10 fill in the gap questions and 5 essay question)

1. The mathematical expression showing the relationship between acceleration due to gravity ‘g’ and the
gravitational constant ‘G’ is ---
A. 𝐺 = √2𝑔𝑅
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 𝐺𝑀
B. 𝑔 = 𝑟2
𝐺𝑀
C. 𝑔 = 𝑟3
D. 𝐺𝑔 = 𝑔𝑟
2. If a proton mass is 1.67 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔 , an electron mass is 9.11 × 10−31 𝑘𝑔 and the radius of hydrogen atom is
0.50 × 1010 𝑚, calculate the gravitational attraction between the charges.
A. 1.6 × 10−47 𝑁
B. 3.6 × 10−47 𝑁
C. 2.76 × 10−37 𝑁
D. 0.65 × 10−57 𝑁
3. If the radius r of the earth is 6.4 × 106 𝑚 and the acceleration due to gravity ‘g’ is 9.8𝑚/𝑠 2 , calculate the
escape velocity of a rocket from the earth’s gravitational field.
𝐴. 11 × 10−3 𝑚/𝑠
𝐵. 11 × 103 𝑚/𝑠
𝐶. 1.1 × 10−3 𝑚/𝑠
𝐷. 11𝑚/𝑠
4. Calculate the gravitational attraction between two spheres whose centres are 4m apart and whose masses are
16kg and 24kg respectively. (𝐺 = 6.67 × 10−11 𝑁𝑚2 𝑘𝑔−2 ).

𝐴. 1.1 × 104 𝑁
𝐵. 2.1 × 104 𝑁
𝐶. 1.6 × 10−9 𝑁
𝐷. 4.1 × 10−11 𝑁
5.The mass of the earth is 6.0 x 1024 𝑘𝑔 and that of the moon is 7.0 x 1022 𝑘𝑔. If the distance between them
is 4.0 x 108 𝑚, calculate the force of attraction between them. [𝐺 = 6.7 x 10−11 𝑁𝑚2 𝑘𝑔−2 ]
A. 1.8 x 105 𝑁 B. 1.8 x 1010 𝑁 C. 1.8 x 1015 𝑁 D. 1.8 x 1020 𝑁

6. Which of the following statements is/are correct?

I. Gravitational potential due to a mass at a point r away is proportional to r2
II. Gravitational field strength is a scalar quantity
III. Gravitational intensity is proportional to the weight of a unit mass
a. I, II and III B. III only C. II only D. I only

Essay
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1. Considering a rocket launched from the earth’s surface, show that the velocity of escape 𝑉0 is given by:
𝑉0 = √2𝑔𝑅
2. Estimate the possible gravitational force between the earth and the moon at 4 × 108 𝑚 apart if their masses
are 6 × 1024 𝑘𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 7 × 1022 𝑘𝑔 respectively.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS / KEY WORDS / VOCABULARY: Geostationary satellite is the satellite which travels at the
same speed as that at which the Earth rotates and so appears to be stationary at a particular point above the
Earth’s surface.

PUZZLES / BRAIN TEASER:

(Each topic should be enriched with worked examples, images, past WAEC SSCE/NECO SSCE / BECE JSCE questions.)

1. The correct relationship between “𝑮” and “𝒈” in a gravitational field is given by the equation (Where the symbols
𝐺𝑚 𝐺𝑀 𝐺𝑀 2 𝐺𝑀 2
have their usual meanings) A. 𝑔 = 𝑅
B. 𝑔 = 𝑅2
C. 𝑔 = 𝑅
D. 𝑔 = 𝑅2
2. Which of the following statements is/are correct? I. Gravitational potential due to a mass at a point r away is
proportional to r2 II. Gravitational field strength is a scalar quantity III. Gravitational intensity is proportional to the
weight of a unit mass A. I, II and III B. III only C. II only D. I only
3. The mass of the earth is 6.0 x 10 𝑘𝑔 and that of the moon is 7.0 x 1022 𝑘𝑔. If the distance between them is 4.0 x
24

108 𝑚, calculate the force of attraction between them. [𝐺 = 6.7 x 10−11 𝑁𝑚2 𝑘𝑔−2 ] A. 1.8 x 105 𝑁 B.
1.8 x 1010 𝑁 C. 1.8 x 1015 𝑁 D. 1.8 x 1020 𝑁
4. A man and his friend have masses 70 𝑘𝑔 and 60 𝑘𝑔 respectively. If they are seated 1.0m apart, calculate the
gravitational force of attraction between them. (𝐺 = 6.67 × 10−11 𝑁𝑚2 𝑘𝑔−2) A. 1.59 × 10−14 𝑁 B. 2.80
−7 2 13
× 10 𝑁 C. 1.30 × 10 𝑁 D. 6.30× 10 𝑁
5. Two objects P and Q of masses 100 𝑘𝑔 and 20 𝑘𝑔 respectively are 1.2 𝑚 apart on a horizontal surface. Calculate
the net gravitational force acting on Q. ( G = 5.57 x 10−11 𝑁𝑚2 𝑘𝑔−2 ). A. 1.11 x 10−7 𝑁 towards P B. 1.11
−7 −8 −8
x 10 𝑁 towards Q C. 9.25 x 10 𝑁 towards P D. 9.25 x 10 𝑁 towards Q

INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES: "The important thing is not to stop questioning." - Albert Einstein

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WEEK : TWO

TOPIC: ELECTRIC FIELD

LESSON OBJECTIVES: By the end of the lesson the students should be able to:

I. Define the term Electric field.

II. State Coulomb’s Law of Electrostatics.
III. Explain the term Electric field intensity and calculate it.
IV. Calculate the Electric potential.
V. Explain the device capacitor.
VI. Mention the factors that affect the capacitance of a capacitor.
VII. Calculate the energy stored in a capacitor

ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: The students have been taught electric field .

SUB-TOPIC 1: ELECTRIC FORCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS CHARGES

(COULOMB’S LAW OF ELECTROSTATIC FORCE)

CONTENT:

An electric field is a region of space which surrounds a system of electric charges. Electrical forces will act on any
electric charge which is placed within the region. Electric field is a vector quantity. The direction of the field can be
determined using a test charge (a small positive charge).

Fundamental Law of Electrostatics

The fundamental law of electrostatic states that: “Like charge repels, unlike charges attract.

Negative charge Positive charge

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Attraction between two unlike charges

ELECTRIC FORCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS CHARGES

(COULOMB’S LAW OF ELECTROSTATIC FORCE)

Like charges repel and unlike charges attract. Based on this Coulomb’s law of electrostatic force came into
being. The law states that, ‘The electrostatic force of attraction or repulsion 𝐹𝐶 between two point charges is
directly proportional to the product of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of their distance
apart.’
Mathematically,
𝑄1 𝑄2
𝐹𝐶 ∝ 𝑟2
𝑄1 𝑄2
𝐹𝐶 = 𝑘 𝑟2
1
Where 𝑘 = 4𝜋𝜖
0

𝑄 𝑄2
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝐹𝐶 = 4𝜋𝜖1 2
0𝑟

Where 𝜖0 = 8.85 × 10−12 𝐹/𝑚

𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘 = 9 × 109 𝑁𝑚2 /𝐶 2

ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY OR STRENGTH ∈

This is defined as the electric force experienced per unit charge. It is a vector quantity and expressed in N/C.
Mathematically,
𝐹𝐶
𝐸= 𝑄

𝑄
∴ 𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜖 2
0𝑟

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL 𝑽𝑬
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The electric potential 𝑉𝐸 at a point in an electric field is defined as the work done in taking a unit charge from
infinity to that point. It is a scalar quantity and expressed in volt.
Mathematically,
𝑉𝐸 = 𝐸𝑟
𝑄
𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝐸=
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 2
𝑄
𝑉𝐸 = ( )𝑟
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 2
𝑄
𝑉𝐸 =
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟
WORKED EXAMPLES
Example 1. Calculate the electrostatic force that exist between two charges of values 5.3𝜇𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 3.2𝜇𝐶
placed at 6.0 × 10−4 𝑚. (𝑘 = 9 × 109 𝑁𝑚2 /𝐶 2 )
Solution:
𝑄1 𝑄2 9×109 ×5.3×10−6 ×3.2×10−6
𝐹𝐶 = 𝑘 = = 4.24 × 105 𝑁
𝑟2 (6.0×10−4 )2

Example 2. Determine the electric potential due to charge 5.3𝜇𝐶 placed at that point.
Solution:

𝑄 5.3 × 10−6 × 9 × 109

𝑉𝐸 = = = 79,500𝐾𝑉
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 6 × 10−4

Example 3: Three charges +10C, - 20C and 16C are distributed as shown in the figure below. Find the resultant
force acting on the 10C charge.

+ 10C - 20C
3m

2m

-16C

Solution
Let the Force of attraction between +10C and – 20C be
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 𝑄1 𝑄2
𝐹1 = 𝑘 𝑟2
1
= 9 x 109 x 10 x 20 / 32 = 2 x 1011N (𝑘 = 4𝜋𝜖 2
9 x 109)
0𝑟

Let the Force of attraction between +10C and – 16C be

𝑄 𝑄
𝐹2 = 𝑘 𝑟1 2 2
= 9 x 109 x 10 x 16 / 2 x 2 = 3.6 x 1011N (3.6 x 1011)2

F1

θ
F

Net force = √(𝐹12+𝐹2 2)

F2
(2 x 1011)2 + (3.6 x 1011)2

= 4.2 x 1011N
Tanθ = F1 / F2 = 2 x 1011/ 3.6 x 1011 = 0.555
θ = tan – 1 0.555 = 32.280
The net force is 4.12 x 1011N in a direction 32.280 to the line joining the +10C and – 16C charges.

Example 4: two similar but opposite point charges – q and + q each of magnitude 5.0 x 10 – 8 C are separated by a
distance of 8.0cm in a vacuum as shown below.

-q p +q
5cm 3cm

1
Calculate the magnitude and direction of the resultant electric field intensity E at the point p. (𝑘 = 9 x 109 Nm2C
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 2
–2
)
Solution
At p the direction of the field vector is towards the left since the positive charge at p is attracted towards the –q charge.
−𝑞 5.0×10−8 ×9×109
E–= = = 1.8 x 105NC – 1
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟2 (0.05)−2
The field vector due to +q charge is also directed towards the left since the positive charge at p is repelled by +q
+𝑞 5.0×10−8 ×9×109
E–= = = 5 x 105NC – 1
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟2 (0.03)−2
Resultant electric field is E = E – + E +
E = ( 1.8 x 105 + 5.0 x 105) NC – 1
The field is directed towards the left or towards –q charge.

PRACTISE EXERCISE:

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 ELECTRIC FIELD

1. An electric charge can be transmitted through A. rubber, wood & stone B. clay, paper & plastic C.
the human body, water and metal D. acid cloth & glass
2. The S.I unit of charge is A. Ohm B. Ampere C. Volt D. Coulombs
3. *When the pointed end of an uncharged optical pin is brought near the cap of a positively charged electroscope, it
is observed that the gold leaves A. collapse slowly B. vibrate C. are not affected D. diverge
rapidly
4. Two different materials, rubbed against each other, acquire opposite charges when separated. This is an example of
charging by A. induction. B. friction. C. conduction. D. convection.
5. Which of the following instruments can be used to compare the magnitudes of charges on two given bodies. A.
Electrophorus B. Ebonite rod C. Gold-leaf electroscope D. Capacitor

THEORY
1. (a) What is 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙?
1
(b) Calculate the potential at a point 30𝑐𝑚 from a charge of 1.5 x 10-5𝐶. [4𝜋𝜀 = 9 x 109𝑁𝑚2𝐶-2]
0

2. (a) State Coulomb’s law 2mks

(b) Two equal point charges exert a force 𝑭𝟏 on each other when they are 5.0 x 10−2 𝑚 apart in a vacuum.
Determine the distance between the charges if the force is to be doubled. 5mks
(c) Three charges 𝑋, 𝑌 and 𝑍 of magnitudes 20𝐶, −10𝐶 𝐗 𝐘
and 8𝐶, respectively are distributed in space as 20𝐶 −10𝐶
shown below. If the forces between X and Y is
1.13 x 1011𝑁, and the one between 𝑍 and 𝑋 is
3.60 x 1011𝑁, calculate the: (i) magnitude; (ii)
direction
of the resultant force acting on X. 8mks
8𝐶
𝐙

SUB-TOPIC 2: CAPACITORS

CONTENT
Every conductor may possess one or more of the following properties:

1. It could be mainly a resistor, which means that if a current is passed through it, heat energy is mainly
produced
2. It could be a capacitor which means that when a current passes through it electrical energy or charges are
stored.
3. Finally, it could be an inductor which stores mainly magnetic energy when a current is passed through it. A
Capacitor is essentially a device for storing electrical energy or charges. In general, capacitors can be in the
form of two conductors which are insulated electrically from the surroundings. However, most common
types of capacitors are in the form of two parallel plate conductors which are separated by a very small

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 distance, d. the two plates of the capacitor can be made to carry equal and opposite charges by connecting
the capacitor across the terminals of a battery such that the p.d across the plate is V.

parallel plate capacitor

circuit representation of a capacitor.

This is called “charging”. For a charged capacitor the electric charge on one plate is +q while on the other plate
it is –q. The two metal plates are separated by an insulator. The insulator is called dielectric material. When
the capacitor is connected to a pd source, opposite charges is gradually built up on each of the plate.
The ratio of the charge Q stored on the capacitor to the potential difference between the plates is called
the capacitance of the capacitor. The unit of capacitance is called farad.
𝑄
𝐶= …. …. … . (𝑖)
𝑉
𝑄 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑑 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒.
The most common type of capacitor is the parallel plate capacitor. The capacitance of a parallel plate
capacitor depends on the following factor:
i. Area of overlap of the plates: the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is directly proportional to
the area of overlap of the plates.

𝐶∝𝐴
ii. Distance between the plates: the capacitance of the parallel plate capacitor is inversely proportional to
the distance between the plate.
1
𝐶∝
𝑑
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iii. Dielectric constant of the insulator between the plates: the capacitance of the capacitor is directly
proportional to the dielectric constant of the insulator. The dielectric constant is the permittivity of the
insulator to electric line of flux.
𝐶∝𝜀
Summarily the capacitance of the capacitor is given as:
𝜀𝐴
𝐶= …. … .. … . . (𝑖𝑖)
𝑑
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. The unit of capacitance is A. Farad B. Coulomb C. Henry D. Ohm

2. Which of the following devices is used for storing electric charges? A. Transformer B. Ammeter C.
Potentiometer D. Capacitor
3. When two flat plate conductors are arrange in such a way that they posses equal and opposite charges separated by
a dielectric, they form a/an A. electroscope. B. electrophorus. C. capacitor. D. cell.
4. The capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor A. decreases when the separation between the plates
decreases B. increases when the potential difference between the plates increased C. is greater without a
dielectric material between the plates than with a dielectric D. is greater with a dielectric between the plates
than without a dielectric
5. The capacitance of a parallel-plates capacitor can be increased by A. increasing the separation of the plates B.
increasing the potential difference between the plates C. decreasing the separation of the plates D.
decreasing the area of the plates.
6. The capacitance of parallel-plates capacitors varies A. inversely as the square of the distance between the plates.
B. directly as the square of the distance between the plates. C. inversely as the distance between the plates. D.
directly as the distance between the plates.

THEORY:
(1) Explain what is meant by the statement, ‘the capacitance of a capacitor is 5µF’
(b) List the factors which determine the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor and state the effect of each of
them has on the capacitance.
(2) A parallel-plate capacitor consists of two plates each of area 9.6 x 10-3m2, separated by a dielectric of
thickness 2.25 x 10-4m and dielectric constant 900. Calculate the capacitance of the capacitor. [εο = 8.85 x 10-12
Fm-1]

SUB-TOPIC 3:

ENERGY STORED IN A CAPACITOR.

