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AN ELEMENTARY COURSE IN
SYNTHETIC PROJECTIVE
GEOMETRY

DERRICK NORMAN LEHMER

ASS(K!1ATK VltMKKStiOlt OK MATllKMA'JTt'.S
HM VKUSITY <F CAMKOKMA

GINK AND COMPANY

BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO LONDON
ATLANTA DALLAS COLUMBUS SAN
 COPYRIGHT, 1917, BY
DERRICK NORMAN LEHMKU

ALL RIGHTS KK8KKVK1)

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

226.7

GINN AND COMPANY PRO-

PRIETORS BOSTON U.S.A.
 PREFACE
The following course is intended to give, in as simple
a way as possible, the essentials of synthetic protective

geometry. While, in the main, the theory is developed

along the well-beaten track laid out by the great masters
of the subject, it is believed that there lias been a slight

smoothing of the road in some places. Especially will

this be observed in the chapter on Involution. The
author lias never felt satisfied with the usjial treatment
of that subject by means of circles and* anharmonic
ratios. A purely projective notion
ought not to be based
on metrical foundations. Metrical developments should
be made there, as elsewhere in the theory, by the
introduction of infinitely distant elements.
The author has departed from the century-old custom
of writing in parallel columns each theorem and its
dual. He has not found that it conduces to sharpness
of vision to try to focus his eyes on two things at once.
Those who prefer the usual method of procedure can,
of course, develop the two sets of theorems side by side ;

the author has not found this the better plan in actual

teaching.
Asregards nomenclature, the author has followed
the lead of the earlier writers in English, and has called
the system of lines in a plane which all pass through a

point a pencil of rays instead of a bundle of rays, as later

writers seem inclined to do. For a point considered
iii
iv PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY
as made up and planes through it he
of all the lines
has ventured to use the term point system, as being
the natural dualizatioii of the usual term plane system.
He has also rejected the term foci of an involution, and
has not used the customary terms for classifying invo-
lutions hyperbolic involution, elliptic involution and
parabolic involution. lie has found that all these terms
are very confusing to the student, who inevitably tries
to connect them in some way with the conic sections.

Enough examples have been provided to give the

student a clear grasp of the theory. Many are of suffi-
cient generality to serve as a basis for individual in-

vestigation on the part of the student. Tims, the third

example at the end of the first chapter will be found
to be very fruitful in interesting results. A
corre-

spondence is there indicated between lines in space and

circles through a fixed point in space. If the student
will a few of the consequences of that
trace corre-

spondence, and determine what configurations of circles

correspond to intersecting lines, to lines in a plane, to

lines of a plane pencil, to lines cutting three skew lines,

etc., he will have acquired no little practice in picturing

to himself figures in space.
The writer has not followed the usual practice of
inserting historical notes at the foot of the page, and
has tried instead, in the last chapter, to give a con-
secutive account of the history of pure geometry, or, at
least, of as much of it as the student will be able to

appreciate who has mastered the course as given in the

preceding chapters. One is not apt to get a very wide
view of the history of a subject by reading a hundred
 PREFACE v

biographical footnotes, arranged in no sort of sequence.

The writer, moreover, feels that the proper time to
learn the history of a subject is after the student has
some general ideas of the subject itself.
The course is not intended to furnish an illustration
of how a subject may be developed from the smallest
possible number of fundamental assumptions. The
author is aware of the importance of work of this sort,
but he docs not believe it is possible at the present
time to write a book along such lines which shall be of
much use for elementary students. For the purposes of
this course the student should have a thorough ground-
ing ordinary elementary geometry so far as to include
in

the study of the circle and of similar triangles. No solid

geometry is needed beyond the little used in the proof

of Desargues' theorem (25), and, except in certain
metrical developments of the general theory, there will
be no call for a knowledge of trigonometry or analytical
geometry. Naturally the student who is equipped with
these subjects as well as with the calculus will be a
littlemore mature, and may be expected to follow the
course all the more easily. The author has had no
difficulty, however, in presenting it to students in the
freshman class at the University of California.
The
subject of synthetic projective geometry is, in
the opinion of the writer, destined shortly to force its

way down into the secondary schools and if this little

;

book helps to accelerate the movement, he will feel

amply repaid for the task of working the materials into
a form available for such schools as well as for the
lower classes in the university.
vi PKOJECTIVE GEOMETRY

The material for the course has been drawn from

many sources. The author is
chiefly indebted to the
classical works of Reye, Cremona, Steiner, Poncelet, and
Von Acknowledgments and thanks are also
Stauclt.

due to Professor Walter 0. Eells, of the U.S. Naval

Academy at Annapolis, for his searching examination
and keen criticism of the manuscript ; also to Professor
Herbert Ellsworth Slaught, of The University of Chicago,
for hismany valuable suggestions, and to Professor
-

B. M. Woods and Dr. IT. N. Wright, of the University

of California, who have tried out the methods of

presentation in their own classes.

1). M. LKllMKlt
.HKKKKLKV, CALIFORNIA
 CONTENTS
CHAPTER I

ONE-TO-ONE CORRESPONDENCE
SECTION PAGE
1. Definition of one-to-one correspondence 1

2. Consequences of one-to-one correspondence 2

8. Applications in mathematics 2
4. One-to-one correspondence and enumeration 3
5. Correspondence between a part and the wliolu 4
6. Infinitely distant point 4
7. Axial pencil ;
fundamental forms 5
8. Perspective position 5
0. Protective relation 6
10. Infinity-to-one correspondence 7
11. Infinitudes of different orders 7
12. Points in a plane 8
13. Lines through a point 8
14. Planes through a point 8
15. Lines in a plane 8
10. Plane system and point system 9
17. Planes in space 9
18. Points in space 9
19. Space system 9
20. Lines in space 10
21. Correspondence between points and numbers 10
22. Elements at infinity 11
Problems 12

CHAPTER IT

RELATIONS BETWEEN FUNDAMENTAL FORMS IN ONE-

TO-ONE CORRESPONDENCE WITH EACH OTHER
23. Seven fundamental forms 14
24. Projective properties 14
25. Desargues's theorem 15
vii
viii PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY
SECTION PAGE
26. Fundamental theorem concerning two complete quadrangles 16
27. Importance of the theorem 17
28. Restatement of the theorem 18
29. Four harmonic points 18
30. Harmonic conjugates 19
31. Importance of the notion of four harmonic points .... 19
32. Project! ve invariance of four harmonic points 20
33. Four harmonic lines 20
34. Four harmonic planes 20
35. Summary of results ,
. . 21
36. Definition of project! vity 21
37. Correspondence between harmonic conjugates 21
38. Separation of harmonic conjugates 22
39. Harmonic conjugate of the point at infinity 23
40. Projective theorems and metrical theorems. Linear con-
struction 23
41. Parallelsand mid-points 24
42. Division of a segment into equal parts 25
43. Numerical relations 25
44. Algebraic formula connecting four harmonic points .... 25
45. Further formulae 26
46. Anharmonic ratio 27
Problems 27

CHAPTER III

COMBINATION OF TWO PROJECTIVELY RELATED

FUNDAMENTAL FORMS
47. Superposed fundamental forms. Self -corresponding elements 29
48. Special case 30
49. Fundamental theorem. Postulate of continuity 31
50. Extension of theorem to pencils of rays and planes .... 32
51. Projective point-rows having a self-corresponding point . . 32
52. Point-rows in perspective position 33
53. Pencils in perspective position 33
54. Axial pencils in perspective position 33
66. Point-row of the second order 33
56. Degeneration of locus 34
 CONTENTS ix

SECTION PAGE
57. Pencils of rays of the second order 34
68. Degenerate case .' 34
69. Cone of the second order 35
Problems 36

CHAPTER IV
POINT-ROWS OF THE SECOND ORDER
60. Point-row of the second order defined 37
61. Tangent line 37
62. Determination of the locus 38
63. Restatement of the problem 38
64. Solution of the fundamental problem 38
65. Different constructions for the figure 39
66. Lines joining four points of the locus to a fifth 40
67. Restatement of the theorem 40
68. Further important theorem 40
69. Pascal's theorem 40
70. Permutation of points in Pascal's theorem 41
71. Harmonic points on a point-row of the second order ... 42
72. Determination of the locus 42
73. Circles and conies as point-rows of the second order ... 43
74. Conic through five points 43
75. Tangent to a conic 44
76. Inscribed quadrangle 44
77. Inscribed triangle 46
78. Degenerate conic 46
Problems 46

CHAPTER V
PENCILS OF RAYS OF THE SECOND ORDER
79. Pencil of rays of the second order defined 48
80. Tangents to a circle 48
81. Tangents to a conic 49
82. Generating point-rows lines of the system 49
83. Determination of the pencil 49
84. Brianchon's theorem 61
 PROTECTIVE GEOMETRY

85. Permutation of lines in Brianchon's theorem 51

86. Construction of the pencil by Brianchon's theorem .... 51
87. Point of contact of a tangent to a conic 52
88. Circumscribed quadrilateral 52
89. Circumscribed triangle 53
00. Use of Brianchon's theorem 53
91. Harmonic tangents 63
92. Projectivity and perspectivity 53
93. Degenerate case 54
94. Law of duality 64
Problems 54

CHAPTER VI
POLES AND POLAHS
96. Inscribed and circumscribed quadrilaterals 66
96. Definition of the polar line of a point 56
97. Further defining properties 57
98. Definition of the pole of a line 57
99. Fundamental theorem of poles and polars 57
100. Conjugate points and lines 67
101. Construction of the polar line of a given point 68
102. Self-polar triangle 68
103. Pole and polar projectively related 68
104. Duality 69
105. Self -dual theorems 60
106. Other correspondences 60
Problems 60

CHAPTER VII
METRICAL PROPERTIES OF THE CONIC SECTIONS
107. Diameters. Center 62
108. Various theorems 62
109. Conjugate diameters 62
110. Classification of conies 63
111. Asymptotes 68
 CONTENTS xi

SECTION PAUK
112. Various theorems 63
113. Theorems concerning asymptotes 63
114. Asymptotes and conjugate diameters 64
115. Segments cut off on a chord by hyperbola and its asymp-
totes 64
116. Application of the theorem 64
117. Triangle formed by the two asymptotes and a tangent . . 65
118. Equation of hyperbola referred to the asymptotes .... 65
119. Equation of parabola 66
120. Equation of central conies referred to conjugate diameters 68
Problems 70

CHAPTER VIJT
INVOLUTION
121. Fundamental theorem 71
122. Linear construction 72
123. Definition of involution of points on a line 72
124. Double-points in an involution 73
125. Desargues's theorem concerning conies through four points . 74
126. Degenerate conies of the system 74
127. Conies through four points touching a given line .... 75
128. Double correspondence 75
129. Steiner's construction 76
130. Application of Steiner's construction to double correspond-
ence 77
131. Involution of points on a point-row of the second order . 78
132. Involution of rays 79
133. Double rays 80
134. Conic through a fixed point touching four lines 80
135. Double correspondence 80
136. Pencils of rays of the second order in involution .... 81
137. Theorem concerning pencils of the second order in involu-
tion 81
138. Involution of rays determined by a conic 81
139. Statement of theorem 81
140. Dual of the theorem 82
Problems 82
xii PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY

CHAPTER IX
METRICAL PROPERTIES OF INVOLUTIONS
SECTION PAGE
141. Introduction of infinite point ; center of involution ... 84
142. Fundamental metrical theorem 85
148. Existence of double points 86
144. Existence of double rays 86
145. Construction of an involution by means of circles .... 86
146. Circular points 87
147. Pairs in an involution of rays which are at right angles.
Circular involution 88
148. Axes of conies 88
149. Points at which the involution of rays determined by a
conic is circular 89
150. Properties of such a point 90
151. Position of such a point 90
162. Discovery of the foci of the conic 91
153. The circle and the parabola 92
164. Focal properties of conies 93
156. Case of the parabola 94
156. Parabolic reflector 94
157. Directrix. Principal axis. Vertex . 94
158. Another definition of a conic 94
169. Eccentricity 95
160. Sum or difference of focal distances 95
Problems 96

CHAPTER X
ON THE HISTORY OF SYNTHETIC PROTECTIVE GEOMETRY
161. Ancient results 98
162. Unifying principles 101
163. Desargues 101
164. Poles and polars 102
165. Desargues's theorem concerning conies through four points 102
166. Extension of the theory of poles and polars to space . . 103
167. Desargues's method of describing a conic 104
168. Reception of Desargues's work 104
 CONTENTS xiii

SECTION PAGE
169. Conservatism in Desargues's time 105
170. Desargues's style of writing 105
171. Lack of appreciation of Desarguos 107
172. Pascal and bis theorem 108
173. Pascal's essay 108
174. Pascal's originality 109
176. Do la Hire and his work 101)

176. Descartes and his influence Ill

177. Newton and Maclaurin 112
178. Maclaurin's construction 112
179. Descriptive geometry and the second revival 113
180. Duality, homology, continuity, contingent relations ... 114
181. Poncelet and Cauchy 115
182. The work of Poncelet 116
183. The debt which analytic geometry owes to synthetic
geometry 116
184. Steiner and his work 117
185. Von Staudt and his work 118
186. Recent developments 119