A capacitor stores electrical energy. When the capacitor is connected to a pd source, the charge on it plate
built up gradually from zero to Q. The workdone is charge with an average voltage is :
1
𝑊= 𝑄𝑉
2
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 1 2
𝑊= 𝐶𝑉
2
1 𝑄2
𝑊= …. … … … .. (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
2 𝐶
The charging and the discharging process for a capacitor is given below:
Charge Q Charge Q

Time t Time t
Charging process Discharging process
ARRANGEMENT OF CAPACITORS
Capacitors can be arrangement in a circuit in parallel or in series.
Series arrangement
Here, the capacitors are connected end to end as shown below.

C1 C2 C3

For capacitors in series; V

- Equal charge Q will be stored in the capacitor.

𝑄1 = 𝑄2 = 𝑄3
- The sum of the potential difference across each plate is equal to the potential difference supplied by
the source.
𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3
𝑄 𝑄
𝑏𝑢𝑡, 𝐶 = ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑉 =
𝑉 𝐶
Substituting this into the expression for V,
𝑄 𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
= + +
𝐶 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3
𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛 𝑄 𝑜𝑢𝑡,
1 1 1 1
= + + …. …. … . (𝑖𝑣)
𝐶 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3

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 The reciprocal of the equivalent capacitance for capacitor in series is equal to the sum of the
reciprocal of the individual capacitors in the series.
Parallel arrangement.
Here, capacitors are arrangement as shown below.

C1

C2

C3

V
For capacitor in parallel,
- The potential difference across the plate of the capacitor is equal.
𝑉 = 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = 𝑉3
- The total charge stored is the sum of all the charged stored in each capacitor.
𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 + 𝑄3
𝑄
But, 𝐶 = 𝑉 , Q=CV, substituting this into the expression for Q,

𝐶𝑉 = 𝐶1 𝑉 + 𝐶2 𝑉 + 𝐶3 𝑉
𝐶 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3 … …. … … (𝑣)
The equivalent capacitance for capacitors in parallel is the sum of capacitance for the individual
capacitor.
Solved question
1. A work of 30 J is done to transfer 5 mC of charge from a point B to a point A in an electric field. The
potential between B and A is
Solution
Charge Q = 5 mC
Work = 30 J
Note that 𝑊 = 𝑄𝑉
𝑊 30
𝑉= = = 6000 𝑉
𝑄 5 × 10−3
2. A capacitor of capacitance 3.0µF is subjected to a 2000 V potential difference across its terminals.
Calculate the energy stored in the capacitor
Solution

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 Capacitance C = 3.0µF
Potential difference V = 2000V
Energy E =?
1
Recall 𝐸 = 2 𝐶𝑉 2
3.0 × 10−6 × 60002
𝐸=
2
𝐸 = 54 𝐽
3. A series arrangement of three capacitors of value 8µ𝐹, 12µF and 24 µF is connected in series with a
90V battery.
i. Draw an open circuit diagram for this arrangement
ii. Calculate the effective capacitance in the circuit
iii. On close circuit, calculate the charge on each capacitor when fully chargeg
iv. Determine the voltage across the 8µF

Solution 8µF 12µF 24µF

i.
ii. For capacitors in series, effective capacitance is given as

1 1 1 1
= + +
𝐶 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3
90V
1 1 1 1 3+2+1
= + + =
𝐶 8 12 24 24
1 6
=
𝐶 24
Taking the reciprocal of both side
𝐶 24
=
1 6
Effective capacitance C=4µF

iii. Recall for capacitors in series,

The charge stored on each capacitor is equal
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉
𝑄 = 4µ × 90
𝑄 = 4 × 10−6 × 90
𝑄 = 3.6 × 10−4 𝐶

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 iv. Recall,
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉

𝑄
𝑉=𝐶
3.6 × 10−4
𝑉=
8 × 10−6
𝑉 = 0.45 × 102 = 45𝑉
The voltage across the 8µF capacitor is 45V

PRACTICE QUESTIONS

1. Which of the following statements about parallel-plate capacitors is / are correct? (I). Capacitance of the
capacitor is inversely proportional to the distance between the plates. (II). Capacitors can filter a.c. signal from d.c.
(III). Capacitors can store charges. A. I only B. I and II only C. II and III only D. I, II and III.

2. Which of the following materials is NOT a suitable dielectric material? A. Paraffin wax B. Ebonite C. Glass D.
Brass
Use the circuit diagram below to answer questions 99 and 100.
2μ𝐹
2μ𝐹

6μ𝐹

10𝑉
3. Calculate the total charge in the circuit A. 80μC B. 35μC C. 20μC D. 16μC
4. Calculate the potential difference across the capacitors in parallel. A. 10.0V B. 8.0V C. 6.7V D. 2.0V
5. The force per unit charge experienced at a point in a field is the A. Gravitational field strength B. Electric
potential C. Electric field intensity D. Magnetic field strength
6. Two capacitors, each of capacitance 2µF are connected in parallel. If the p.d across them is 120V, calculate the
charge on each capacitor. A. 6.0 × 10−5 𝐶 B. 1.2 × 10−4 𝐶 C. 2.4 × 10−4 𝐶 D. 4.8 × 10−4 𝐶

THEORY

1. A series arrangement of three capacitors of value 8µF, 12µF and 24µF is connected in series with a 90V
battery
(i) Draw an open circuit diagram for this arrangement
(ii) Calculate the effective capacitance in the circuit.
(iii) On close circuit, calculate the charge when the charge on each capacitor when fully charged
(iv) Determine the pd across the 8µF capacitor

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 2. The plate of a parallel plate capacitor, 5.0 x 10-3m apart are maintained at a potential difference of 5.0 x
104V. calculate the magnitude of the:
(i) Electric field intensity between the plate
(ii) Force on the electron
(iii) Acceleration of the electron
(Electronic charge = -1.6 x 10-19C, mass of electron = 9.1 x 10-31kg)
3. A capacitor of capacitance 3.0µF is subjected to a 200V potential difference. Calculate the energy
stored in the capacitor

TOPICAL TEST

1. Which of the following statements is correct? When capacitors of different values are connected in series A.
the same charge flows through them. B. the same voltage appears across each capacitor. C. different
quantities of charges flow through them with different voltages across them D. different quantities of charges
flow through them with the same voltage across them

2. The purpose of the dielectric in a parallel-plate capacitor is to A. increase its capacitance B. decrease its
capacitance C. insulate the plates from each other D. increase the magnetic field between the plates
3. Which of the following is CORRECT? Capacitors in A. series have the same voltage B. parallel have the same
voltage C. parallel have the same charge D. series have the same energy storage
4. Which statement of A to D is CORRECT? A capacitor A. need not have an insulator between its plates B.
must have metal plates to store charge C. has no voltage across it when working in a radio receiver D.
has a very high capacitance when air is between its plates
5. Which of the following is NOT a factor affecting the capacitance of a parallel placed capacitors? A. Thickness of the
plates B. Area of the plates C. Dielectric between the plates D. Separation between the plates

THEORY

1. Draw the lines of force associated with the following situations: (i) two unlike charges of equal magnitude (ii) a
positive charge in isolation (iii) two parallel plates carrying unlike charges of equal magnitude.
(c) Two equal point charges exert a force 𝑭𝟏 on each other when they are 5.0 x 10−2 𝑚 apart in a vacuum.
Determine the distance between the charges if the force is to be doubled. GCE 2013

State the standard international colour convention for the insulating material covering the following electrical wires
in a three-pin plug: (i) live (ii) neutral (iii) earth.
(d)
𝑙1 = 1.0𝑚 𝑙2 = 1.0𝑚
+𝑞
2.5𝑚
5𝑘𝑔
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 A water melon of mass 5.0𝑘𝑔 is suspended on a uniform rod of mass 4.0𝑘𝑔 and 4.0𝑚 long as illustrated in the
diagram above. If the rod is in equilibrium by the action of the force between the charges +𝑞 and – 𝑞, calculate the:
(i) anticlockwise moment; (ii) value of 𝑞. [g = 10ms-2] WAEC 2015

2. (a) (i) What is dielectric? (ii) Give five examples of dielectric materials. (b) (i) State two purposes/functions of the
dielectric in a capacitor. (c) Explain briefly dielectric strength.
(d) The plates of a parallel-plate capacitor are 4mm apart in vacuum and 0.2m2 in area. If a potential difference of
200V is applied across the capacitor, calculate : (i) Capacitance of the capacitor (ii) Electric intensity
between the plates. [ɛ0 = 8.85 x 10-12Fm-1].

3. (a) (i) Name one device that stores charges other than a capacitor. (ii) State three applications of a capacitor. (b)
State two ways of increasing the capacitance of a capacitor.
(c) Calculate the capacitance of a capacitor whose plates are 20cm x 3.0cm and are separated by a 1.0mm air gap.
(i) What is the charge on each plate if the capacitor is connected to a 12V battery? (ii) What is the electric field
between the plates?

.
.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS / KEY WORDS / VOCABULARY:

i. Electric field is a region or space where an electric charge experiences a force due to other charges.

ii. Electric force is the force between electric charges.

PUZZLES / BRAIN TEASER:

1. A 10𝐶 charge moves with the a velocity of 1.0 × 105 𝑚𝑠 −1 at right angle to a uniform magnetic field of flux density
5.0 × 10−4 𝑇. Calculate the force on the charge. A. 5.0 × 10−5 𝑁 B. 5.0 × 102 𝑁 C. 5.0 × 105 𝑁 D.
6
5.0 × 10 𝑁
2.A p.d. of 24 V is applied across the plates of a capacitor of capacitance 10F. Calculate the energy stored in the
capacitor. A. 2.41 × 10−6 𝐽 B. 2.88 × 10-6 J C. 1.75 × 10-3 J D. 2.88 × 10-3 J
3.A charge of 2.0 x 10−5 𝐶 experiences a force of 80𝑁 in a uniform electric field. Calculate the magnitude of the electric
field intensity. A.8.0 x 106 𝑁𝐶 −1 B.4.0 x 106 𝑁𝐶 −1 C.2.5 x 10−1 𝑁𝐶 −1 D. 4.0 x 10−4 𝑁𝐶 −1
4.The p.d. across a parallel-plate capacitor is 103 𝑉. If the distance between the two plates is 10cm , calculate the
magnitude of the electric field strength between the plates. A. 1.0 × 104 𝑉𝑚−1 B. 1.0 × 105 𝑉𝑚−1 C.
5 −1 5 −1
1.5 × 10 𝑉𝑚 D. 2.0 × 10 𝑉𝑚
5.Two point charges of 1.8 x 10-9C each are separated by a distance of 3.0 x 10-11m. Calculate the force of repulsion
1
between them. [ = 9.0 × 109 𝑁𝑚2 /𝐶 2] A. 5.4 x 1013N B. 3.2 x 1013N C. 3.4 x 1011N D. 9.7 x
4𝜋𝜀0
102N E. 3.2 x 10-13N

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 6.Two parallel metal plates separated by a distance of 5.0cm, are charged to a voltage of 20V. Calculate the electric field
intensity between them. A. 1.0Vm-1 B. 4.0 Vm-1 C. 25.0 Vm-1 D. 100.0 Vm-1 E. 400.0 Vm-1

7.An electron of charge 1.6 × 10−19 C is accelerated between two metal plates. If the kinetic energy of the
electron is 4.8 × 10−17 J, the potential difference between the plates is A. 400V B. 300V C. 30V D. 40V
8. In a uniform electric field, the magnitude of the force on a charge 0.2C is 4N. Calculate the electric field intensity. A.
20 NC-1 B. 8 NC-1 C. 5 NC-1 D. 2 NC-1
9.The force per unit charge experienced at a point in a field is the A. Gravitational field strength B.
Electric potential C. Electric field intensity D. Magnetic field strength
10.The electric force between two unlike charges, each of magnitude q, separated by a distance r in air of permittivity
𝑞2 𝑞2 𝑞2 𝑞2
𝜀0 is A. 4𝜋𝜀 B. − 4𝜋𝜀 C. 4𝜋𝜀 𝑟2
D. − 4𝜋𝜀 2
0𝑟 0𝑟 0 0𝑟
11. The force of repulsion between two point positive charges 5μC and 8μC charges separated at a distance of 0.02m
apart is A. 1.8 × 1010N. B. 9.0 × 10−8N. C. 9.0 × 102 N. D. 4.5 × 103 N.
12. One of these is used to protect tall buildings from lightning damaged. A. Power surge B. Lightning conductor
C. Keeper D. Photovoltaic cell

INSPIRATIONAL QUOTE: "The greatest enemy of knowledge is not ignorance, it is the illusion of knowledge." - Stephen
Hawking

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WEEK : THREE

TOPIC: ELECTRIC CELLS AND ELECTROLYSIS

LESSON OBJECTIVES: By the end of the lesson the students should be able to:

i. Define the following terms; Electric cell, primary and secondary cell.

ii. Explain The terms polarization and local action in electric cells.

iv. Differentiate between the Dry leclanche and Wet leclanche cell.
v. Describe the Lead-acid accumulator.
vi. Define the term electrolysis.
vii. State the two laws of electrolysis.

ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: The students have been taught sources of Electrical energy.

SUB-TOPIC 1: ELECTRIC CELL

CONTENT:
i. Electric circuit.
ii. Electric cells.
iii. Electrolysis.
iv. Applications of electrolysis.

SUB-TOPIC 1: DEFINITION OF SIMPLE TERMS

ELECTRIC CIRCUIT

Electric current is simply electric charge in motion. In conductors such as cables or wire, the current consist of
swam of moving electron. Electric cells are chemical devices, which are capable of causing an electric current to
flow. This produces electric force, which pushes the current along. If there is a complete circuit of conductors by
which current can leave from one end to terminal of the cell and travel round to the other terminal, a current will
flow. This current will be the at any point round the circuit and of the line is broken, the current is stopped or
switched off. The electrons flow from the negative terminal or cathode of the cell to the procedure terminal or
anode

TYPES OF ELECTRIC CELLS

Electric cells are divided into two namely: the primary cells and the secondary cells

PRIMARY CELLS
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These are those cells in which current is produced as a result of an irreversible chemical charge.

SECONDARY CELLS

These cells are those which can be recharged when they run down by passing current backwards through them.

There are three component in a cell .Two of them are electrodes in the primary cell, the two electrodes are of
different metals (graphite is often used). The third item is the container bearing the electrolyte. Examples of
electrolyte are strips of aluminum, Carbons (graphite) copper, iron lead and zinc.

THE SIMPLE PRIMARY CELL (VOLTAIC CELL)

Bulb

Copper plate zinc plate

(Anode) (cathode)
Diluted 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4

A simple cell can be made by placing two different electrodes (metals) in an electrolyte. Two wire are then used to
connect these metals to a voltmeter, an instrument which measure the potential different between any two point in
an electric circuit. If a deflection is noticed it means that the cell creates a voltage. If the deflection is done to the
right it mean that the electrode, or anode, which is connected to the positive terminal of the voltmeter is the
positive electrode, or anode, while the one is connected to the negative terminal is the negative electrode or
cathode. If the deflection is however done to the left, a reconnection should be done.

The two major deflects of a simple cell are polarization and local action

POLARIZATION

The cell is characterized by the release of “hydrogen bubbles.” The bubbles collect at the positive electrode and
insulate it. This shows down and eventually stops the working of the cell. This defect is called polarization.

This defect can be corrected either by occasionally brushing the plates, which is highly in convenient, or by using a
depolarize e.g. manganese oxide. This oxides hydrogen to form and so removes the hydrogen bubble.

LOCAL ACTION
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This occurs when pure zinc is not in use. The impurities in the zinc results in the gradual wearing away of the zinc
plates. This can be prevented by cleaning the zinc with H2SO4 and then rubbed with mercury. The mercury
amalgamates the zinc by covering the impurities thereby preventing it from coming into contact with electrolyte.