INDEX 121
 AN ELEMENTARY COURSE IN
SYNTHETIC PROJECTIVE
GEOMETRY
CHAPTER I

ONE-TO-ONE CORRESPONDENCE

1. Definition of one-to-one correspondence. Given any

two sets of individuals, if it is possible to set up such
a correspondence between the two sets that to any
individual in one set corresponds one and only one
individual in the other, then the two sets are said to
be in one-to-one correspondence with each other. This
notion, simple as it is, is of fundamental importance
in all branches of science. The process of counting is

nothing but a setting up of a one-to-one correspond-

ence between the objects to be counted and certain
' * '

words, one,' two,' three,' etc., in the mind. Many

savage peoples have discovered no better method of
counting than by setting up a one-to-one correspondence
between the objects to be counted and their fingers.
The scientist who busies himself with naming and
classifying the objects of nature only setting up a
is

one-to-one correspondence between the objects and cer-

tain words which serve, not as a means of counting the
l
2 PKOJECTIVE GEOMETRY

objects, but of listing them

in a convenient way. Thus
lie may be able to marshal and array his material in
such a way as to bring to light relations that may
existbetween the objects themselves. Indeed, the whole
notion of language springs from this idea of one-to-one

correspondence.
2. Consequences of one-to-one correspondence. The
most useful and interesting problem that may arise in
connection with any one-to-one correspondence is to
determine just what relations existing between the
individuals of one assemblage may be carried over to
another assemblage in one-to-one correspondence with
it. It is a favorite error to assume that whatever holds
for one setmust also hold for the other. Magicians are
apt to assign magic properties to many of the words
and symbols which they are in the habit of using, and
scientists are constantly confusing objective things with
the subjective formulas for them. After the physicist
has set up correspondences between physical facts and
" "
mathematical formulas, the interpretation of these
formulas is his most important and difficult task.
3. In mathematics, effort is constantly being made
to set up one-to-one correspondences between simple
notions and more complicated ones, or between the well-

explored fields of research and fields less known. Thus,

by means of the mechanism employed in analytic geom-
etry, algebraic theorems are made to yield geometric
ones, and vice versa. In geometry we get at the proper-
ties of the conic sections by means of the properties
of the straight line, and cubic surfaces are studied by
means of the plane.
 ONE-TO-ONE CORRESPONDENCE 3

4. One-to-one correspondence and enumeration. If a

one-to-one correspondence lias been set up between the

objects of one set and the objects of another set, then

the inference may usually be drawn that they have the
same number of elements. If, however, there is an
infinite number of individuals in
each of the two sets, the notion
of counting is necessarily ruled
out. It may be possible, never-

theless, to set up a one-to-one

A u
correspondence between the ele- ^.
ments of two sets even when the
number is Thus, it is easy to set up such a
infinite.

correspondence between the points of a line an inch

long and the points of a line two inches long. For let
the lines (Fig. 1) be and A'B f . Join AA and BB , AB r f

and let these joining lines meet in A'. For every point C
on AB a point C may be found f

on A'B' by joining C to /S and f

noting the point C where CS

f

meets A'B Similarly, a point C

1
.

may be found on AB for any

point C on A B
1 f f
. The corre-

spondence is clearly one-to-one,

but it would be absurd to infer Fl( , 2
from were just
this that there

as many points on AB as on A B In fact, it would r r

.

be just as reasonable to infer that there were twice as

many points on A B as on AB. For if we bend A'B
f r 1

into a circle with center at S (Fig. 2), we see that for

every point C on AB there are two points on A B Thusf f

.
4 PROTECTIVE GEOMETRY
it is seen that the notion of one-to-one correspondence
is more extensive than the notion, of counting, and
includes the notion of counting only when applied to
finite assemblages.
5.Correspondence between a part and the whole of an
infinite assemblage. In the discussion of the last para-

graph the remarkable fact was brought to light that it

is sometimes possible to set the elements of an assem-
blage into one-to-one correspondence with a part of
those elements. A moment's reflection will convince
one that this is never possible when there is a finite

number elements in the assemblage. Indeed, we

of

may take this property as our definition of an infinite

assemblage, and say that an infinite assemblage is one
that may be put into one-to-one correspondence with

part of This has the advantage of being a positive

itself.

definition, as opposed to the usual negative definition of

an infinite assemblage as one that cannot be counted.
6. Infinitely distant point. We have illustrated above
a simple method of setting the points of two lines into
one-to-one correspondence. The same illustration will
serve also to show how it is possible to set the points
on a line into one-to-one correspondence with the lines
through a point. Thus, for any point C on the line AB
there is a line SO through 8. We must assume the line
AB extended indefinitely in both directions, however, if
we are to have a point on it for every line through 8;
and even with this extension there is one line through
$, according to Euclid's postulate, which does not meet
the line AB and which therefore has no point on
AB to correspond to it. In order to smooth out this
 ONE-TO-ONE CORRESPONDENCE 5

discrepancy we are accustomed to assume the existence

of an infinitely distant point on the line AH and to assign
this point as the corresponding point of the exceptional
line of & With this understanding, then, we may say
that we have set the lines through a point and the

points on a line into one-to-one correspondence. This

correspondence is of such fundamental importance in

the study of projeetive geometry that a special name is

given to it. Calling the totality of points on a line a

point-row, and the totality of lines through a point a
pencil of rays, we say that the point-row and the pencil
related as above are in perspective position, or that they
are perspeatively related.
7. Axial pencil; fundamental forms. A
similar cor-

respondence may be set up between the points on a

line and the planes through another line which does not
meet the first. Such a system of planes is called an
and the three assemblages
axial pencil, the point-row,
the pencil of rays, and the axial pencil are called

fundamental forms. The fact that they may all be set

into one-to-one correspondence with each other is ex-

pressed by saying that they are of the same order. It is

usual also to speak of them as of the first order. We
shall see presently that there other assemblages
are
which cannot be put into this sort of one-to-one cor-
respondence with the points on a line, and that they
will very reasonably be said to be of a higher order.
8. Perspective position. We have said that a point-
row and a pencil of rays are in perspective position if
each ray of the pencil goes through the point of the
point-row which corresponds to it. Two pencils of rays
6 PKOJECTIVE GEOMETRY
are also said to be in perspective position if correspond-
ing rays meet on a straight line which is called the
axis of perspectivity. Also, two point-rows are said to
be in perspective position if corresponding points lie on
straight lines through a point which is called the center
of perspectivity. A
point-row and an axial pencil are
in perspective position if each plane of the pencil goes

through the point on the point-row which corresponds

to it, and an axial pencil and a pencil of rays are in

perspective position if each ray lies in the plane which

corresponds to it; and, finally, two axial pencils are
perspectively related if corresponding planes meet in
a plane.
9. Projective relation. It is easy to imagine a more
general correspondence between the points of two point-
rows than the one just described. If we take two
perspective pencils, A and 7?, then a point-row a per-
spective to A will be in one-to-one correspondence with
a point-row b perspective to #, but corresponding points
will not, in general, lie on lines which all pass through
a point. Two such point-rows are said to be protectively
related, or simply projective to each other. Similarly,
two pencils of rays, or of planes, are projectively related
to each other if they are perspective to two perspective

point-rows. This idea will be generalized later on. It is

important to note that between the elements of two
projective fundamental forms there is a one-to-one cor-
respondence, and also that this correspondence is in
general continuous} that is, by taking two elements of
one form sufficiently close to each other, the two corre-
sponding elements in the other form may be made to
 ONE-TO-ONE CORRESPONDENCE 7

approach each other arbitrarily close. In the case of

point-rows this continuity is subject to exception in the
neighborhood of the point "at infinity."
10. Infinity-to-one correspondence. It might be inferred
that any infinite assemblage could be put into one-to-one

correspondence with any other. Such is not the case,

however, if the correspondence is to be continuous,
between the points on a line and the points on a plane.
Consider two lines which lie in different planes, and
take m points on one and n points on the other. The
number of lines joining the m points of one to the
n points of the other is clearly mn. If we symbolize
the totality of points on a line by oo, then a reasonable