PRACTICE QUESTIONS:
1. Which of these batteries is an example of primary cell?(a) Durcell (b) Lithium ion cell (c) Lead
acid accumulator (d) NiCd cell
2. The negative electrode of the electrochemical cell is called ---- (a) anode (b) cathode (c)
electrode (d) copper
3. Which of these is the cause of polarisation in electrochemical cell? (a) impurities in the
electrode (b) swapping of electrode (c) hydrogen bubble on the cathode (d) spillage of the
electrolyte
4. Which of these is not a care for battery? (a) don’t overcharge secondary cell (b) don’t allow
secondary cell to run down below 20% (c) store battery in cool place (d) don’t recharge primary
cell
5. Accumulators should not be charge in a stuffy place because the gas that emanate during
overcharge ---- (a) is lethal (b) is explosive (c) will react again with the electrolyte (d) can cause
cancer

THEORY

1. Write a short note on polarisation and local effect

2. State how polarisation and local effect can be prevented

SUB-TOPIC 2: ELECTRIC CELLS

LECLANCHE CELL

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Leclanche cells are of two types : the wet and the dried types. The wet leclanche cell consists of a zinc rod at the
cathode in solution of ammonium chloride contained in a glass vessel. The anode is a carbon rod contained in a
porous pot and is surrounded by manganese chloride as a depolarize

An e.m.f. is set up by the zinc, the carbon and the electrolyte, which drives a current from zinc to carbon through
the cell. This carbon is at a higher potential than the zinc. When an external circuit is connected to the cell, current
flows from carbon to zinc out side. The e.m.f is set up because zinc reacts with the ammonium chloride to form zinc
chloride, ammonia and hydrogen, and electrons are released. These electrons flow from the zinc plate to the carbon
plate out side the cell.

Hydrogen reacts with the manganese dioxide and oxidizes it to form water. The e.m.f of a leclanche cell is 1.5 voIts,
defect includeWhen the cell has worked for sometime, the rate of hydrogen production becomes greater than rate
at which it is oxidized by the manganese dioxide, hence the formation of polarization. Therefore the cell must be
allowed to rest from time. These primary cells are restricted to intermittent current supply because they do not give
continuous service.They are too heavy to carry about without spilling the liquid. For the dry leclanche cell, the
defect of heaviness is overcome.

The ammonium chloride electrolyte is a jelly-like material and not aligned solution. The positive electrode is a
carbon rod surrounded by a packed mixture of manganese dioxide and powered carbon, inside a zinc container,
which is the negative electrode.

The dry cell can be carried about easily E.g. torch batteries, and transistor radio batteries. Due to local action, they
deteriorate after sometime.

THE DANIEL CELL

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This is also a primary cell invented to counter the problem of polarization. The zinc rod is the negative electrode
while the positive electrode is the container. The electrolyte is dilute tetrasulphate (vi) acid contained in a porous
pot around the zinc rod, and the depolarize is copper tetraoxosulphate (vi) in the surrounding copper container. The
diaphoreses is mush more efficient than the leclanche cell. The e.m.f. is of a constant value of l..08V.

Secondary cells are of two main type: lead acid accumulator, and the alkaline or Nife accumulation.

THE LEAD-ACID ACCUMULATOR

This is the most common one. It consists of lead oxide as the positive electrode, lead as the negative electrode and
tetra oxosulphate (vi) acid as the electrolyte. During the discharge, when the cell is given out current both plates
gradually charge to lead tetraoxosulphate (vi) while the acid gradually becomes more dilute and the density
decreases. When fully charged the relative density and e.m.f. of the cell are 1.25 and 2.2v respectively. But when
discharged, they are reduced to 1.5 and less than 2.0v respectively. The rod density of the cell should not be
allowed to drop 1.15 before it is recharged.

MAINTENANCE OF LEAD ACID ACCUMULATORS

1 The liquid level must be maintained by using distilled H2O

2. The cell should be charge if relative density of acid falls below 1.15. it is fully charged when relativedensity of
acid is 1.25. It is tested with a special hydrometer.

3.If the cell is not in use for a long time, it should be discharge from time to time or the acid remove and thecell
dried.

4. The battery should be kept clean so that current does not leak away across the casing between the terminals.

THE ALKALINE OR NIFE ACCUMULATORS

The name is gotten from the chemical symbol nickel (Ni) and iron (Fe). The positive electrode is made of nickel
hydrogen while the negative plate is either of iron or calcium. The electrolyte is potassium hydroxide dissolve in
water. This cellslast longer and lead acid cells keep their charge longer and they require less maintenance. They are
used for emergencies in factories and hospitals. They are expensive and bulky with a small e.m.f value, about 1.25v.

Summary

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 Cell Positive Terminal Negative Terminal Electrolyte Depolariser

Simple Copperplate Zinc rod Dilute sulfuric _

acid

Daniell Copper container Zinc rod Dilute sulfuric Copper sulphate

acid solution

Leclanché (wet) Carbon rod Zinc rod Ammonium Manganese

chloride solution dioxide

Leclanché (dry) Carbon rod Zinc container Ammonium Manganese

chloride paste dioxide

Lead-acid Lead oxide Lead Dilute sulfuric _

accumulator acid

PRACTICE QUESTIONS

1. The lead acid-accumulator is an example A. Primary cell B. Secondary cell C. Photocell D. Acidic cell
2. Which of the following properties is an advantage of a lead-acid accumulator over an alkaline accumulator? A.
Possesses B. Can be recharged C. Has shorter life span D. Possesses higher emf
3. Which of the following factors does not affect the 𝑒𝑚𝑓 of a primary cell? Its A. size. B. internal resistance.
C. operating temperature. D. duration of usage.
4. Which of the following statements is not an advantage of an alkaline accumulator? A. The electrolyte does not
need attention B. It can be recharged C. It has low internal resistance D. It has a much longer life than lead-acid
accumulator

THEORY

1. What is the advantage of dry leclanche. Cell over wet leclanchecell.?

2. How can polarization and local action beprevented.

SUB-TOPIC 3: ELECTRIC CIRCUIT SERIES AND PARALLEL ARRANGEMENT OF CELLS AND

RESISTORS
a) Cell Arrangement:
i. Cells in Series: The total emf is the sum of all the emfs.

E1 E2 E3
𝐸𝑇 = 𝐸1 + 𝐸2 + 𝐸3

ii. Cells in Parallel:

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 E1

E2

E3

𝐸𝑇 = 𝐸1 𝑜𝑟 𝐸2 𝑜𝑟 𝐸3, 𝑖𝑓 𝐸1 = 𝐸2 = 𝐸3, 𝑖. 𝑒, 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑒𝑚𝑓𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙.

𝐸𝑇 = 𝐸3, (𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒), 𝑖𝑓𝐸3 > 𝐸2 > 𝐸1

b) Resistors Arrangement:
i. Resistors in Series: R1 R2 R3

V1 V2 V3

𝑉𝑇

𝑉𝑇 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 (Circuital components in series have the same I but different V)

But 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
∴ 𝐼𝑅𝑇 = 𝐼𝑅1 + 𝐼𝑅2 + 𝐼𝑅3
𝐼𝑅𝑇 = 𝐼(𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 )
Dividing through by I, we have 𝑅𝑇 = (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 )
ii. Resistors in Parallel:

I1 R1

𝐼𝑇 I2 R2

I3 R3

𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3
𝑉
But 𝐼 = 𝑅
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
∴ 𝑅 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3
𝑇

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 1 1 1 1
∴ 𝑉 (𝑅 ) = 𝑉 (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3)
𝑇
Dividing through by V, we have:
1 1 1 1 𝑅1𝑅2+𝑅1𝑅3+𝑅2𝑅3
(𝑅 ) = (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3) =
𝑇 𝑅1𝑅2𝑅3

INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF A CELL

In the absence of an external conductor, a chemical cell develops a potential difference E, which is called the
electromotive force (emf) . The electrolyte inside the cell offers a certain amount of resistance when its terminals
are connected and currents flows. This is known as the internal resistance (r). The p.d required to drive a current
through a cell is Ir( lostpd) while that required to drive a current through an external conductor is IR ( terminal pd)

I = E ……………………. 3

R+r

E = I (R + r) = IR + Ir = V + v

Where V = terminal pd r = internal resistance of the cell

R = external resistance v = lost pd

EXAMPLES
1. If four 3𝛀 resistors are connected a) in series b) in parallel, find their net resistance in each case.
Solution:
a) in series, 𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + 𝑅4 = 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 = 12𝜴
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4
b) in parallel, (𝑅 ) = (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + 𝑅4) = (3 + 3 + 3 + 3) = 3
𝑇

𝑅𝑇 3
=4
1

𝑅𝑇 = 0.75𝜴
2. Three cells of value 2V, 2V and 3V are connected a) in series b) in parallel. Find their total emf in each case.
Solution:
a) in series,
𝐸𝑇 = 𝐸1 + 𝐸2 + 𝐸3 = 2 + 2 + 3 = 7𝑉
b) in parallel,
Since 3V has the highest emf among the three cells, 𝐸𝑇 = 3𝑉

PRACTICE QUESTIONS:

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 1. Resistors in parallel have A. The same current passing through them B. The same potential difference across them
C. The wires connecting them D. None of the above

2. A resistor with fixed resistance value is called a A. resistance box. B. standard resistor. C. shunt. D. multiplier.
3. Resistors R1and R2 are connected in parallel, their total resistance is given by A. R1R2/R1+R2 B. R1+R2/R1R2
C. R1/R2 D. R1 +R2/R2
4. The ratio of the combined resistance of 6Ω and 12Ω in parallel to the their combined resistance in series
respectively A. 9:2 B. 2:9 C. 4:9 D. 9:4
5. Three resistors of values 2Ω, 3Ω and 4Ω are placed in parallel. Find their net resistance. A. 9Ω B. 24Ω C.
1.08Ω D. 0.92Ω
6. Five 5Ω resistors are connected in parallel, the equivalent resistance A. 1Ω B. 2.5Ω C. 6.5Ω D. 12.5Ω
7. Two resistors 10 ohms each can be connected to give a combined resistance of : (i) 20Ω (ii) 15Ω (iii) 5Ω (iv) 2Ω A. I
only B. I and II only C. III onl D. I and III only
8. A cell of 𝑒𝑚𝑓 8𝑉 and internal resistance 0.5Ω is connected across a resistor of resistance 2.5Ω. Calculate the
current in the circuit. A. 2.67𝐴 B. 2.75𝐴 C. 3.67𝐴 D. 3.75𝐴

5𝛺
5𝛺
20𝛺

𝐸
9. In the circuit diagram above, E is a battery of negligible internal resistance. If its 𝑒𝑚𝑓 is 9.0V, calculate the current
in the circuit. A. 1.8A B. 1.0 A C. 0.8 A D. 0.3 A
10. Which of the following types of energy is stored by a dry Leclanch𝑒 cell? A. Chemical B. Kinetic C. Electric
D. Light. 2𝛺

4𝛺
3.0𝐴

11. The diagram above illustrates a segment of an electric circuit. Determine the current in the 2Ω resistor.
A. 0.5 𝐴 B. 1.0 𝐴 C. 1.5 𝐴 D. 2.0 𝐴

THEORY
1. State the formula for finding the net emf and resistance when these components are in a) series b) parallel.
2. When two cells of value 2V and 3V are in parallel, what is their total emf?

SUB-TOPIC 4: ELECTROLYSIS
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Is the process whereby a liquid conducts electricity by the movement of positive and negative ions within the liquid
while undergoing chemical changes.

ELECTROLYTES

Are liquid, which allow the electricity through them. Such electricity is salt solutions, alkalis and dilute acids
(acidulated water).

NON-ELECTROLYTES

Are liquids, which do not allow electricity to pass through them. Such liquids include distilled water, alcohol, liquid
paraffin and sugar solution.

NOTE

Metals and hydrogen are deposited at the cathode, while non-metals and oxygen are deposited on the anode. The
anode may dissolve in solution.

Electrolysis does not manufacture electric charges and it is the “splitting’ of compounds by electricity. E.g water
decomposes into oxygen and hydrogen by electric current. Electrolysis begins when the electric circuit is completed
and ends abruptly when the electric circuit is broken.

FARADAY’S LAWS OF ELECTROLYSIS

FARADAY’S FIRST LAW OF ELECTROLYSIS

States that the mass of a substance liberated during the process of electrolysis is proportional to the quantity of
electricity passed through the electrolyte

FARADAY’S SECOND LAW OF ELECTROLYSIS

States that the relative masses of substances liberated by the same quantity of electricity are proportional t their
chemical equivalents.

SIMPLE CALCULATIONS

If M is the mass of substance deposited when a current q flows for time t, then the quantity of electricity of
electricity which flows is flows is It, and

m = Z It.

Where, Z = electrochemical equivalent (e.c.e) the substance.

…. Z = m

It
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 I = current in t = time in see m = mass of subs in grammes.

APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROLYSIS

In industry, electrolysis is used in electroplating of metals, purification of metals and electrolytic production of
metals from compounds.

ELECTROPLATING

This process is used in coating cutlery and other articles with copper, silver, chromium, nickel or gold. The article to
be plated is used as the cathode and the coating metal is used as the anode. The electrolyte is a solution of a salt
of a salt of the plating metal. For example, in the silver –plating of a spoon is made the cathode, pure silver is the
anode, and silver nitrate solution is the electrolyte (see figure below). Two anodes would be placed, one on each
side of the spoon so that back and front would be plated at once.

The silver nitrate dissociates in solution into silver ion and nitrate ions.

AgNo Ag++ NO-3

When electricity is passed through the solution, the Ag ions move towards the cathode where they are discharged
and the spoon becomes coated with metallic silver. The NO remains in solution combining with silver from the
anodes to form more silver nitrate, thus, staying at its original concentration.

THE PURIFICATION OF METALS

In the electrolysis of copper sulphate using copper electrodes, copper is deposited at the cathode while at the same
time the copper from the anode goes into solution.

In purification of copper metal, the impure copper is made the anode while the pure copper is made the cathode.
When current is passed, copper ions are dissolved from the anode and deposited at the cathode leaving the
impurities behind. The pure copper is used in manufacture of electric cables because of its low resistance.

THE ELECTROLYTIC PREPARATION OF METALS FROM COMPOUNDS

Metals such as aluminum, sodium and potassium are prepared from their molten chlorides or hydroxide by th

Solved problems
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 1. In an electrolysis experiment, a cathode of mass 5 g is found to weigh 5.01 g after a current of 5A
flows for 50 s. what is the electrochemical equivalent of the deposited material
Solution
Current I = 5 A
Time t = 50 s
Initial Mass mi = 5 g
Final mass mf = 5.01 g
Mass deposited = mf – mi = 5.01 – 5 = 0.01 g
Recall 𝑚 = 𝑧𝐼𝑡
0.01 = 𝑧 × 5 × 50
0.01
𝑧= = 0.00004 𝑔𝐶 −1
250

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 2. The electrochemical equivalent of platinum is 5x 10-7 kgC-1. To plate out 1.0 kg of platinum, a
current of 100A must be passed through an appropriate vessel for ----
Solution
z = 5 x 10 -7 kgC-1
m =1.0 kg
current I = 100A
time t=?
recall m = zIt
1.0 = 5 × 10−7 × 100 × 𝑡
1.0
𝑡= = 20000 𝑠
500 × 10−7
PRACTICE QUESTIONS:

1. What is meant by the statement “ the electrochemical equivalent of copper is 0.000 33 g /coulomb.

2. A current of 3A maintained for 50 minutes deposits 3.048g of zinc at the cathode. Determine the electrochemical
equivalent of zinc.

3. The electrochemical equivalent of platinum is 5 x 10-7kg/c. to plate-out 1.0kg of platinum, a current of 100A must
be passed through an appropriate vessel for A. 5.6 hours B. 56 hours C. 1.4 x 104 hours D. 2.0 x 104hours.

4..Explain the term electrolysis?

5. Mention at least two uses of electrolysis

6. Explain how electrolysis can be used to calibrate an ammeter?

7. What is an electrolyte

TOPICAL TEST

1. Which of a-d below is correct?(i)Ordinary torch battery is an example of primary cell.(ii) Accumulations have
very high interne resistance.(a)(i) only (b) (ii) only (c)(iii) only (d) (i) and (ii) only
2. Which of the following statement is not true? (a) The chemical action in a primary cell is irreversible (b)
Lead-acid accumulation can be recharged (c) Lead-acid accumulator has large internal resistance (d) A
secondary cell can be recharged
3. The defect in simple cell which result in a back e.m.f and increase in internal resistance is known as (a)local
action (b) reduction (c)polarization (d) oxidation
4. Which of the following instrument is most accurate for comparing e.m.f of two cell? (a) Wheatstone bridge
(b) galvanometer (c) potentiometer (d)meter bridge
5. Which of the following devices coverts mechanical energy to electric current? (a) Battery (b) Photocell (c)
Thermopile (d) Dynamo

GLOSSARY OF TERMS / KEY WORDS / VOCABULARY: Voltameter is a device for studying the flow of current
through a fluid.

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PUZZLES / BRAIN TEASER: What is the difference between voltameter and voltmeter

INSPIRATIONAL QUOTE: "In science, there are no shortcuts to truth." - Karl Popper

WEEK : FOUR

TOPIC: ELECTRIC MEASUREMENT

LESSON OBJECTIVES: By the end of the lesson the students should be able to:

ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: The students have been taught force field in SS1

SUB-TOPIC 1: DEFINITION OF SIMPLE TERMS

IN ELECTRIC MEASUREMENT

CONTENT

✓ Resistivity and Conductivity.

✓ Conversion of Galvanometer to Ammeter and Voltmeter.
✓ Measuring Resistance. (potentiometer, wheatstone bridge, meter bridge)

SUB-TOPIC 1: RESISTIVITY AND CONDUCTIVITY

The resistance of a wire maintained at a constant temperature is related to its length L and its cross-sectional
area (A) by the expression

R = p L /A ……………. 1

Where p is a constant of proportionality known as resistivity of the material. Therefore,

p = RA/L

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 A = Π r2 = Π d2 / 4 where r = radius of conductor d = diameter of conductor

RESISTIVITY

This is the resistance of unit length of material of unit cross sectional area.

When R is measured in ohms, A in m and l inm, the unit of p is its ohm-metre (Ωm).The resistance is the ability of a
material to oppose the flow of current through it. The greater the resistivity of a wire the poorer it is as an
electrical conductor. That is why conductivity is used to specify the current –carrying ability of a material. The
greater the conductivity the more easily can current flow through the material. Hence, materials with high
conductivity will have low resistively.Conductivity бis the reciprocal of the resistivity p.

Б = 1/p …………………… 2

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY

This is a measure of the extent to which a material will allow current to flow easily through it when a p.d is applied
at a specified temperature. It is the reciprocal of the resistivity.

PRACTICE QUESTIONS:

1. The S.I unit for electrical resistivity of a material is A. Ωm B. Ω -1m C. Ω D. F

2. The resistivity ρ, of a material of length 𝑙, cross-sectional area 𝐴, resistance 𝑅, is given by the equation
𝑅𝐴 𝑙 𝑅𝑙 𝑅
A. ρ = 𝑙 B. ρ = 𝑅𝐴 C. ρ = 𝐴 D. ρ = 𝐴𝑙
3. An aluminium cable of diameter 4 x 10-3m and resistivity 3.0 x 10-8Ωm has a resistance of 21Ω. Calculate the length
of the cable. [π = 3.14] A. 8.0 x 102m B. 8.8 x 103m C. 8.0 x 104 m D. 8.8 x 104m
4. A wire of cross-sectional area 0.60𝑚𝑚2 has a resistivity of 7.2 x 10−7 Ω𝑚. Calculate the length of wire that will have
a resistance of 3Ω A. 0.25m B. 2.50m C. 3.60m D. 36.00m
5. Calculate the resistance of a wire of length 10cm, cross-sectional area 2.0 x 10-8m-2 and resistivity 8.0 x 10-
7
Ωm. A. 4Ω B. 10Ω C. 0.04Ω D. 0.004Ω
6. A wire of length 100cm has a resistance of 10Ω. If its cross-sectional area is 0.005cm2, determine its resistivity. A.
0.0005 Ωcm B. 0.0015 Ωcm C. 0.0016 Ωcm D. 0.0700 Ωcm
7. A wire of length 200cm and cross-sectional area 2.0 x 10-3 cm2 has a resistance of 0.20Ω. Calculate its electrical
conductivity. A. 2.0 x 10-6Ω-1cm-1 B. 5.0 x 105 Ω-1cm-1 C. 2.0 x 106 Ω-1cm-1 D. 5.0 x 106 Ω-1cm-1

THEORY

1. wire of length 100cm and diameter 0.3mm is found to be 3.0 ohms. Calculate (a) the resistivity, (b) the
conductivity of the material of the wire.

2. What length of the wire will produce a resistance of 5Ω?

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SUB-TOPIC 2: SHUNT AND MULTIMETERS
i. Shunt: A shunt is a low resistance usually used to convert a galvanometer to an ammeter. It is usually
connected in parallel with the galvanometer.
Ig Rg
I

𝐼 − 𝐼𝑔

Rs
I – Current to be measured
Ig - Current through the galvanometer
Rs - Resistance of the shunt
Rg - Resistance of galvanometer
Note: voltage across the shunt is the same as that across galvanometer.
𝑉𝑔 = 𝑉𝑠
𝐼𝑔 𝑅𝑔 = (𝐼 − 𝐼𝑔 )𝑅𝑔
Example:
A galvanometer gives a full scale deflection when a current of 10mA flows through it. How would you convert
it to an ammeter capable of reading 3A if the resistance of the galvanometer is 5𝛺?
Solution:
To do this, we connect a resistor of low resistance called shunt in parallel with the galvanometer. The value of
such shunt is calculated below:
10mA = 10/1000=0.01A
0.01A, 5𝛺
G
3A
2.99A
Shunt(R)

p.d across galvanometer = p.d across shunt

𝐼𝑔 𝑟𝑔 = 𝐼𝑠 𝑅𝑠
𝐼𝑔 𝑟𝑔 0.01×5
𝑅𝑠 = = = 0.0167𝛺
𝐼𝑠 2.99
Thus, a shunt of 0.0167𝛺 is needed.

ii. Multiplier: A multiplier is a high resistance usually used to convert a galvanometer to a voltmeter. It is
usually connected in series with the galvanometer.

Example:

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To convert a galvanometer to a voltmeter , we need a multiplier R so that the galvanometer could read 20V at
full scale deflection of 10mA. Find the value of R if the internal resistance of the galvanometer is 6 𝛺.
Solution:

R (multiplier)
0.01A G
r=6𝛺
V1 V2
20V

20V = V1 + V2
∴ 20 = 0.01𝑟 + 0.0𝑅
𝑅 = 1994𝛺

PRACTICE QUESTIONS:

1. An ammeter with a full scale deflection of 10𝑚𝐴 has internal resistance of 0.5 Ω. Calculate the resistance of the
shunt required to adapt it to read u D. 0.1000Ω

2. A galvanometer of resistance 50 gives a full-scale deflection when a current of 10 mA flows through it. In order
to convert it to a voltmeter capable of measuring up to 10 V, it will be necessary to connect it to a resistor of
resistance A. 0.05 , in parallel. B. 0.05 , in series. C. 950.00 , in parallel D. 950.00 , in series.
3. A galvanometer of internal resistance of 10Ω has a full scale deflection with a current of 10𝑚𝐴. Calculate the
magnitude of the resistance required to convert it to a voltmeter capable of measuring up to 3𝑉. A. 290Ω B.
300Ω C. 333Ω D. 1000Ω
4. A galvanometer can be adapted to measure potential difference by using a A. shunt B. multiplier C.
rheostat D. resistance box

THEORY:
1. Two resistors of resistance 20Ω each are connected in parallel to each other across a 12𝑉 cell. If a current of 1.2𝐴 is
passed through the circuit for 5𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠, calculate the; (i) combined resistance; (ii) total energy dissipated, in the
circuit.
2. A wire of length 2.0𝑚 has a resistance of 3.0Ω. If its diameter is 0.8𝑚𝑚, calculate its resistivity. [𝜋 = 3.14]
3. A cell has an 𝑒. 𝑚. 𝑓. of 2.0𝑉 and an internal resistance of 1Ω. When it is connected in series with a resistor of
resistance 𝑅Ω, the potential difference between the terminals drops to 1.92𝑉. Calculate the value of R.
4. Calculate the number of 500μF, 240V d.c. working capacitors that would be required to hold the same energy as a
fully charged 12V, 60Ah accumulator.
5. (a) Define 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒. (b) State two advantages that potentiometer has over a voltmeter in measuring
potential difference.
6. Explain the conversion of a galvanometer which has a full scale deflection of 25𝑚𝐴 and a resistance of 10Ω, to an
ammeter capable of measuring 4.025𝐴 and calculate the value of the resistance required. 4mks

MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE

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The methods of measuring resistance are:

1. Voltmeter – ammeter method

2. Wheatstone –bridge
3. Meter-bridge
4. Potentiometer

WHEATSTONE BRIDGE

Wheatstone bridge is an instrument used in getting accurate resistance. It consist of four resistors R1, R2, R3,R4
connected side by side together to form a close circuit. Varying the resistance, a stage is reached when no current
flows through the galvanometer at the centre indicating zero.

I1R1= I2R3

At the same time, the pd between A and C is

I1R2 = I2R4

Diagram of wheatstone bridge

Dividing through the equations

R1 = R 2

R3 Rx

POTENTIOMMETER

The potentiometer is a device used to measure potential difference. It consists of a uniform wire AB of length
100cm stretched on a wooden hard board by the side of a meter rule.

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 Diagram of potentiometer

E2 = L2

E1L1

ADVANTAGE OF POTENTIOMETER OVER VOLTMETER

1. It does not draw current from the circuit at a balance point in error due to internal resistance.
2. It has no zero scale error.
3. It gives an accurate reading for the pd than the voltmeter.

PRACTICE QUESTIONS:
1. State two advantages of potentiometer over voltmeter.
2. Mention two precautions to be ensured in using the metre bridge.
3. Mention an instrument used for comparing the emf of cells.
4. Write down the formulae for net resistance and emf in a circuit.
5. Define conductivity.
6 Write down the relationship between conductivity and resistivity.

A battery of e.m.f 3.0V is connected across a potentiometer wire

𝑨𝑩 of 10Ω𝑚-1 as illustrated in the diagram above. If the jockey 𝑱
makes contact at the 30cm mark, determine the resistance of the
𝑨𝑱 and voltage across 𝑨𝑱. A. 3.0Ω; 0.9𝑉 B. 3.0Ω; 3.0𝑉
C. 3.3Ω; 0.3𝑉 D. 3.3Ω; 9.0𝑉

TOPICAL TEST
1. Six dry cells each of emf 2.0𝑉 and internal resistance of 1.0Ω are connected in parallels across a load of 3.0Ω.
Calculate the effective current in the circuit. A. 0.63 A B. 0.50 A C. 0.31 A D. 0.22 A

2𝑉 2𝑉 2𝑉 2Ω

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2. An electric circuit is connected as illustrated above. Determine the equivalent 𝑒𝑚𝑓 and current flowing through the
circuit respectively, neglecting the internal resistance of the cells A. 2𝑉, 1.0𝐴 B. 2𝑉, 4.0𝐴 C.
6𝑉, 0.3𝐴 D. 6𝑉, 3.0𝐴
3. One of the following is the correct expression for Ohm’s law. A. V=I/R B. R=VI C. I=V/R D. I=VR
4. A car fuse is marked 15A and operates normally on a 12V battery, calculate the resistance of the fuse wire. A. 0.8Ω
B. 1.3Ω C. 3.0Ω D. 27.0Ω

5.
A2
A3

A2
𝟐𝑨
A circuit contains three ammeters 𝑨1 , 𝑨2 and 𝑨3 with readings of 𝑨2 and 𝑨3 shown as indicated in the diagram
above. Determine the reading of 𝑨1 . A. 2A B. 3A C. 5A D. 8A
6. A cell of 𝑒𝑚𝑓 8𝑉 and internal resistance 0.5Ω is connected across a resistor of resistance 2.5Ω. Calculate the
current in the circuit. A. 2.67𝐴 B. 2.75𝐴 C. 3.67𝐴 D. 3.75𝐴

GLOSSARY OF TERMS / KEY WORDS / VOCABULARY:

I. Ammeter: Instrument used to measure electric current.

ii. Galvanometer: instrument used to detect small currents.

iii. Voltmeter: Instrument used to measure potential difference.

PUZZLES / BRAIN TEASER

INSPIRATIONAL QUOTE: "Science is not only a disciple of reason but also one of romance and passion" - Stephen Jay
Gould

WEEK : FIVE

TOPIC: MAGNETIC FIELD

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LESSON OBJECTIVES: By the end of the lesson the students should be able to:

I. Explain what is a magnet.

ii. Mention at least four properties of magnet.

iii. Mention at least four methods of magnetizing.

iv. Mention at least four ways of demagnetizing.

v. mention and explain the magnetic elements of a place.

vi. Explain the device Electromagnet.

vi. Explain at least three applications of an electromagnet.

ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: The students have been taught magntic field in SS1

CONTENT

✓ Magnets and its Properties.

✓ Magnetization and Demagnetization.
✓ Temporary and Permanent Magnets.
✓ Magnetic Flux.
✓ Earth Magnetic Field.

SUB-TOPIC 1: Magnet and its properties

A magnet is any material that is capable of attracting other pieces of the same material as well as pieces of
iron.Lodestone is an iron ore which has the property of attracting pieces of iron’s substance is said to be
ferromagnetic if it is attracted by a magnet. Examples are iron,cobalt,Nickel,and certain alloys. Substances which
cannot be attracted by a magnet are called non magnetic material e.g brass, wood, copper, and glass.

Properties of bar magnets include:

i. Direction: When a magnet is freely suspended, it comes to rest in the South-North direction of the earth.
ii. Attraction: A magnet has the ability to attract magnetic materials e.g, steel, iron, etc.
iii. Force: A magnet exerts force on other magnets in such a manner that like poles repel and unlike poles
attract.
iv. The inseparable nature of poles on the magnetic dipoles: If a magnet is broken into small pieces,
however small it may be, it will still have a North and South Poles. The smallest bit of a magnet is a
dipole.
v. Magnetic lines of force originate from the North pole and terminate at the South pole.

MAGNETIC FIELD
Magnetic field is a region around a magnet where magnetic influence is experienced or felt. It is also a region
where it exerts force on other magnets. It is a vector quantity.

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Properties of Magnetic Lines of Force
i. They originate from the N-pole and end in the S-pole.
ii. Two magnetic lines of force do not cross each other.
iii. Where the lines of force are close together, the intensity of the field is greater; where they are widely
separated, the intensity is less and where they are parallel, the intensity is uniform.
Magnetic field pattern:

Magnetic field intensity: Magnetic field intensity at a point in a magnetic field is defined as the force
experienced per unit N-pole placed at that point.
Magnetic potential at a point is the work done in moving a unit N-pole from infinity to that point.

PRACTICE QUESTIONS:

1. Materials that exhibit very strong magnetic effects are described as A. diamagnetic B. ferromagnetic C.
paramagnetic D. permeable.