symbol for the totality of lines drawn to cut two lines

would be oo 2.Clearly, for every point on one line there
arc oo lines cutting across the other, so that the corre-

spondence might be called oo-to-one. Thus the assem-

blage of lines cutting across two lines is of higher
order than the assemblage of points on a line and as ;

we have called the point-row an assemblage of the first

order, the system of lines cutting across two lines ought
to be called of the second order.
11. Infinitudes of different orders. Now it is easy to
set up a one-to-one correspondence between the points
in a plane and the system of lines cutting across two
lines which lie in different planes. In fact, each line of
the system of lines meets the plane in one point, and
each point in the plane determines one and only one line
cutting across the two given lines namely, the line of
intersection of the two planes determined by the given

point with each of the given lines. The assemblage

8 PBOJECTIVE GEOMETRY
of points in the plane is thus of the same order as
tli at of the lines
(rutting across two lines which lie in
different planes, and ought therefore to be spoken of
as of the second order. We
express all these results
as follows:
12. Jf the infinitude of points on a line is taken as
the infinitude of the first order, then the infinitude of
lines in a pencil of rays and the infinitude of planes in

an axial, pencil are also of the first order, while the

infinitude of lines cutting across two "skew" lines, as
well as the infinitude of points in a plane, are of the
second order.
13. If we
join each of the points of a plane to a point
not in that plane, we set up a one-to-one correspondence
between the points in a plane and the lines through
a point in space. This the infinitude of lines through a

point in space is of the second order.

14. If to each line through a point in space we make

correspond that plane at right angles to it and passing

through the same point, we see that the infinitude of
planes through a point in space is of the second order.
15. If to each plane through a point in space we
make correspond the line in which it intersects a given
plane, we see that the infinitude of lines in a plane is of
the second order. This may also be seen by setting up
a one-to-one correspondence between the points on a

plane and the lines of that plane. Thus, take a point S

not in the plane. Join any point M
of the plane to S.

Through S draw a plane at right angles to MS. This

meets the given plane in a line m which may be taken as
corresponding to the point M. Another very important
 ONE-TO-ONE COKRESPONDENCE 9

method of setting up a oiie-to-one correspondence be-

tween lines and points in a plane will be given later, and
many weighty consequences will be derived from it.
16. Plane system and point system. The plane, con-
sidered as made up of the points and lines in it, is called
a plane, system and is a fundamental form of the second
order. The point, considered as made up of all the lines
and planes passing through it, is called a point system
and is also a fundamental form of the second order.
17. If now we take three lines in space all lying in
different planes, and select I points on the first, m points
011 the second, and n points on the third, then the total
number of planes passing through one of the selected

points on each line will be Inm. Jt is reasonable, there-

fore, to symbolize the totality of planes that are deter-
mined by the oo points on each of the three lines by
cc3 and to call it an infinitude of the third order.
, But
it is easily seen that every plane in space is included in
this totality, so that the totality of planes in space is an
infinitude of the third order.
18. Consider nowthe planes perpendicular to these
three lines. Every set of three planes so drawn will
determine a point in space, and, conversely, through
every point in space may be drawn one and only one
set of three planes at right angles to the three given
lines. It follows, therefore, that the totality of points
in space is an infinitude of the third order.
19. Space system. Space of three dimensions, con- .

sidered as made up planes and points, is then

of all its

a fundamental form of the third order, which we shall

call a space system.
10 PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY
20. Lines in space. If we
join th /fold infinity

of points in one plane with the fr .d infinity of

points in another plane, we get a t. iity of lines of

space which is of the fourth order of infinity. The

totality of lines in space gives, then, a fundamental form
of the fourth order.
21. Correspondence between points and numbers. In
the theory of analytic geometry a one-to-one corre-

spondence is assumed to exist between points on a

line and numbers. In order to justify this assumption
a very extended definition of number must be made
use of. A
one-to-one correspondence is then set up be-
tween points in the plane and pairs of numbers, and
also between points in space and sets of three numbers.
A single constant will serve to define the position of
a point on a line ; two, a point in the plane ; three, a
point in space; etc. In the same theory a one-to-one
correspondence is set up between loci in the plane and

equations in two variables; between surfaces in space

and equations in three variables ; etc. The equation of

a line in a plane involves two constants, either of which
may take an infinite number of values. From this it
follows that there is an infinity of lines in the plane
which is of the second order if the infinity of points on
a line is assumed to be of the first. In the same way
a circle determined by three conditions ; a sphere by
is

four; etc. We might then expect to be able to set up

a one-to-one correspondence between circles in a plane
and points, or planes in space, or between spheres and
lines in space. Such, indeed, is the case, and it is
often possible to infer theorems concerning spheres
 CORRESPONDENCE 11

from theorei n corning lines, and vice versa. It is

possibilities s as these that give to the theory of

one-to-one corru mdence its great importance for the
mathematician. It must not be forgotten, however, that
we are considering only continuous correspondences. It
is perfectly possible to set up a one-to-one correspond-
ence between the points of a line and the points of a
plane, or, indeed, between the points of a line and the
points of a space of any finite number of dimensions, if

the correspondence is not restricted to be continuous.

22. Elements at infinity. A final word is necessary
in order to explain a phrase which is in constant use in
the study of projective geometry. We
have spoken of
the "point at infinity" on a straight line a fictitious

point only used to bridge over the exceptional case

when we are setting up a one-to-one correspondence
between the points of a line and the lines through a
point. We speak of it as "a point" and not as "points,"
because in the geometry studied by Euclid we assume

only one line through a point parallel to a given lino.

In the same sense we speak of all the points at infinity
in a plane as lying on a line, "the line at infinity,"
because the straight line is the simplest locus we can
imagine which has only one point in common with any
"
line in the plane. Likewise we speak of the plane at
infinity," because that seems the most convenient way
of imagining the points at infinity in space. It must not
be inferred that these conceptions have any essential
connection with physical facts, or that other means of
picturing to ourselves the infinitely distant configura-
tions are not possible. In other branches of mathematics,
12 PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY

notably in the theory of functions of a complex vari-

able, quite different assumptions are made and quite
different conceptions of the elements at infinity are used.
As we can know nothing experimentally about such
things, we are at liberty to make any assumptions we
please, so long as they are consistent and serve some
useful purpose.

PROBLEMS

1. Since there is a threefold infinity of points in space,

there must be a sixfold
infinity of pairs of points in space.
Each pair of points determines a line. Why, then, is there
not a sixfold infinity of lines in space ?

2. Tf there is n fourfold infinity of lines in space, why

is it that there is not a fourfold infinity of planes through
a point, seeing that each line in space determines a plane
through that point ?
3. Show that there is a fourfold infinity of circles in

space that pass through a fixed point. (Set up a one-to-one

correspondence between the axes of the circles and lines
in space.)

4. Find the order of infinity of all the lines of space

that cut across a given line ; across two given lines ;
across
three given lines ; across four given lines.

5. Find the order of infinity of all the spheres in space

that pass through a given point ; through two given points ;

through three given points ; through four given points.
6. Find the order of infinity of all the circles on a
sphere of all the circles on a sphere that pass through a
;

fixed point through two fixed points through three fixed

; ;

points of all the circles in space

; ;
of all the circles that
cut across a given line.
 ONE-TO-ONE CORRESPONDENCE 13

7. Find the order of infinity of all lines tangent to a

sphere ; of all planes tangent to a sphere of lines and ;

planes tangent to a sphere and a

passing through fixed point.
8. Set up a one-to-one correspondence between the series

of numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, ... and the series of even numbers

2, 4, 6, 8 .... Are we justified in saying that there are just
as many even numbers as there are numbers altogether ?
9. Is the axiom " The whole is greater than one of its
"
parts applicable to infinite assemblages ?
10. Make out a classified list of all the infinitudes of the
first, second, third, and fourth orders mentioned in this

chapter.
 CHAPTER II

RELATIONS BETWEEN FUNDAMENTAL FORMS IN ONE-

TO-ONE CORRESPONDENCE WITH EACH OTHER

23. Seven fundamental forms. In the preceding chap-

ter we have called attention to seven fundamental forms :

the point-row, the pencil of rays, the axial pencil, the

plane system, the point system, the space system, and

the system of lines in space. These fundamental forms
are the material which we intend to use in building up
a general theory which will be found to include ordinary

geometry as a special case. We

shall lie concerned, not
with measurement of angles and areas or line seg-
ments, as in the study of Euclid, but in combining and
comparing these fundamental forms and in "generating"
new forms by means of them. In problems of con*
struction we shall make no use of measurement, either
of angles or of segments, and except in certain special

applications of the general theory we shall not find it

necessary to require more of ourselves than the ability
to draw the line joining two points, or to find the point
of intersections of two lines, or the line of intersection
of two planes, or, in general, the common elements of
two fundamental forms.
24. Projective properties. Our chief interest in this

chapter be the discovery of relations between

will
the elements of one form which hold between the
14
 FUNDAMENTAL FORMS 15

corresponding elements of any other form in one-to-one

correspondence with it. We
have already called atten-
tion to the danger of assuming that whatever relations
hold between the elements of one assemblage must also
hold between the corresponding elements of any assem-
blage in one-to-one correspondence with it. This false
assumption is the basis of the so-called "proof by
analogy" so much in vogue among speculative theorists.
When appears that certain relations existing between
it

the points of a given point-row do not necessitate the

same relations between the corresponding elements of
another in one-to-one correspondence with it, we should
view with suspicion any application of the "proof by
analogy" in realms of thought where accurate judg-
ments are not so easily made. For example, if in a
given point-row u three points, A, B, and C, are taken
such that B
the middle point of the segment AC\
is

it does not follow* that the three points A', B', C

1

in a point-row perspective to u will be so related.

Relations between the elements of any form which do

go over unaltered to the corresponding elements of

a form projectively related to it are called protective
relations.Relations involving measurement of lines or
of angles are not projective.
25. Desargues's theorem. We consider iirst the fol-

lowing beautiful theorem, due to Desargues and called

by his name.
If two triangles. A, B, C and A', B', C 1
, are so situated
that the lines AA BB
and CC' all meet in a point, then
r
,
?
,

the pairs of sides AB and A'B', BC and B'C CA and f

,

C A att meet on a straight line, and conversely.

f f
16 PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY
Let the linos AA', KB', and C(f meet in the point J/

(Fig. 3). Conceive of the figure as in space, so that

M is the vertex of a trihedral
angle of which the given
triangles are plane sections. The lines AB and A'B r
are
in the same plane and must meet when produced, their

point of intersection
being clearly a point
in the plane of each

triangle and there-

fore in the line of
intersection of these
two planes. Call this
point P. By similar

reasoning the point

Q of intersection of
the lines BC
and
1
B'C must on this same line as well as the point R
lie

of intersection of CA and C'A

1
Therefore the points .

P, Q, and It all lie on the same line m. If now we con-

sider the figure a plane figure, the points P, Q, and R
still all lie on a straight line, which proves the theorem.

The converse is same manner.

established in the
26. Fundamental theorem concerning two complete

quadrangles. This theorem throws into our hands the

following fundamental theorem concerning two com-
plete quadrangles, a complete quadrangle being defined
as the figure obtained by joining any four given points

by straight lines in the six possible ways.

Given two complete quadrangle^ A", ., M, N and

K', L\ M\ N 9
,
so related that XL, K'L', MN, M'N f
all

meet in a point A ; LM, L'M', NK, N'K f

all meet in a
 FUNDAMENTAL FORMS 17

point O\ and LN, L N*

f
-meet in a jwint /> on tin* line
AC i then the lines. KM and K'M f
also meet in a point D
on the line AC.
For, by the converse of the last theorem, KK LL
r
,
f
,

and NN f
meet in a point S (Fig. 4). Also LL\ JOf,
all

and NN* meet in a point, and therefore in the same

FIIS. 4

point S. Thus KK', LL' and 9 MM 1

meet in a point,
and so, by Desargues's theorem itself, A, B, and D are
on a straight line.

27. Importance of the theorem. The importance of

this theorem lies in the fact that, A, /?, and C being
given, an indefinite number of quadrangles A'', X', M',N
!

may be found such that K'L' and M'N* meet in A, K'N

r

and L'M f
in C, with L'N 1

passing through B. Indeed,

the lines AK' and AM 1
may be drawn arbitrarily
through A, and any line through B may be used to
determine and U N f
.
By joining these two points to
C the points K '
and M r
are determined. Then the line
18 PROJECT1VE GEOMETRY

joining K f
and Jf', way, must pass
found in this

through the point I) already determined by the quad-

rangle A", Z, M
N. The three points A, /*, 7, given in
9

order, serve thus to determine a fourth point I).

28. In a complete quadrangle the line joining any

two points iscalled the opposite side to the line joining

the other two points. The result of the preceding
paragraph may then be stated as follows:
Given threepoints, A, B, 6', in a straight line, if a
pair of opposite sides of a complete quadrangle pass
A
through y and another pair through C7, and one of the
remaining two sides goes through B, then the other of
the remaining two sides will go through a fixed point
which does not depend on the quadrangle employed.
29. Four harmonic points. Four points, A, J5, C, Z>,
related as in the preceding theorem are called four
harmonic points. point The D
is called the fourth har-

monic of B with respect to A and C. Since B and play D

exactly the same r61e in the above construction, B is

also the fourth harmonic of D with respect to A and C.

B and D are called harmonic conjugates with respect to

A and C. We proceed to show that and C are also A
harmonic conjugates with respect to B and that is, D
that it is possible to find a quadrangle of which two

opposite sides shall pass through 7?, two through J9,

and of the remaining pair, one through A and the other
through C.
Let be the intersection of KM and LN (Fig. 5).
Join to A and (7. The joining lines cut out on the
sides of the quadrangle four points, P, Q, JK, S. Consider
the quadrangle P, A", Q, O. One pair of opposite sides
 FUNDAMENTAL FORMS 19

passes through A, one through (7, and one remaining side

through 7>; therefore the other remaining side must
pass through B. Similarly, US passes through B and
PS and QR pass
through!). The
quadrangle P, (?,
7, S therefore
has two opposite
sides through B,
two through J9,
and the remain-
ing pair through Fuj 5
A and C. A and
C are thus harmonic conjugates with respect to B and 1).
We may sum up the discussion, therefore, as follows :

30. Jf A and C are harmonic conjugates with respect

to Band D, then B and L> are harmonic conjugates with

respect to A and C.
31. Importance of the notion. The importance of the
notion of four harmonic points lies in the fact that it
is a relation which is carried over from four points in

a point-row u to the four points that correspond to

any point-row u perspective to
1
them in u.