2. The region around a magnet in which magnetic force can be experienced is known as A. declination
B. flux density C. field D. flux
3. Magnetic field is felt around the following devices when current is passed through them, EXCEPT a/an A.
capacitor B. conductor C. electromagnet D. inductor E. solenoid

4. If a bar magnet is suspended freely A. It will continue to rotate B. It will come to rest with its axis pointing N-S
C. It will point to the south D. It will point to the north

5. Which of the following statement is correct? A. Repulsion is not the only sure test for polarity B. Like poles of magnets
attract each other C. Unlike poles of magnet remains at rest D. Unlike poles of magnets attract each other

THEORY

1. What is a magnetic field?

2. Enumerate three properties of magnetic flux.
3. Define a neutral point.

SUB-TOPIC 2: MAGNETIZATION AND DEMAGNETIZATION

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Magnetization is a process whereby a material is made to becomemagnetic. This can be achieved through any of
the following methods.

ELECTRICAL METHOD

A cylindrical coil wound with several turns of insulated copper wire is connected in series with a six or twelve volt
electric battery and switch.A coil of this type is called a solenoid.A steel bar is placed inside the coil and the current
is switched on forsometime. On removing and testing the steel, it will be found to have been magnetized. It is
unnecessary to leave the current for long as length of time makes no difference but causes over heating. The
induce polarity depends on the direction of flow of the current. Clockwise flow at an end indicates South Pole while
an anti-clockwise flow indicates North Pole.

SINGLE TOUCH METHOD

A steel bar is stroke from end to end several times in the same direction with a known pole of a magnet. Between
successive strokes the pole is lifted high above the bar otherwise the magnetism already induced will be weakened.
The disadvantage of this method is that it produces magnets in which one pole is nearer the end of the bar than the
other.

DIVIDED TOUCH METHOD

Here the steel bar is stroke from the centre outward with unlike poles of two magnets simultaneously. The polarity
produced at the end of the bar where the stroking finishes is of opposite kind to that of the stroking pole.

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HAMMERING IN THE EARTH’S FIELD:
A weak magnet could be made by using the influence of the earth’s magnetic field. This field acts at an angle to
the horizontal called the ‘’angle of Dip’’. It varies from place to place. It is about 70° in England and Britain. If
it is done in the N-hemisphere, the lower end will be N and same with S-hemisphere.

hammer
Earth’s surface

70° 70°

INDUCED MAGNETISM
Earth’s magnetic field

When a piece of unmagnetized steel is placed either near or in contact with a pole of a magnet and then removed,
it will be magnetized. This is called Induced Magnetism. The induced pole is of opposite sign to that of inducing
pole.

DEMAGNETIZATION
This is the process of making a magnet to lose its magnetic properties. It is the removal of the ferromagnetic
properties of a body by disordering the domain structure of that body.
Methods of demagnetization include:
1. Hammering: magnets can be partially demagnetized by hammering them hard when they are pointing East-
West, that is , at 90° to the earth’s magnetic field direction.
2. Heating: They can also be partially demagnetized by heating them strongly.
3. Electrical method: This is the best method of demagnetization. Here, alternating current is used. The bar
magnet to be demagnetized is placed inside the solenoid with its axis pointing east-west. A rheostat is added to
adjust the current’s value. The a.c is switched on and after a few seconds, the bar is slowly withdrawn from the
solenoid to a far distance away.

East-West direction

Withdrawn to a far place

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PRACTICE QUESTIONS

1. A student uses two compass needles to investigate the magnetic field around a bar magnet. Which of the following
diagrams show the correct directions of the needles?
A. B. C. D.
N S N S N S N S

2. A device that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy is called A. Photocell B. Generator
C. Thermocouple D. Electric motor
3. A bar magnet is broken into two pieces. Which of the following diagrams correctly illustrates the polarities of

N N S S N S N S S N N S S N N N
4. If we cut a magnet into two A. We obtain two magnets B. We destroy the magnets C. The magnet becomes
non-magnetic D. Like poles appear.

5. In storing magnets, keepers are used to A. reduce self-demagnetization. B. cancel the effect of the earth’s
magnetic field. C. protect the magnet from stray electric fields. D. increase the strength of the magnets.

THEORY

1. With the aid of a diagram, explain the following methods of magnetization: electrical, single and divided
touch.
2. What is the demerit of using the method of divided touch?.

SUB-TOPIC 3: TEMPORARY AND PERMANENT MAGNET

Soft iron is pure iron while steel is an alloy of iron and carbon. Steel is a much harder and stronger material than
soft iron. Steel and iron have different magnetic properties.

Iron is easily magnetized than steel but it readily loses its magnetism. Steel produces a stronger magnet, which is
the reason why steel is used for making permanent magnet such as compass needle. In temporary magnets, where
the magnetism is required for a short time, iron is used,e.g electromagnets.

s/n Temporary magnet Permanent magnet

1. Made from soft iron, mu-metal Made from steel, ticomal,
alicomax, cobalt, nnickel
2. Can be easily magnetized Cannot be easily magnetized
3. Can be easily demagnetized Cannot be easily demagnetized.

EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD

When a magnetic needle or a bar magnet is freely suspended, it comes to rest roughly in the N-S poles of the
earth. This shows that the earth acts like a magnet, hence, the earth must have N-S Poles near the geographical
poles.

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The angle between the magnetic North and the geographical North directions at a place is called ‘’the angle of
Declination or Variation’’.

Geographic North
Magnetic North
Angle of Declination

ANGLE OF DIP
S
This is the angle between the horizontal and the resultant earth’s magnetic field. It can also defined as the angle
between the total intensity of the earth’s magnetic field and the horizontal.

Magnetic needle
Horizontal plane
𝜃

𝜃 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑝 S

However, the angle of dip, declination and the earth’s horizontal field strength are called magnetic element.

Evaluation:
1. Distinguish between angle of dip and angle of declination.
2. Enumerate the magnetic elements.

FORCE ON A MOVING CHARGE IN A MAGNETIC FIELD.

The magnetic field exerts a force on a charge moving in the field because charges in motion constitute an
electric current. E.g, the motion of electrons along conducting wires.
The strength of magnetic field, a vector quantity, is represented by 𝜝, called the flux density or magnetic
induction. If 𝜃 is the angle between the magnetic field direction and the direction of motion of the charges, then,
the force, F on the charge is given by:
𝑭 = 𝒒𝒗𝑩𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
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This force will be maximum when sin 𝜃 = 1 ( i. e 𝜽 = 𝟗𝟎𝟎 . The charge moves in a direction perpendicular
to the magnetic field)
This force will be zero when 𝜽 = 𝟎. (i.e the charge moves in the same direction as the magnetic field)
Where:
𝐹 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛, 𝑁
𝑞 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑠, 𝐶
𝑣 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚/𝑠
𝐵 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎, 𝑇 (1𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎 = 1𝑊𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚2 ).

Example:
Find the magnetic force experienced by an electron projected into a magnetic field of flux density 8Tesla with a
velocity of 4.0 × 106 𝑚/𝑠 and in the direction of 60°.
Solution:
𝑭 = 𝒒𝒗𝑩𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
𝐹 = 1.6 × 10−19 × 4.0 × 106 × 8 × 𝑠𝑖𝑛60°
𝐹 = 4.43 × 10−12 𝑁

Note:
a. When an electron is projected perpendicular to the magnetic field, 𝜃 = 90°,
∴ sin 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛90° = 1

𝑯𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆, 𝑭 = 𝒒𝒗𝑩
b. When an electron is projected parallel to the magnetic field, 𝜃 = 0°,
∴ sin 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛0° = 0
𝑯𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆, 𝑭 = 𝟎

PRACTICE QUESTIONS:

1. Which of the following statements is NOT correct about steel and soft iron? A. steel is more readily magnetized
than soft iron B. permanent magnets are usually made of steel C. soft iron is more readily magnetized than steel D.
soft iron more readily loses its magnetism than steel.
3. The angle which the direction of the earth magnetic field makes with the horizontal at a place is known as A. angle
of contact. B. angle of dip. C. angle of declination D. magnetic meridian
4. The magnitude of the magnetic force on a charge 𝑞 moving in a magnetic filed 𝐵 with a velocity 𝑣 perpendicular to
𝐵 𝐵𝑞 𝑞 𝑣
the field is given by A 𝑞𝑣 B. 𝑣
C. 𝐵𝑣 D. 𝑞𝑣𝐵 E. 𝑞𝐵
5. Electromagnets are : I. made of soft iron core II. used in magnetic relays III. temporary magnets. Which of the
statement (s) above is/are correct? A. I only B. II only C. III only D. I and II only E. I, II and III
6.A 10𝜇𝐶 charge moves with the a velocity of 1.0 × 105 𝑚𝑠 −1 at right angle to a uniform magnetic field of flux
density 5.0 × 10−4 𝑇. Calculate the force on the charge. A. 5.0 × 10−5 𝑁 B. 5.0 × 10−4 𝑁 C. 5.0 × 105 𝑁 D.
6
5.0 × 10 𝑁.

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THEORY
1. State the formula for calculating the force on a charge moving in a magnetic field.
2. What is the value of F if an electron is projected parallel to the field.
3. Define angle of declination.
4. When F = 0, what is the value of 𝜃 and why?
5. What is the value of q?

SUB-TOPIC 4: APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROMAGNETS

An electromagnet is made up of a soft iron core around which an insulated wire is wound. It becomes a magnet
only when current flows in the wire. It is a temporary magnet and all temporary magnets are made of soft iron
core.
The strength of electromagnets increases with:
i. Increase in the current within the coil;
ii. Increase in the number of turns of wire of the coil;
iii. Decrease in distance between the poles of the magnet.
The applications/uses include:
i. Electromagnets are used in cranes to lift up heavy loads and objects made of magnetic materials like
iron.
ii. They are used in making electric devices like electric bell, magnetic relay, switches, telephones earpiece,
etc.
ELECTRIC BELL:
• When the bell push is pressed, the circuit is complete and current passes through the
electromagnet and it behaves like a magnet and attracts the soft iron armature and the hammer
strikes the gong.
• The circuit breaks at point A, current stops and the electromagnet loses its magnetism and the soft
iron armature goes back and contact is re-made at A. So if the bell push is pressed again the cycle
continues.

ELEPHONE EARPIECE
• The microphone of the telephone converts varing sound energy from speech to varing speech
current and it enters the earpiece.
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 • The varing speech current leads to variations in the magnetism of the electromagnet. This causes
the vibration of the diaphragm in front which creates sound of the same frequency. Hence the
listener hears the sound.

MAGNETIC RELAY
• A relay is used to make a small current switch a larger current on and off. When a driver turns the
ignition key to start a car, a small current flows through the electromagnet( soft iron core) and it
behaves like a magnet and attracts the iron armature and this closes the contact at B. This brings
a high current to the starter motor from the battery.

• For lifting and transporting heavy equipment made

from pieces of iron and
steel.

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PRACTICE QUESTIONS:
1. What determines the polarity at the ends of an electromagnet? The A. magnitude of the current passing through the
wire. B. material of the core of the magnet. C. material of the coil. D. direction of the current in the wire .
2. The magnetic relay is a device used for A. Timing in sport B. Storing magnetic field C. Reading the magnitude
of magnetic flux D. Controlling another circuit carrying larger current
3. Which of the following substances is used in making the core of an electromagnet? A. Cobalt B. Iron
C. Manganese D. Nickel E. Steel
4. Electromagnets are : I. made of soft iron core II. used in magnetic relays III. temporary magnets. Which of the
statement (s) above is/are correct? A. I only B. II only C. III only D. I and II only E. I, II and III
7. 5. Which of the following is NOT an application of electromagnet? A. Construction of electric bell B.
Lifting of heavy piece of iron C. Making of magnet from soft iron D. Production of magnetic field in generator
E. Separation of iron from non-magnetic substances.

THEORY
1. (a) What material is recommended for making the core of an electric bell? (b)Give two reasons for your answer.
2. ) Explain the action of a 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦.

TOPICAL TEST
1. Find the magnetic force experienced by an electron projected into a magnetic field of flux density 8Tesla with
a velocity of 4.0 × 106 𝑚/𝑠 and in the direction of 40° . Also find F when the electron is projected normal to the
field.
2. A force F projected an electron into a magnetic field of flux density 10 Tesla with a velocity of 2 × 107 𝑚/𝑠
and normal to the field. (𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶).
3.An electron moves with a speed of 2.00 × 107 𝑚𝑠 −1 in an orbit in a uniform magnetic field of 1.20 × 10−3 𝑇.
Calculate the radius of the orbit. [𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 = 9.11 × 10−31 𝑘𝑔, 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 =
1.61 × 10−19 𝐶] WAEC 2014
4. List three magnetic elements that determine the earth’s magnetic field at a point.

5. List two factors which determine the magnitude of induced 𝑒𝑚𝑓 in a coil. (c) A current of 5𝐴 passes through a
straight wire in a uniform magnetic field of flux density 2.0 × 10−3 𝑇. Calculate the force per unit length exerted
on the wire when it is inclined at 300 to the field.
6. An electron enters perpendicularly into a uniform magnetic field which has a flux density of 0.12𝑇. This results in
a magnetic force of 9.6 x 10−12 𝑁 on the electron. Calculate the speed of the electron as it enters the magnetic
field. [𝑒 = 1.6 x 10−19 𝐶 ]
7. (a) State two ways of demagnetizing a magnet.
(b) With the aid of a diagram, explain how a metal rod can be made into a magnet by divided touch method.
8. Which of the following metal sheets will be strongly deflected when suspended in a magnetic field? A.
Aluminium B. Brass C. Copper D. Nickel E. Platinum
9. Which of the following statements about magnetic lines of force is NOT correct? They A. pass through even non-
magnetic materials. B. run from the north pole to the south pole. C. are in a state of tension and tend to be
shorted. D. intersect one another.
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10. Magnetic flux density is defined as the A. magnetic force exerted by the earth. B. magnetic force exerted on a
unit magnetic pole. C. number of magnetic lines of force per unit area normal to the magnetic field. D. strength
of the magnetic field surrounding a current-carrying conductor E. total number of magnetic lines of force
surrounding a magnet.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS / KEY WORDS / VOCABULARY:

i. Magnetic field: A region or space where a magnet experiences a force due to other magnets or an electric
current.
ii. Magnetic force: Force between magnets.
iii. Magnetic keeper: They are small pieces of iron used to protect bar magnets from self-demagnetization with
time.
iv. Magnetic materials: materials that can be magnetized by a magnet; in their unmagnetized state they are
attracted by a magnet.

PUZZLES / BRAIN TEASER

1. A magnetic substance can be demagnetized by (a) dropping on the floor (b) hammering while hot (c) divided
touch (d) single touch

3. Which of the following pairs of metals will be picked up by an electromagnet? (a)Aluminium and Copper
(b) Brass and Copper (c) Iron and Steel (d)Aluminium and Brass

4. Which question can be asked to determine if a material is magnetic or non-magnetic? (a) Is it a metal or a
non-metal? (b) Is it a conductor or an insulator? (c) Is it a solid or a gas(d)Does it affect the direction
of a compass needle?

5. The angle between the magnetic meridian and the geographic meridian at a place on the earth is known as A.
dip B. declination C. longitude. D. latitude

6. The angle which the direction of the earth magnetic field makes with the horizontal at a place is known as A. angle
of contact. B. angle of dip. C. angle of declination D. magnetic meridian
7. A sailor observes that his mariners’ compass reads N 100 W at a place where the angle of declination is N150W.
Calculate the true bearing of the place. WAEC 2012

INSPIRATIONAL QUOTE: "The more I learn, the more I realize how much I don't know." - Isaac Newton

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WEEK : SIX

TOPIC: ELCTROMAGNETIC FIELD

LESSON OBJECTIVES: By the end of the lesson the students should be able to:

I. Draw the magnetic field pattern for the following:

Magnetic Field around a Straight Conductor Carrying Current

Magnetic Field around a Circular Conductor Carrying Current
Magnetic Field around a Solenoid.
Force between two Parallel Current Carrying Conductors.
II. Explain the principle guiding the concept of electromagnetic field.
III. Mention and explain the working of the electric motor.
IV. Mention and explain the working of the moving coil Galvanometer

ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: The students have been taught magnetic field in SS1

CONTENT

I. PATTERNS OF MAGNETIC FIELD AROUND CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTORS

Magnetic Field around a Straight Conductor Carrying Current
Magnetic Field around a Circular Conductor Carrying Current
Magnetic Field around a Solenoid.
Force between two Parallel Current Carrying Conductors.
II. Concept of Electromagnetic field
III. Applications of electromagnetic field

SUB –TOPIC 1:PATTERNS OF MAGNETIC FIELD AROUND CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTORS

(a) PATTERN OF MAGNETIC FIELD AROUND A STRAIGHT CURRENT CONDUTOR

A straight conductor carrying current can be shown that it has magnet filed around it. Allow a thick isolated copper
wire to pass vertically through a hole in a card board sheet. As shown below, sprinkle some iron fillings uniformly
on the cardboard around the vertical wire connect the ends of the wire to a battery, switch on the current and place
some compass needles around the wire. Note the direction to which the compass needle point. Switch on the
current and note the swing of the needles and how they point.
Observation
It will be observed that when current is switched on and the card board is gently tapped, the fillings arrange
themselves in a series of concentric circles about the wire as centre. Also as soon as the current is switch on, the
needles will swing around and form a circle with the wire as centre. The direction of the iron fillings depends on the
direction of flow of the current.

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MAGNETIC FIELD AROUND A STRAIGHT CONDUCTOR CARRYING CURRENT

The direction and pattern of the magnetic field around a straight conductor carrying current can be determined
using the the following rules.
(a) Maxwell’s Cork Screw Rule:which states that when a right handed cork screw is turned, the direction of
motion of the cork represents the direction of current while the direction of rotation of the cork represents
the direction of the magnetic field.
(b) Right Hand Grip Rule (or Clenched Fist Rule):Grip the wire with your right hand so that your thumb points in
the direction of flow of the current, your fingers will then point in the direction of the magnetic field around
the wire.

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 (b) MAGNETIC FIELD AROUND A CIRCULAR CONDUCTOR CARRYING CURRENT

©MAGNETIC FIELD AROUND A SOLENOID

(d) FORCE BETWEEN TWO PARALLEL CURRENT-CARRYING CONDUCTORS

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The below rules govern the direction of the magnetic field round the current-carrying conductors.
1. Maxwell: If a right handed cork screw is turned so that it travels along the direction of the current, the
direction of the cork screw is the direction of the magnetic field.
2. Clenched Fist Rule: If the wire is grasped with the right hand so that the thumb point in the direction of the
current, the Clenched Fist direction is the direction of the magnetic field.

When current flows in the same direction, the conductors will repel each other, and when current flows in the same
direction in the conductors, they attract.

PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. Alloys for making powerful permanent magnets are these except --- (a) alcomax (b) alnico (c) mumetal(d)
ticonal

2. One of the following rules can be used to determine the direction of the magnetic field around a straight
current carrying conductor. (a) Fundamental law of magnetism(b) Clenched fist rule (c) Fleming’s right
hand rule (d) Fleming’s left hand rule
3. The direction of motion of a current-carrying conductor placed within the opposite poles of a magnet is determined using
A. Fleming’s left-hand rule B. Fleming’s right-hand rule C. Maxwell’s corkscrew rule D. Ampere’s rule
4. Two straight current-carrying conductors are placed near each other. Which of the following diagrams correctly
illustrates the magnetic field pattern formed by the conductors?
A B C D

THEORY

1. State Maxwell’s cork screw rule.

2. Draw the diagram showing the magnetic field around a solenoid.

SUB TOPIC 2: CONCEPT OF ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD

CONCEPT OF ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD

An electromagnetic field is that field that results from the
interaction of the electric and magnetic fields. Direction of current
When a current carrying conductor is passed in a
magnetic field, the conductor will experience a force.
Direction of magnet field

The direction of the force on a current carrying conductor placed perpendicular to the magnetic field is given by
Fleming’s left-hand rule which is stated as follows:

Fleming’s Left Hand Rule:

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It states that, ‘’If the first three fingers are mutually at right angles to each other, with the Forefinger in the
direction of the field, B and the mIddle finger in the direction of the convectional current, I, then, the thuMb is
in the direction of the motion, M or force on the conductor’’.

If the direction of flow of current is reversed by reversing the connections at the battery terminals, the rod will be
observed to move towards the left, opposite to the previous direction of motion.

If one turns the magnet such that the magnetic field is parallel to the length of the rod, it will be observed that the
current carrying rod remains stationary no matter the amount of current that passes through. There is therefore no
force on the rod.

FORCE ON A MOVING CONDUCTOR IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

When current flows through a current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a force.
This principle is applied in the design of galvanometer. The force is:
- directly proportional to the current flowing in the conductor
- directly proportional to the magnetic field strength of the magnetic
- directly proportional to the length of the conductor
The magnitude of the force is given as
𝐹 = 𝐵𝐼𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 …. …. …. … . (𝑖)
Where;
B - is the strength of the magnetic field of the magnet
I - is the current flowing in the conductor
L - is the length of the conductor
ϴ - is the angle the conductor makes with the direction of the magnetic field
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PRACTICE QUESTION
1. A current-carrying conductor of length 𝑙 and carrying current 𝐼, at angle 𝜃 to a field 𝐵 will experience a force given
𝐵𝐼 𝐵𝐼𝑙 𝐼𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃
by A. 𝐵(𝐼– 𝑙) 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 B. 𝑙𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 C. 𝐵𝐼𝑙 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 D. 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 E. 𝐵𝑙
2. The diagram below shows a current-carrying conductor between the poles of a horse-shoe magnet. The direction of
the motion of the conductor will be
I

N S

A. in the same direction as the current B. into the paper C. out of the paper D. towards the north pole of
the magnet E. towards the south pole of the magnet.
3. A current I passes through a straight conductor of length L in a magnetic field of magnitude B. if the angle between
B and I is θ, the magnitude F of the force on the conductor is given by the equation A. F= BIL cos θ
B. F= BIL sin θ C. F= BIL tan θ D. F= BIL cot θ

THEORY

I. (a) A wire of length 10𝑐𝑚 carrying a current of 4.0𝐴 is placed between the poles of a powerful electromagnet of a
magnetic flux density 2.0𝑇. Calculate the: (i) force on the wire when it is parallel to the field; (ii) maximum force on the
wire; (iii) force one the wire when it makes an angle of 600 with field.
2. What is an electromagnetic field?
3. State Fleming’s left hand rule and where is it applicable.

Sub-Topic 3: APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD

1. Moving-Coil Galvanometer

Components:
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1. A rectangular coil with many turns.
2. A powerful magnetic field between the curved pole N & S, and a soft iron cylinder.
3. Spring to control the angle of rotation of the coil.
4. A pointer and a linear scale.

Workability:
The coil is suspended so that it can rotate freely in the magnetic field. When a current flows, it enters the meter
from the terminal connected to the spring, goes round the coil and returns back. As the circuit is completed, the
coil then rotates about the V-axis between the jewelled bearings. The rotation is due to the two opposite forces
of the current and the magnetic field.
This rotation is then opposed by the forces due to the springs. The pointer attains equilibrium position when the
forces causing the rotation are equal to the forces due to the springs.
The angle of rotation is proportional to the current strength, that is, increase in current increases the angle of
rotation.
The uniform scale is calibrated in a way that equal divisions represent equal changes in current. The value of the
current can then be read on the scale.

2. The Electric Motor

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Components:
1. A coil of wire called the armature, which turns about a fixed axis.
2. A powerful magnetic field in which the coil turns.
3. A cummutator ( split rings).

Workability:
When the armature is horizontal and current flows through the coil, the direction is clockwise. This produces S-
pole on top of the armature, which then is attracted to the N-pole of the permanent magnet; likewise the N-pole
of the armature at the bottom, which also gets attracted to the S-pole of the permanent magnet. Hence, the
armature rotates through 90° about its axis to the vertical position.
As the armature rotates, the cummutator also rotates with it, making the split rings to interchange contact. This
therefore reverses the polarity because the battery connection to the coil is reversed, thus, reversing the
current’s direction.
This reversal in current produces N-pole in place of the S-pole. This created N-pole will now be repelled by the
N-pole of the permanent magnet, making the armature to rotates another 90° about its axis to attains its
horizontal position.
As the current continues to flow, the process is repeated, making the armature(coil) to rotate continuously.

PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. Which of the following components is not in a d.c. electric motor? A. Armature B. Split-rings C. Transformer D. Magnet

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 2. An electric motor converts A. electrical energy to mechanical energy. B. mechanical energy to electrical
C. mechanical energy to sound energy. D. electrical energy to thermal energy.
3. When current flows through a moving-coil galvanometer, the force exerted on the pointer depends on the: (I)
strength of the current; (II) magnetic field strength; (III) length of the coil. Which of the statement(s)
above is/are correct? A. I only B. II only C. I and III only D. I, II and III
4. In a D.C motor, the split-ring commutator ensures that (a) the direction of the current in the coil is reversed
after every half turn (b) the flow of current in the coil is constant (c) the wires carrying the current to the
coil do not get tangled (d) the magnitude of the current is progressively increased.
5.The direction of current flow in an electric motor is reversed by a/an A. armature B. carbon-brush
C. coil D. commutator E. magnet

THEORY
1. What are the applications of the electromagnetic field?
2. State three components of the moving coil galvanometer.
3. What is another name for the coil in the electric motor?

TOPICAL TEST

1. The force on a charge moving in a magnetic field is ……….. to the speed of the charge (a). inversely
proportional (b) opposite (c) directly proportional to the (d) parallel
2. What is the force on an electron of charge -1.6 X 10-19C, mass 9.1 X 10-31Kg and speed2.0 X 107ms-1which
enters perpendicularly into a magnetic field of strength 0.010T (a) 3.2 X 10 -14N(b) 3.2 X 10 -12N (c) 5.2 X
10 -24N (d) 3.5 X 10 -12N
3. Calculate the radius of the circular path travelled by the electron in (4) above. (a) 3.2 X 10 -14m (b) 1.2 X 10
-4m (c) 1.14 X 10 -2m (d) 4.12 X 10 -14m

4. When the direction of current in a conductor is parallel to the magnetic field, the force of the conductor is
…… (a) maximum (b) perpendicular (c) zero (d) opposite the field.

THEORY

1. State Fleming’s left hand rule.

2. Explain how the direction of current in a conductor placed in a magnetic field affects the force on the
conductor.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS / KEY WORDS / VOCABULARY:

i. Electromagnet is a temporary magnet produced by passing an electric current through a coil of wire wound
on a soft iron core.

ii. Motor effect: A wire carring a current in a magnetic field experiences a force. If the wire can move, it does
so as in electric fan

PUZZLES / BRAIN TEASER; what factors will increase the turning effect of the motor in the electric fan.

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INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES: "The best way to predict the future is to create it." - Peter Drucker

WEEK : EIGHT

TOPIC: ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

LESSON OBJECTIVES: By the end of the lesson the students should be able to:

i. Explain the term Electromagnetic induction.

ii. State the two laws of Electromagnetic induction

iii. Differentiate between A.C generator and D.C generator.

iv. Explain how the induction coil works.

v. Differentiate between the step down and step up transformer.

vi. Mention four energy losses in the transformer and how they can be minimized.

ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: The students have been taught electromagnetic field

CONTENT

✓ Induced Current
✓ Laws of Electromagnetic Induction
✓ Induction Coil
✓ A/C and DC Generator
✓ Transformer and Power Transmission

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SUB-TOPIC 1: ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
Michael Faraday in 1832, at the age of 41 discovered that electricity could be produced without any battery by
using magnetic fields. This phenomenon is called ‘’Electromagnetic when the speed of the relative motion
Induction’’.

‘’Electromagnetic induction is thus defined as a process whereby an emf is produced or induced in a

conductor by the relative motion of the conductor and a magnetic field’’.
Experiments show that:
a) An emf is induced in the coil whenever there is a relative motion between the coil and the magnet.
b) The magnitude of the induced emf increases when the speed of the relative motion between the magnet
and the coil, the strength of the magnet, the number of turns of the coil all increases.
c) The induced emf would also increase if there is soft iron core inside the coil.

However, current can also be induced in a straight conductor when a magnetic field is applied perpendicular to
it. The direction of the current is given by FLEMING’S RIGHT HAND RULE, which state that, ‘’If the first
three fingers of the right hand are held at right angle to each other, with the Forefinger in the direction of
the field, and the thumb in the direction of the motion, then the mIddle finger is in the direction of the
induced current’’.

Note that FLEMING’S LEFT HAND RULE is used to determine the direction of current in a conductor; while
FLEMING’S RIGHT HAND RULE is used to determine the induced emf in a magnetic field.

LAWS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

1. Faraday’s Laws:
- Whenever there is a change in the magnetic lines of force (magnetic flux) linked with a circuit, an emf is
induced in the circuit.
- The induced emf in a circuit is directly proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic flux linking
the circuit.

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 2. Lenz’s Law: It states that the induced emf flows in such a way or direction as to oppose the motion
producing it.

EDDY CURRRRENTS
When a metallic sheet such as an aluminium sheet swings in a magnetic field, it cuts through the magnetic lines
of force. Hence, the sheet quickly comes to rest and such motion is said to be damped. This is in line with
Lenz’s law because the induced emf in the sheet opposed the sheet’s motion, making it to come to rest. This
induced emf also produces induced current, known as Eddy Current, because it flows in circular paths or closed
loops within the conducting material like the eddy current in water.
Advantages of eddy currents are:
- They are desirable in moving coil instruments because of the resulting damping known as
electromagnetic damping
Disadvantages are:
- They generate heat in materials;
- The heat generated leads to wastage of energy in electrical devices.

PRACTICE QUESTIONS

THEORY

1. Explain the term electromagnetic induction.

2. Describe how induced current are produced.
3. State Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction
4. State Lenz law
5. What are the benefits of these law to modern day engineering/

SUB-TOPIC 2: APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

A machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy or electrical energy into mechanical energy is
called a dynamo. When it changes mechanical energy into electrical energy it is called a generator, but when it
changes electrical energy into mechanical energy, it is called a motor.

I. Generator
This device converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. It is a reverse of the electric motor. It contains a
coil pivoted in a magnetic field. When the coil s rotated in the magnetic field electrical energy is generated.
There are two classes of generators, the alternating current (A.C) generator and the direct current (D.C) generator.

A.C GENERATOR

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The A.C. generator consists of:

a. an armature – a rectangular coil consisting of a large number of turns of insulated wire wound on a
laminated soft iron core.
b. a magnetic field created by the curved poles of a horse-shoe magnet or an electromagnet.
c. two copper slip rings to which the ends of the rectangular coil are connected and which rotate with the
armature.
d. two stationary carbon brushes which are made to pressed lightly against the slip rings

DIRECT CURRENT (D.C) GENERATOR

An A.C generator can be made to produce a D.C by replacing the two slip rings with a single split ring or
commutator. A split ring commutator is a split ring that has been split into two segments which are insulated from
each other. The ends of the coil are connected one to each split ring or commutator segment.

The commutator is a current reverser. When the armature coil is rotated, the commutator automatically
switches each end of the coil from one brush to the other each time the coil completes one-half of a revolution. As
the current reverses in the coil after each half revolution, the connection between the coil and the brushes are
reversed through the action of the commutator.
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 II. INDUCTION COIL

This is an electrical device that is capable of producing a very high intermittent e.m.f .by electromagnetic induction
from a low voltage d.c.