To
prove this statement we construct a quadrangle
K, L, M, N
such that XL and MN pass through A, KN
and L M through (7, LN through and KM through D.
7?,

Take now any point S not in the plane of the quad-

rangle and construct the planes determined by S and

all the seven lines of the figure. Cut across this set of

planes by another plane not passing through S. This

plane cuts out on the set of seven planes another
20 PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY

quadrangle which determines four new harmonic points,

A', B , C
r r
,
D
, on the lines joining 8 to A, B, C, D.
1
But
S may be taken as any point, since the original quad-
rangle may be taken in any plane through A, B, C, D\
and, further, the points A', B', C D' are the intersection
1
,

of SA, SB, SO, SD by any line. We have, then, the

remarkable theorem:
32. If any point is Joined to four harmonic points, and
t?te four lines thus obtained are cut by any fifth, the four
points of intersection are again harmonic.
33. Four harmonic lines. We are now able to extend
the notion of harmonic elements to pencils of rays, and
indeed to axial pencils. For if we define four harmonic
rays as four rays which pass through a point and which
pass one through each of four harmonic points, we have
the theorem
Four harmonic lines are cut by any transversal in four

34. Four harmonic planes. We also define four har-

monic planes as four planes through a line which pass
one through each of four harmonic points, and we may
show that
Four harmonic planes are cut by any plane not passing
through their common line in four harmonic lines, and also
by any line in four harmonic points.
For let the planes a, ft, 7, 8, which all pass through
the line g, pass also through the four harmonic points
A, B, (7, J9, so that a passes through A, etc. Then it is
clear that any plane TT through A, B, C, will cut out D
four harmonic lines from the four planes, for they are
 FUNDAMENTAL FORMS 21

lines through the intersection P of g with the plane

TT, and they pass through the given harmonic points
A, B, C, /). Any other plane or cuts g in a point 8 and
cuts a, & 7, 8 in four lines that meet TT in four points
A B C', D' lying on PA, PB, PC, and PD respec-
1
,
r
,

tively, and are thus four harmonic lines. Further, any

ray cuts a, ft, 7, 8 in four harmonic points, since any

plane through the ray gives four harmonic lines of

intersection.
35. These results may be put together as follows :

Given any two assemblages of points, rays, or planes,

perspectively related to each other, four harmonic elements
of one must correspond to four elements of the other which
are likewise harmonic.

now, two forms are perspectively related to a third,

If,

any four harmonic elements of one must correspond to

four harmonic elements in the other. We take this as
our definition of projective correspondence, and say:

36. Definition of projectivity. Two fundamental forms

are protectively related to each other when a one-to-one cor-

respondence exists between the elements of the two and when

four harmonic elements of one correspond to four harmonic
elements of the other.

37. Correspondence between harmonic conjugates. Given

four harmonic points, A, B, C, D\ if we fix A and C,
then B
and Z> vary together in a way that should be

thoroughly understood. To get a clear conception of

their relative motion we may fix the points L and of M
the quadrangle K, L, M, N(Fig. 6). Then, as describes B
the point-row AC, the point N
describes the point-row
22 PKOJECTIVE GEOMETRY
AM perspective to it. Projecting N
again from C, we
get a point-row A" on AL perspective to the point-row
N and thus projcctive to the point-row />. Project the
point-row K from M and we get a point-row D on
AC again, which is projective to the point-row B. For
every point B we have thus one and only one point
7>, and conversely.
In other words, we
have set up a one-
to-one correspond-
ence between the
points of a single
point-row, which is
also a projective

correspondence be-
cause four har-
monic points B
correspond to four harmonic points 7>.
We may note also that the correspondence is here char-
acterized by a feature which does not always appear in

projective correspondences: namely, the same process

that carries one from to B D
will carry one back from
D to B
again. This special property will receive further
study in the chapter on Involution.
38. It is seen that as B approaches A, D also ap-

proaches A. As B moves from A toward (7, D moves

from A in the opposite direction, passing through the

point at infinity on the line AC^ and returns on the

other side to meet B
at C again. In other words, as B
traverses -4(7, D
traverses the rest of the line from to A
C through infinity. In all positions of /?, except at A or

(7, B and 7> are separated from each other by A and C.

 FUNDAMENTAL FORMS 23

39. Harmonic conjugate of the point at infinity. It is

natural to inquire what position of B
corresponds to the
infinitely distant position of D. We
have proved (27)
that the particular quadrangle K, L, M, N
employed is
of no consequence. We
shall therefore avail ourselves of
one that lends itself most readily to
the solution of the problem. We
choose the point L so that the trian-
gle ALC is isosceles (Fig. 7). Since
D is supposed to be at infinity, the
line KM
is parallel to A C. There-
fore the triangles andKAC MAC
are equal, and the triangle ANC
is also isosceles. The
triangles CNL and ANL
are therefore equal, and the line
LB bisects the angle ALC. B
is therefore the middle

point of AC, and we have the theorem

The harmonic conjugate of the middle point of AC is at

infinity.
40. Projective theorems and metrical theorems. Linear
construction. This theorem is the connecting link be-
tween the general projective theorems which we have
been considering so far and the metrical theorems of
ordinary geometry. Up to this point we have said noth-
ing about measurements, either of line segments or of
angles. Desargues's theorem and the theory of harmonic
elements which depends on it have nothing to do with
magnitudes at all. Not
until the notion of an infinitely
distant point is brought in is any mention made of
distances or directions. We
have been able to make
all of our constructions
up to this point by means of
the straightedge, or ungraduated ruler. construction A
24 PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY
made with such an instrument we shall call a linear
construction. It requires merely that we be able to
draw the line joining two points or find the point of
intersection of two lines.

41. Parallels and mid-points. It might be thought

that drawing a line through a given point parallel to
a given line was only a special case of drawing a line
joining two Indeed, it consists only in draw-
points.
ing a line-
through the given point and through the
" "
infinitely distant point on the given line. It must
"
be remembered, however, that the expression infinitely
distant point" must not be taken literally. When we
<c
say that two parallel lines meet at infinity," we really
mean that they do not meet at all, and the only reason
for using the expression is to avoid tedious statement
of exceptions and restrictions to our theorems. We
ought therefore to consider the drawing of a line par-
allel to a given line as a different accomplishment from

the drawing of the line joining two given points. It is

a remarkable consequence of the last theorem that a
parallel to a given line and the mid-point of a given
segment are equivalent data. For the construction is
reversible, and if we are given the middle point of a

given segment, we can construct linearly a line parallel to

that segment. Thus, given that B is the middle point of
AC, we may draw any two through A, and any line
lines

through B cutting them in points and L. Join Nand N

L to C and get the points and K
on the two lines M
through A. Then JTJf is parallel to AC. The bisection of
a given segment and the drawing of a line parallel to the
segment are equivalent data when linear construction is used.
 FUNDAMENTAL FORMS 25