Source e.g battery

It consist of

i. A primary coil, made up of a few turns f thick copper wire, wound on a laminated soft iron core. The
lamination of the core is to reduce loss of energy due to eddy currents.
ii. Secondary coil overlapping the primary coil. It is made up of a large number of turns of insulated thin
copper wire. The ends of this coil are connected to an adjustable spark gap created by two adjustable brass
rods.
iii. In front of the soft iron core of the primary coil is a make-and-break-device consisting of soft iron armature
carried on a light brass spring to which is attached a platinum contact with adjustable screw. The primary
circuit is completed from this contact through a key and the battery which provide the current.The induction
coil is commonly used in motorcar ignition system and in the operation of x-ray tubes.

PRACTICE QUESTIONS

1. The current produced by a simple dynamo is not steady because (a) a back e,m,f opposes the induced
voltage (b) eddy currents oppose the motion which induces them, and absorbs energy from the current
( c) the magnetic field produced by the magnet is not sufficiently uniform (d) the induced current
opposes the motion which causes it, in accordance with Len’s law.
2. Induced current depend on the --- (a) number of turns in the coil (b) strength of the magnet (c) speed with
which the magnet is plunged into the coil
3. Lenz law of electromagnetic induction is essentially a statement 0f the law of the (a)inverse square law of
gravitation (b) inverse square law of magnetism (c) inverse square law of electrostatics (d) law of
conservation of energy
4. Which of the following operation will not lead to an increase in the induced e.m.f in a coil of wire rotating
between the poles of a magnet? Increasing the --- (a) area (b) strength of the magnet (c) gap between the
poles of the current(d) number of turns in the coil (e) speed of rotation in the coil
5. Which of the following statements about a generator is not correct?(a) It can produce direct current (b) It
requires an external supply of energy to rotate the coil(c) It requires an external supply of current to the coil
(d) It can produce alternating current
6. In which of the following activities is an induction coil NOT useful? A. Investigation of high voltages B. Study of
electric discharge C. Operation of X-ray tubes D. A.C. power transmission

THEORY

1. Describe the principle of operation of the induction coil.

2. Describe how induced current are produced.

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SUB-TOPIC 3: TRANSFORMER

A transformer is an electrical device for changing the size of an a.c. voltage. It acts to increase or decrease the em.f
of an alternating current. It consists of two separate sets of coil, the primary coil and the secondary coil. The
primary coil is the input winding of turns of wire and the secondary coil is the output winding. The coils are wound
round a soft-iron core. The soft-iron core acts to increase and concentrate the magnetic flux within the core. It is
also laminated, i.e. it consists of sheets of soft-iron insulated from each other instead of a solid block of iron. This
lamination reduces loss of energy in the form of heat due to eddy currents introduced in the core.

STEP DOWN TRANSFORMER

When an alternating e.m.f. or A.C voltage (EP) is applied at the terminals of the primary coil (p), an alternating
magnetic flux is produced in the iron core which links or threads the secondary coil (s). An alternating e.m.f (Es) of
the same frequency as that Ep is induced in the secondary coil by mutual inductance.

Mutual inductance is the flow of induced current or voltage in a coil due to an alternating or varying current in a
neighboring coil.

The total flux linking the two coils is proportional to their number of turns. The induced e.m.f in the secondary coil
(Ep) depends on the e.m.f. in the primary coil and on the ratio of the number of turns in each

:. ES= Ns

EpNp

In an ideal transformer with a 100% efficiency, the power developed in the secondary coil is equal to the power
developed in the primary coil.

:. Es = I p

Ep Is

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Hence,Es = Ns= Ip

EpNpIs

To use a transformer to increase an applied voltage, i.e to make Es greater than Ep, Ns must be greater than Np.
Such a transformer which increases or steps up the applied or primary voltage is called a step-up transformer. In a
step-up, the primary current is greater than the secondary current but the primary voltage is less than the
secondary voltage.

ENERGY LOSSES IN PRACTICAL TRANSFORMER

There are energy losses in practical transformers due to:

i. Eddy currents
ii. Hysteresis loss
iii. Heat loss
iv. Leakage of magnetic flux

Eddy Current reduces efficiency because they consume power and this causes energy lost in the form of heat. Such
loss can be reduced by laminating the core.

Hysteresis loss is wasted energy due to reversing the magnetization of the core. It is reduced by the use of special
alloys in the core of the primary coil.

Heat loss is the primary and secondary coils have resistance, some energy is lost in the form of heat (I2R) in the
coils. This can be reduced by using thick wires or low resistance coils.

Some energy is lost due to leakage of magnetic flux. This arises because not all the lines of induction due to current
in the primary coil pass entirely through the iron core. This loss is reduced by efficient core design.

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Examples

1. Find the turns ration in a transformer which delivers a voltage of 120V in the secondary coil from a primary
voltage of 60v.

Turns ration =Ns= 120= 2

Np60

2. Atransformer has 500 turns in the primary coil and 300 turns in the secondary coil. If the primary coil is
connected to a 220v mains, what voltage will be obtained from the secondary coil? What type of transformer is
this?

Es = Ns

EpNp

Es =300

220 500

Es = 220 x 300

500

Es = 132 V

It is a step-down transformer because secondary voltage is less than primary voltage (132 < 220)

3. A transformer supplies 15v from a 220v mains. If the transformer takes 0.7A from the mains when used to light
three lamps connected in parallel and each rated 15v, 40w calculate:

i. the efficiency of the transformer

ii.the cost of using it for 24hrs at 30k per kwh.

Primary or input power = IpVp

= 0.7 x 220 = 154w

Secondary (output power) =IsVs = (Is x 15 )W

p = ISV

p = Is

V
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Is = 40= 2.67A.

15

Total current taken by the 3 lamps in parallel = 3 x 2.67 =8A

:. Output power = 8 x 15 = 120 W

Efficiency = Output Power X 100

Input Power

= 120x 100 = 78%

154
Power consumed = 0.7 x 220Kw

1000

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Total power consumed in 24 hrs

= 0.7 x 220 x 24kwh

1000

Cost at 30k per Kwh

= 0.7 x 220 X 24 X 30

1000 100

= N1

PRACTICE QUESTIONS

1. A device for obtaining high 𝑒𝑚𝑓 from a low 𝑎𝑐 voltage is A. dc generator B. dynamo C. electric motor
D. induction coil E. transformer
2. Energy losses in transformers are reduced by I. laminating its core II. using coils made of iron III. using soft
iron core. Which of the following is/are correct? A. I only B. II only C. I and II only D. I and III only E. II
and III only
3. Hysteresis loss is reduced by A. laminating the core B. special coil winding C. using soft iron core D.
using thick wires for windings E. varying current
4. Induction coil is used to A. amplify radio signal B. pass information in relay C. produce 𝑑𝑐 D. produce spark
in motor car ignition E. rectify an 𝑎𝑐
5. Which of the following conditions must be satisfied in the construction of a step down transformer? Use of A.
high resistance wire B. laminations for the core C. more turns in the secondary coil D. steel for the core E.
thick wire for the primary coil
6. An induction coil is generally used to A. modulate an incoming radio signal B. produce a large input voltage
C. produce a large output voltage D. rectify an 𝑎𝑐 E. smoothen a pulsating 𝑑𝑐

THEORY

1. Draw a labeled diagram to explain the working of a transformer which can produce 24v from a 240v supply.
2. Give two reasons which explain why the efficiency of the transformer cannot be 100%.

SUB-TOPIC 4: POWER TRANSMISSION

Power generated at power stations are distributed over large distances to consumers through metal cables. Power
can be transmitted either at low current and high voltage or at high current and low voltage. Because the metal
cables through which the power is transmitted have a certain amount of electrical resistance, transmitting power at
high current will lead to loss of energy in the form of heat. To avoid this, power is transmitted at high voltage and
low current. This is known as high tension transmission.

Low currents leads to low energy loss. It also requires thinner cables, cost of cable materials is considerably
reduced if power is transmitted with low current and high voltages.

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Step down transformers are used to reduce the high transmitted voltages to lower voltages required in home and
factories.

PRACTICE QUESTIONS

1. Which of the following practices will lead to losses in electrical power transmission? A. Using transmission
cables of large diameter B. Transmitting at high voltage and low current C. Transmitting at relatively low voltage
and high current D. Using a step-up transformer at the production end.
2. Which of the following modes is the most economical method of transmitting electrical power over long
distances? A. Alternating current at low voltage and high current B. Alternating current at high voltage
and high voltage C. Alternating current at high voltage and low current D. Direct current at low voltage
and high current
3. Which of the following practices will lead to losses in electrical power transmission? A. Using transmission
cables of large diameter B. Transmitting at high voltage and low current C. Transmitting at relatively low
voltage and high current D. Using a step-up transformer at the production end.
4. The main reason why a.c. is transmitted at very high voltage and low current is that it A. Flows faster through
the conductor B. Can be stepped over C. Is cheaper to generate D. Reduces heat loss
5. A coil of resistance 6.0  and inductance 30 mH is connected to a 12 V supply. Calculate the energy stored in
the coil when the current has reached its equilibrium value. A. 120mJ B. 60mJ C. 30mJ D. 24mJ

THEORY

1. State three ways by which energy is lost in a transformer and how it can be minimized.
2. State the laws of electromagnetic induction.
3. Distinguish between a step-up and a step down transformer.
4. State three methods by which by which high e.m.f can be obtained from a generator.

TOPICAL TEST
1. Electrical power is transmitted at high voltage and low current so as to A. increase the magnitude of the
current B. minimize energy losses C. minimize the risk of transmission D. reduce the cost of transmission
2. Heat loss in a transformer due to leakage of magnetic flux can be reduced by A. efficient core design B.
laminating the core C. use of low resistance coils D. use of soft iron core
3. In a 𝑑𝑐 generator, what is the purpose of increasing the magnetic flux through the coil? To A. convert it to an
a.c. generator B. convert it to an electric motor C. obtain steady direct voltage D. produce large 𝑒𝑚𝑓
E. reverse the direction of current
4. Energy losses in a transformer due to leakage of magnetic flux can be reduced by A. efficient core design. B.
using lamination for the core. C. using low resistance coils. D. using soft iron core. E. using thick wires.
5. An 𝑎𝑐 generator is converted to a 𝑑𝑐 generator by A. increasing the number of turns on its armature
B. increasing the strength of its magnet. C. replacing the slip ring with split ring. D. replacing the split ring with
carbon brushes. E. reversing the direction of the armature.
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 6. In which of the following devices is eddy currents desirable? A/An A. 𝑎𝑐 generator B. burglary alarm C.
moving coil galvanometer D. moving iron ammeter E. step-down transformer
7. An inductor stores energy W 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 in it when a current of I 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠 passes through it. Its inductance in Henry can
2𝑊 2𝑊 2𝑊 2𝑊
be expressed as A. 𝐼
B. 𝐼2
C. 2𝑊𝐼 D. √𝐼
E. √ 𝐼2
8.
9. The core of a transformer is usually laminated in order to A. Reduce magnetic flux leakage B. Reduce eddy
current C. Prevent vibration of the transformer D. Make magnetic reversal in the core much easier

10.Which of the following devices works on the principle of electromagnetic induction? A. Carbon microphone B.
Electric heater C. Moving-iron ammeter D. Simple 𝑑. 𝑐. motor
11.Which of the following devices does NOT make use of eddy current for its action? A/An A. galvanometer B.
speedometer C. induction furnace D. induction coil

GLOSSARY OF TERMS / KEY WORDS / VOCABULARY:

I. Dynamo is a D.C GENERATOR.

II. Eddy current is induced in a metal which is a changing magnetic field; it causes energy losses in the device

PUZZLES / BRAIN TEASER

1. Which of the following is not a part of an a.c generator? (a)carbon brushes (b)slip rings (c)
communicator (d) field magnets
2. To convert an alternating current dynamo into a direct current dynamo the(a) number of turns in the coil
is increased (b) strength of the field magnet is increased (c) slip rings are replaced with split ring
commutator (d) coils is wound on a soft iron armature
3. The current in the primary coil of a transformer is 2.5A, if the coil has 50turns and the secondary 250
turns calculate the current in the secondary coil. (a)0.2A (b) 0.5A (c)2.5A (d)5.0A
4.A voltage of 240V is connected to the primary coil of a transformer. Calculate the ratio of the primary turns
to the secondary turns if the voltage available at the secondary coil is 15V (a) 0.06 (b) 0.90 (c) 1.16 (d)
16.00
5.An inductor of inductance 10H carries a current of 0.2A. Calculate the energy stored in the inductor.
(a)0.11J (b) 0.20J (c) 1.10J (d) 2.00J
6. An electric generator rated 12kW, 22kV distributes power through a cable of resistance 20Ω. Calculate the
power loss in the cable. A. 120W B. 360W C. 720W D. 2400W

INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES: "The only source of knowledge is experience." - Albert Einstein

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WEEK : NINE

TOPIC: ALTERNATING CURRENT

LESSON OBJECTIVES: By the end of the lesson the students should be able to:

i. Define the term alternating current.

ii. Differentiate between Peak and r.m.s values of alternating current and voltage.

iii. Calculate the capacitive and inductive reactance.

iv. calculate the reactance of a circuit.

ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: The students have been taught direct current.

CONTENT

1. Alternating current circuits (i) Nomenclature in a.c circuits(ii) Peak and r.m.s values
2. Circuit containing resistor, inductor, capacitor
3. Series circuits containing resistor and capacitor, inductor, and resistor

Sub-Topic 1: ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUITS

An a.c. circuit is one in which the magnitude of the current changes periodically with time. The a.c. is produced
by an alternating voltage supply. The pattern of the a.c. voltage is sinusoidal in nature, that is it varies like the
sine curve with constant amplitude and frequency.

V a cycle
M
𝑉0
𝑉0
𝜃
O N t/s

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𝑉0 is the maximum or peak voltage, which represent the maximum displacement (amplitude).
V is the instantaneous voltage, representing the displacement.
𝑉
𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑉
0

𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑉 = 𝑉0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑉0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡

The rms voltage is defined as the steady voltage which would produce the same heating effect per second in a
given resistor.
The rms value of current is defined as the steady current which would dissipate at the same rate in a given
resistor.

𝑉0 = √2𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠

∴ 𝑉 = √2𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡

𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝑉 = √2(𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜋𝑓𝑡)

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
Similarly,

𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = √2(𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡)

𝐼 = √2(𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜋𝑓𝑡)

𝐼0 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 √2
Where:
V : Instantaneous value
𝑉0 : Peak value
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 : root mean square value.
Also,
I: instantaneous value
𝐼0 : peak value
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 : root mean square value.
𝜃: phase angle between voltage and current
𝜔: angular velocity

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A.C IN RESISTORS
The ability of a resistor to restrict the flow of current in an a.c circuit is called its resistance R.
When an a.c is applied to a resistor, both current and the voltage attain maximum and minimum at the same
time. Hence, they are in phase.

R
I

t/s
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 , 𝑓

𝑉
According to Ohm’s law, 𝑅 = 𝐼
𝑉0
𝐼0 = 𝑅
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑅

PRACTICE QUESTIONS:
1. The opposition offered to an alternating current in a C-R series circuit is known as A. Impedance B.
resistance C. reactance D. friction
2. A 50Hz a.c. circuit has a voltage of 220V and a current of 5.0A as its effective values. Determine the peak value of the
voltage and its current. A. 311.0V and 1.71A B. 331.0V and 7.10A C. 311.0V and 7.10A D. 7.1V and
311.00 A
3. An a. c. supply is connected to an electric lamp which lights with the same brightness as it does with a direct current
source of emf 6 V. The peak potential difference of the a.c. supply is A. 4.6V B. 6.0V C. 8.5V
D. 12.0V
4. In an a.c. circuit, when the supply voltage frequency is equal to the resonant frequency, the current A. leads
the supply voltage by 90°. B. lags behind the supply voltage by 90° C. leads the supply voltage by 45° D. is in
phase with the supply voltage

THEORY:
1. Define an alternating current.
2. Describe the path of an a.c.
3. State the mathematical relationship between 𝐼0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 .

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Sub-Topic 2: A.C. THROUGH A CAPACITOR
𝜋
When an a.c is applied through a capacitor, current leads by 90° 𝑜𝑟 2 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠. They are out of phase.

C V

t/s

𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 , 𝑓 I
The ability of a capacitor to resist the flow of current in an a.c circuit is called its ‘Capacitive Reactance 𝑋𝑐 ’.
The reactance of a capacitor, 𝑋𝑐 is given by:
1 1
𝑋𝑐 = 𝜔𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐶
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑉
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼0 = 𝑋0
𝑋𝑐 𝑐

The capacitance of a capacitor is measured in Farad F.

A.C. THROUGH AN INDUCTOR
𝜋
When an a.c is applied through an inductor, voltage leads by 90° 𝑜𝑟 2 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠. They are out of phase.

L
V I

t/s
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 , 𝑓

An inductor has an inductance (L), measured in Henri (H). The ability of an inductor to restrict the flow of
current in an a.c circuit is called its ‘Inductive Reactance 𝑋𝑙 ’.
The reactance of an inductor, 𝑋𝑙 is given by:
𝑋𝑙 = 𝜔𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑉
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑋𝐿
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼0 = 𝑋0
𝐿

WORKED EXAMPLES
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Example 1. A capacitor of 1𝜇𝐹 is used in a radio circuit where the frequency is 1000𝐻𝑧 and the current is 2𝑚𝐴.
Calculate the voltage across the capacitor.
Solution:
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑋𝑐
1
𝐵𝑢𝑡, 𝑋𝑐 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐶
2
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜, 𝐼 = 2𝑚𝐴 = 1000 = 0.002𝐴
𝐼 0.002
𝑉 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 = 2𝜋×1000×1×10−6 = 0.32𝑉

(NB: 𝜇 = 10−6 , 𝑚 = 10−3 )

Example 2. An inductor of 2H and a negligible resistor is connected to 12V mains supply. If the frequency is
50𝐻𝑧 , find the current flowing.
Solution:
𝑉 12 12
𝐼 = 𝑋 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 = 2𝜋×50×2 = 628.3𝑨
𝐿

PRACTICE QUESTIONS

1. In a purely inductive circuit, the opposition to the flow of the alternating current A. is the impedance B. increases
with the resonant frequency C. is measured in henry (H) D. becomes higher as the source frequency increases.
2. Which of the following statements is correct in an a.c. circuit containing a resistor? The A. Current leads the voltage
across the resistor by a phase difference of 90 o B. Voltage leads the current in the resistor by a phase difference of 90o
C. Current is in phase with the voltage across the resistor. D. Current is 180 o out of phase with the voltage across the
resistor.
3. A coil of inductance 0.12𝐻 and resistance 4Ω, is connected across a 240𝑉, 50𝐻𝑧 supply. Calculate the current
through it. [𝜋 = 3.142] A. 6.3𝐴 B. 33.3𝐴 C. 37.2𝐴 D. 40.0𝐴
4. A 15μF capacitor is connected to a 240V, 50Hz a.c. source. Calculate the reactance of the capacitor.
[π = 3.142] A. 16Ω B. 68 Ω C. 106 Ω D. 212 Ω
5. An inductor is connected to a 24𝑉, 50𝐻𝑧 mains supply. If the current through the inductor is 1.5𝐴, calculate the
22
inductance of the inductor. (π = 7
) A. 8.0 × 102 𝐻 B. 7.5 × 100 𝐻 C. 1.6 × 100 𝐻 D. 5.1 × 10−2 𝐻

6. In a R-C circuit A. Irms leads Vrms by 600 B. Irms lags Vrms by 600 C. Vrms lags Irms by 900 D. Vrms leads Irms by 900

SUB-TOPIC 3: SERIES CIRCUITS

1. Capacitor and Resistor in series (RC circuit):

R 𝐼, 𝑉𝑅
C
𝜃
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𝑉𝑅 𝑉𝑐
𝑉𝑐 𝑉
When a capacitor is connected in series with a resistor, the total opposition to the current flowing through the
circuit is called ‘Impedance, Z’. Here, current leads voltage by 90°.
From the vector diagram above,
𝑉 2 = 𝑉𝐶 2 + 𝑉𝑅 2
∴ 𝑉 2 = 𝐼 2 𝑋𝐶 2 + 𝐼 2 𝑅 2
𝑉2
= 𝑋𝐶 2 + 𝑅 2
𝐼2
𝑉 𝑉2
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑍 = → 𝑍2 =
𝐼 𝐼2
2 2 2
∴ 𝑍 = 𝑋𝐶 + 𝑅

∴ 𝑍 = √𝑋𝐶 2 + 𝑅 2
For the phase angle,
𝑉 𝐼𝑋 𝑋
𝑇𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝑉𝐶 = 𝐼𝑅𝐶 = 𝑅𝐶
𝑅

2. Inductor and Resistor in series:

R
L

𝑉𝐿
𝑉𝐿 𝑉𝑅
𝜃

𝐼, 𝑉𝑅
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 , 𝑓
When an inductor is connected in series with a resistor, voltage leads by 90° on the current.
Considering the vector diagram,
𝑉 2 = 𝑉𝐿 2 + 𝑉𝑅 2

∴ 𝑉 2 = 𝐼 2 𝑋𝐿 2 + 𝐼 2 𝑅 2
𝑉2
= 𝑋𝐿 2 + 𝑅 2
𝐼2
𝑉 𝑉2
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑍 = → 𝑍2 =
𝐼 𝐼2
2 2 2
∴ 𝑍 = 𝑋𝐿 + 𝑅
∴ 𝑍 = √𝑋𝐿 2 + 𝑅 2
For the phase angle,
𝑽 𝑰𝑿𝑳 𝑿𝑳
𝑻𝒂𝒏𝜽 = 𝑽 𝑳 = =
𝑹 𝑰𝑹 𝑹
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 THEORY

The diagram above illustrates two coils X and Y arranged so that their axes are collinear. X is connected to an a.c.
supply and has an ammeter in series with it while Y is connected to a lamp L. Explain the following observations. The
(i) lamp is lit when an a.c. supply is switched ON; (ii) brightness of the light from the lamp increases when the
distance between X and Y is decreased; (iii) filament of the lamp glows brighter when a bundle of insulated iron
wires is placed along the common axis of the coils.

X Y

A L

TOPICAL TEST

1. Find the peak value of an electricity supply of 240𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 .

A. 169.7V
B. 339.4V
C. 480V
D. 24V
2. Calculate the instantaneous value of current flowing through a circuit if the r.m.s. value is 15A with a phase
angle of 30°.
A. 30A
B. 21.2A
C. 10.6A
D. 2.0A
3. Which of the following is the expression for the reactance of an inductor?
A. 𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐶
B. 𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿
1
C. 𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿
1
D. 𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐶

4. When an a.c. flows through a resistor,

A. current leads voltage by 90° .
B. voltage leads current by 90°
C. both are in phase.
D. non of the above
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Essay
1. A circuit consist of a capacitor of 2𝜇𝐹 and a resistor of 1000𝛺 . An alternating emf of 120𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 and
frequency of 50𝐻𝑧 is applied. Find
i. The current flowing;
ii. The voltage across the capacitor;
iii. The phase angle between the applied emf and the current.
iv. The dissipated power in the circuit.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS / KEY WORDS / VOCABULARY:

i. Peak current: The maximum current in an A.C circuit.

ii. Peak voltage: The maximum voltage in an A.C circuit.

iii. Root mean square value is defined as the value of a steady current which will dissipate heat at the same rate

in a given conductor.

PUZZLES / BRAIN TEASER

Mention three devices that can be used to measure Alternating current.

INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES: "The greatest glory in living lies not in never falling, but in rising every time we fall." -
Nelson Mandela

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WEEK : TEN

TOPIC: ALTERNATING CURRENT

LESSON OBJECTIVES: By the end of the lesson the students should be able to:

i. Define impedance in R-L-C circuit.

ii. Calculate impedance.

iii. Draw the vector diagram for R-L-C
iv. Calculate the power in the circuit.

ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: The students have been taught direct current.

CONTENT

1. Alternating current circuits (i) Nomenclature in a.c circuits(ii) Peak and r.m.s values
2. Circuit containing resistor, inductor, capacitor
3. Series circuits containing resistor and capacitor, inductor, and resistor

Sub-Topic 1: ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUITS

Capacitor, Inductor and Resistor in series(RLC Circuit):
C L R

𝑉𝐿
𝑉𝐶 𝑉𝐶 𝑉𝑅
𝜃
(𝑉𝐿− 𝑉𝑐 )
𝐼, 𝑉𝑅
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 , 𝑓 𝑉𝐶

𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝑉 2 = 𝑉𝑅 2 + (𝑉𝐿 − 𝑉𝐶 )2
𝑉 2 = 𝐼 2 𝑅 2 + (𝐼𝑋𝐿 − 𝐼𝑋𝐶 )2

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𝑉 2 = 𝐼 2 𝑅 2 + 𝐼 2 (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2

𝑉2
= 𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2
𝐼2

𝑍 = √(𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2 )
Note that the two reactance must be subtracted before squaring.
𝑉 −𝑉 𝑋 −𝑋
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 , 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝐿𝑉 𝐶 = 𝐿 𝑅 𝐶
𝑅

WORKED EXAMPLES
Example 3. A 2.5𝜇𝐻 inductor is connected in series with a non-inductive resistor of 300𝛺 across a 50V
alternating at 160𝐻𝑧 . Calculate the r.m.s value of the current in the circuit.
Solution:
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑍
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑍

𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝑍 = √𝑋𝐿 2 + 𝑅 2
𝐵𝑢𝑡, 𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 = 2𝜋160 × 2.5 × 10−6 = 2.5 × 10−3 𝜴

𝑍 = √3002 + (2.5 × 10−3 )2 = 300𝜴

50
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 300 = 0.17𝐴

Example 4. A 2.0𝜇𝐹 capacitor is connected in series with a resistor of 300𝛺 across a 240V a.c alternating at
160𝐻𝑧 . Find the rms value of the current in the circuit.
Solution:

𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝐼𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 = 𝑍

𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝑍 = √𝑋𝑐 2 + 𝑅 2
1 1
𝐵𝑢𝑡, 𝑋𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐶 = 2𝜋160×2.0×10−6 = 497.4𝜴

∴ 𝑍 = √3002 + (497.4)2 = 580.8𝜴

240
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 580.8 = 0.41𝐴

Evaluation:
1. State the mathematical relationship between 𝑍, 𝑋𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑋𝐿 .
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2. Define an impedance Z.
3. Define the reactance of a capacitor and an inductor.
Sub-Topic 3: POWER IN A.C. CIRCUITS
The average power dissipated in an a.c. circuit per cycle is given as:
1
𝑃 = 2 𝐼0 𝑉0
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝐼0 = √2(𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 ) and 𝑉0 = √2(𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 )
1
∴ 𝑃 = 2 (√2(𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 ) × √2(𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 ))
2𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
∴𝑃= 2
∴ 𝑃 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
According to ohm’s law, 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
𝑉2
∴ 𝑃 = 𝐼2𝑅 = 𝑅

Power is always dissipated in a resistor. This because the current and the voltage are in phase.
In an inductor, power dissipation is zero due to the fact that power is positive when energy is stored in the
magnetic field of the coil and negative when the energy is given back to the voltage supply on the next part of
the cycle.
In a capacitor, power dissipation is also zero due to the fact that power is positive when energy is stored in the
electric field between the capacitor’s plates and negative when the energy is given back to the voltage supply.
In essence, power dissipation is zero both in an inductor and a capacitor because the voltage and current are out
of phase by 90°.
Therefore, in an a.c. circuit containing inductor, capacitor and a resistor in series, power is only dissipated in the
resistor.
𝑉2
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉 = 𝐼 2 𝑅 = 𝑅

Example 5: A circuit consists of a resistor 500ohms and a capacitor of 5μF connected in series. If an alternating
voltage of 10v and frequency 50 Hz is applied across the series circuit, calculate
(a) The reactance of the capacitor
(b) The current flowing in the circuit
(c) The voltage across the capacitor
(d) If the capacitor is replaced with an inductor of 150mH, calculate the impedance and voltage across the
inductor

Solution
1 1
(a) 𝑋𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐶 = 2𝜋 × 50 × 5.0 × 10−6 = 636.62 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠.

(b) 𝑍 = √𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐶 2 since there is no L

𝑍 = √5002 + 636.622 = 809.5 ohms

𝑉 10
𝐼= = 809.5 A = 12.35 x 10 – 3 A
𝑍
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(c) vc = IXc = 12.35 x 10 – 3 x 636.62 = 7.86V
(d) XL= 𝜔𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 = 2 × 𝜋 x 50 x 10 – 3 ohms = 47.12ohms

𝑍 = √𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐿 2 = √5002 + 47.122 = 502.2𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠

I = V/Z = 10/502.2 = 19.9 x 10 – 3 A
V = IXL = 19.9 x 10 – 3 x 47.12 = 938 x 10 – 3 V

PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. Why is power only dissipated in the resistor in a series circuit containing resistor, capacitor and an inductor?
2. State the formula for power.
3. Tell the meaning of the following denotations: 𝑉0 , 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 , 𝐼0 , 𝐼
4. In what component of the series circuit is voltage and current in step with each other?
5. Critically examine the passage of an a.c through an inductor.
6. Define the reactance and the resistance of a capacitor and a resistor respectively.
7. Discuss why power is not dissipated in an inductor when current passes through it.

THEORY
1. A coil of inductance 0.007𝐻, a resistor of resistance 8Ω and a capacitor of capacitance 0.001𝐹 are connected in
500
series to an a.c. source of frequency 𝜋
𝐻𝑧. If the r.m.s voltages across the coil, the resistor and capacitor are 30𝑉,
30𝑉 and 70𝑉 respectively: (i) Draw a vector diagram to illustrate the voltage across the components in the circuit. (ii)
Calculate the: (𝛼) r.m.s voltage of the source; (𝛽) r.m.s current in the circuit; (𝛾) power dissipated in the circuit. (iii)
Write down the sinusoidal equation for the r.m.s voltage 𝑉, in terms of 𝒕. WAEC 2013

2. An 𝑅𝐿𝐶 series circuit consists of a 100Ω resistor, 0.05𝐻 inductor and a 25µ𝐹 Capacitor. A 220𝑉, 50𝐻𝑧 mains
voltage is applied across the circuit. Calculate the: (i) impedance; (ii) current. [π = 3.14]. WAEC 2016

PRACTICE QUESTIONS

1. Which of the following conditions occur at resonance in a series 𝑹𝑳𝑪 circuit? I. Impedance equals resistance. II.
Current is maximum. III. Reactances are maximum. IV. Current and voltage are 90 0 out of phase. A. I and II only
B. I and III only C. I, II and III only D. I, II,III and IV.
2. In a series 𝑅 − 𝐿 − 𝐶 circuit, 𝑅 = 10Ω, 𝑋𝐶 = 4Ω and 𝑋𝐿 = 9Ω. The impedance of the circuit is A.
4.1 Ω B. 5.0 Ω C. 10.8 Ω D. 11.2 Ω

GLOSSARY OF TERMS / KEY WORDS / VOCABULARY:

iv. Reactance: it is the opposition to the flow of A.C offered by a capacitor or an inductor or both.
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 v. Impedance; It is the overall opposition of a mixed circuit containing a resistor, an inductor and/or a capacitor.

It is measured in ohms.

PUZZLES / BRAIN TEASER: what is the effect of resonance in electronics.

INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES: "Science knows no country, because knowledge belongs to humanity, and is the torch
which illuminates the world." - Louis Pasteur

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