42. It is not difficult to give a linear construction

for the problem to divide a given segment into n equal

parts, given only a parallel to the segment. This is

simple enough when n is For any other
a power of 2.

number, such as 29, divide any segment on the line

parallel to AC into 32 equal parts, by a repetition of
the process just described. Take 29 of these, and join
the first to A. and the last to C. Let these joining lines
meet in S. Join S to all the other points. Other
problems, of a similar sort, are given at the end of
the chapter.
43. Numerical relations. Since three points, given in
order, are sufficient to determine a fourth, as explained
above, ought to be possible to reproduce the process
it

numerically in view of the one-to-one correspondence

which exists between points on a line and numbers a ;

correspondence which, to be sure, we have not estab-

lished here, but "which is discussed in any treatise
on the theory of point sets. We proceed to discover
what relation between four numbers corresponds to the
harmonic relation between
four points.
44. Let A, B, (7, D be four
harmonic points (Fig. 8), and
let SA, SB, SO, SD be four

harmonic lines. Assume a

linedrawn through B parallel FIG. 8
/SZ), meeting SA in A and
1
to
SC in C". Then A,' B, C and the f
, infinitely distant

point on A C are four harmonic points,

r f
and therefore
B is the middle point of the segment A'C
r
Then, since .
26 PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY
the triangle DAS
is similar to the triangle BAA we
1
,

may write the proportion

AB:AD = BA':SD.
Also, from the similar triangles DSC and BCC', we have
CD:CB = SD:BC'.
From these two proportions we have, remembering that

AD-CB '

the minus sign being given to the ratio on account of the

fact that A and C are always separated from and /), B
so that one or three of the segments AB, CD, AD, CB
must be negative.
45. Writing the last equation in the form

and using the fundamental relation connecting three

points on a line,

which holds for all positions of the three points if

account be taken of the sign of the segments, the last

proportion may be written

or
so that AB, AC, and AD are three quantities in har-
monic progression, since the difference between the first
and second is to the first as the difference between the
second and third is to the third. Also, from this last
proportion comes the familiar relation

which is convenient for the computation of the distance

AJ) when AB and AC are given numerically.
 FUNDAMENTAL FORMS 27

Anharmonic ratio. The corresponding relations

46.
between the trigonometric functions of the angles deter-
mined by four harmonic lines are not difficult to obtain,
but as we shall not need them in building up the
theory of projective geometry, we will not discuss them
here. Students who have a slight acquaintance with

trigonometry may read in a later chapter ( 161) a

development of the theory of a more general relation,
called the anharmonic ratio, or cross ratio, which connects

any four points on a line.

PROBLEMS
1. Draw through
a given point a line which shall pass
through the inaccessible point of intersection of two given
lines. The following construction may be made to depend

upon Desargues's theorem Through the given point P draw

:

any two rays cutting the two lines in the points A B mid
1

A !}, A, B, lying on ne of the given lines and A B on the

1 1

,
1

other. Join A A and BB\ and find their point of intersec-

1

tion S. Through S draw any other ray, cutting the given

lines in CC'. Join BC and B'C, and obtain their point
?

of intersection Q. PQ is the desired line. Justify this

construction.
To draw through a given point P a line which shall
2.

meet two given lines in points A and B equally distant from

9

P. Justify the following construction Join P to the point

:

S of intersection of the two given lines. Construct the

fourth harmonic of PS with respect to the two given lines.
Draw through P a line parallel to this line. This is the
required line.
Given a parallelogram in the same plane with a given
3.

segment A C, to construct linearly the middle point of A C.

28 PKOJECTIVE GEOMETRY
4. Given four harmonic lines, of which one pair are at
right angles to each other, show that the other pair make
equal angles with them. This is a theorem of which frequent
use will be made.
6. Given the middle point of a line segment, to draw a
line parallel to the segment and passing through a given
point.
6. A line is drawn cutting the sides of a triangle ABC in
the points A', ,
B
C', the point A lying on the side BC, etc.
? 1

The harmonic conjugate of A with respect to B and C is

1

then constructed and called A". Similarly, B" and C" are
constructed. Show that A " B' C" lie on a straight line.Find
other sets of three points on a line in the figure. Find also
sets of three lines through a point.
 CHAPTER III

COMBINATION OF TWO PROJECTIVELY RELATED

FUNDAMENTAL FORMS

47. Superposed fundamental forms.Self-corresponding

elements. We have seen that two projective
(37)
point-rows may be superposed upon the same straight
line. This happens, for example, when two pencils

which are projective to each other are cut across by

a straight line. It is also possible for two projective

pencils to have the same center. This happens, for

example, when two projective point-rows are projected

to the same point. Similarly, two projective axial pen-
cils may have the "same axis. We examine now the
possibility of two forms related in this way, having
an element or elements that correspond to themselves.
We have seen, indeed, that if B and D are harmonic
conjugates with respect to A and (7, then the point-
row described by B is projective to the point-row de-
scribed by Z>, and that A and C are self-corresponding

points. Consider more generally the case of two pencils

perspective to each other with axis of perspectivity u
1

(Fig. 9). Cut across them by a line u. We get thus

two projective point-rows superposed on the same line
w, and a moment's reflection serves to show that the

point N
of intersection u and u' corresponds to itself
in the two point-rows. Also, the point Jf, where u
29
30 PKOJECTIVE GEOMETRY
intersects the line joining the centers of the two pen-

cils, is seen to correspond to itself. It is thus possible

for two projective point-

rows, superposed upon

the same line, to have two
self -corresponding points.

Clearly M and N may

fall together if the line

joining the centers of the

pencils happens to pass
through the point of in-
tersection of the lines u
FIG.
and u'.

48. We may also give an illustration of a case

where two superposed projective point-rows have no
self-corresponding points at all. Thus we may take
two lines revolving about a fixed
point S and always making the
same angle a with each other
(Fig. 10). They will cut out on
any line u in the plane two point-
rows which are easily seen to be
projective. For, given any four
rays SP which are harmonic, the
four corresponding rays SP must
r

also be harmonic, since they make

the same angles with each other. FIG. 10
Four harmonic points P corre-

spond, therefore, to four harmonic points It is clear, P f

.

however, that no point P

can coincide with its corre-
sponding point JP', for in that case the lines PS and
 TWO FUNDAMENTAL FORMS 31

P'S would coincide, which is impossible if the angle

between them is to be constant.
49. Fundamental theorem. Postulate of continuity.
We have thus shown that two projective point-rows,
superposed one on the other, may have two points, one
point, or no point at all corresponding to themselves.
We proceed to show that
If two projectile poinl-rows, superposed upon the same
straight line, have more than two self-correspondiny points,
they ?mtst have an infinite number, and every point corre-
sponds to itself; that is, the two point-rows are not

essentially distinct.
If three points, A, B, and C, are self-corresponding,
then the harmonic conjugate D of B with respect to A
and C must also correspond to itself. For four harmonic
points must always correspond to four harmonic points.
In the same way the harmonic conjugate of D with
respect to & and C must correspond to itself. Combining
new points with old in this way, we may obtain as many
self-corresponding points as we wish. show further We
that every point on the line is the limiting point of a
finite or infinite sequence of self-corresponding points.
Thus, let a point P lie between A and B. Construct
now I), the fourth harmonic of C with respect to A and
B. D may coincide with P, in which case the sequence
is closed ; otherwise P
lies in the stretch or in the AD
stretch DB. If it lies in the stretch DB, construct the
fourth harmonic of C
with respect to and B. ThisD
point D
may
f
coincide with P, in which case, as before,
the sequence is closed. If P lies in the stretch DD',
we construct the fourth harmonic of C with respect
32 PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY
to DD'i etc. In each step the region in which P lies is
diminished, and the process may be continued until two
self-corresponding points are obtained on either side of
P, and at distances from it arbitrarily small.
Wenow assume, explicitly, the fundamental postulate
that the correspondence is continuous, that is, that the
distance between two points in one point-row may be made

arbitrarily small by sufficiently diminishing the distance

between the corresponding points in the other. Suppose
now that P
is not a self-corresponding point, but cor-

responds to a point P r
at a fixed distance d from P.
As noted above, w.e can find self-corresponding points
arbitrarily close to />, and it appears, then, that we can

take a point Das close to P as we wish, and yet the

distance between the corresponding points Dand P'
1

approaches d as a limit, and not zero, which contradicts

the postulate of continuity.
50. It follows also that two projective pencils which
have the same center may have no more than two self-
corresponding rays, unless the pencils are identical. For
if we cut across them
by a line, we obtain two projec-
tive point-rows superposed on the same straight line,
which may have no more than two self-corresponding
points. The same considerations apply to two projective
axial pencils which have the same axis.
51. Projective point-rows having a self -corresponding

point in common. Consider now two projective point-

rows lying on different lines in the same plane. Their
common point may or may not be a self-corresponding
point. If the two point-rows are perspectively related,
then their common point is evidently a self-corresponding
 TWO FUNDAMENTAL FORMS 33

point. The converse is also true, and we have the very

important theorem :

52. If in two projective point-rows the point of inter-

section corresponds to itself, then the point-rows are in
perspective position.
1
Let the two point-rows be u and u (Fig. 11). Let
A and A', B and .#', be corresponding points, and let
also the point M of intersection of u and u correspond
r

to itself. Let AA! and BB 1

meet in the point S. Take
S as the center of two pencils,
one perspective to u and the other
perspective to u'. In these two
pencils SA coincides with its cor-
responding ray SA', SB with its
corresponding ray , SB and 8M
1

with its corresponding ray SM'.

The two pencils are thus identical, by the preceding
theorem, and any ray S> must coincide with its cor-
responding ray SD r
.
Corresponding points of u and u',

therefore, all lie on through the point S.

lines
53. An entirely similar discussion shows that

If in two projective pencils the line joining their cen-

ters is a self-corresponding ray, then the two pencils are
perspectively related.

54. A similar theorem may be stated for two axial

pencils of which the axes intersect. Very frequent use
will be made of these fundamental theorems.
55. Point-row of the second order. The question nat-

urally arises, What is the locus of points of intersec-

tion of corresponding rays of two projective pencils
34 PROJECTIVE GEOMETEY
which are not in perspective position? This locus,
which will be discussed in detail in subsequent chapters,
is easily seen to have at most two points in common

with any line in the plane, and on account of this

fundamental property will be called a point-row of the
second order. For any line u in the plane of the two

pencils will be cut by them in two projective point-

rows which have at most two self -corresponding points.

Such a self-corresponding point is clearly a point of

intersection of corresponding rays of the two pencils.

56. This locus degenerates in the case of two per-

spective pencils to a p&ir of straight lines, one of which

is the axis of perspectivity and the other the common

ray, any point of which may be considered as the point

of intersection of corresponding rays of the two pencils.
57. Pencils of rays of the second order. Similar inves-

tigations may be made concerning the system of lines

joining corresponding points of two projective point-

rows. If we project the point-rows to any point in the

plane, we obtain two projective pencils having the same

center. At most two pairs of self-corresponding rays
may present themselves.Such a ray is clearly a line
joining two corresponding points in the two point-rows.
The result may be stated as follows : The system of rays
joining corresponding points in two projective point-rows
has at most two rays in common with any pencil in the

plane. For that reason the system of rays is called a

pencil of rays of the second order.

58. In the case of two perspective point-rows this

system of rays degenerates into two pencils of rays of

the first order, one of which has its center at the center
 TWO FUNDAMENTAL FOEMS 35

two point-rows, and the other at

of perspectivity of the
two point-rows, any ray through
the intersection, of the
which may be considered as joining two corresponding
points of the two point-rows.
59. Cone of the second order. The corresponding
theorems in space mayeasily be obtained by joining
the points and lines considered in the plane theorems
to a point S in space. Two projective pencils give rise
to two projective axial pencils with axes intersecting.

Corresponding planes meet in lines which all pass

through S and through the points on a point-row of
the second order generated by the two pencils of rays.

They are thus generating lines of a cone of the second

order, or quadric cone, so called because every plane in

space not passing through S cuts it in a point-row of

the second order, and every line also cuts it in at most
two points. If, again, we project two point-rows to a
point S in space, ^re obtain two pencils of rays with a
common center but lying in different planes. Corre-

sponding lines of these pencils determine planes which

are the projections to 8 of the lines which join the cor-

responding points of the two point-rows. At most two

such planes may pass through any ray through S. It
is called a pencil of planes of the second order.

PROBLEMS

1. A man A moves along a straight road and another,

man B moves along the same road and walks so as always

to keep sight of A in a small mirror M at the side of the
road. How many times will they come together, A moving
always in the same direction along the road ?
36 PKOJECTIVE GEOMETRY
2. How many times would the two men in the first prob-

lem see each other in two mirrors M

and N as they walk
along the road as before ? (The planes of the two mirrors
are not necessarily parallel to u.)

3. As A moves along trace the path of B so that the

?/,,

two men may always see each other in the two mirrors.
4. Two boys walk along two paths u and u each holding
1

a string which they keep stretched tightly between them.

They both move at constant but different rates of speed,

letting out the string or drawing it in as they walk. How

many times will the line of the string pass over any given

point in the plane of the paths ?

5. Trace the lines of the string when the two boys move
at the same rate of speed in the two paths but do not start
at the same time from the point where the two paths
intersect.

6. A
ship is sailing on a straight course and keeps a gun
trained on a point on the shore. Show that a line at right

angles to the direction of the gun at its muzzle will pass

through any point in the plane twice or not at all. (Con-
sider the point-row at infinity cut out by a line through the

point on the shore at right angles to the direction of

the gun.)
7. Two u and u' revolve about two points
lines and U' U
respectively in the same plane. They go in the same direc-
tion and at the same rate of speed, but one has an angle a
the start of the other. Show that they generate a point-row
of the second order.
8. Discuss the question given in the last problem when
the two lines revolve in opposite directions. Can you

recognize the locus ?

 CHAPTER IV
POINT-ROWS OF THE SECOND ORDER

60. Point-row of the second order defined. We have

seen that two fundamental forms in one-to-one corre-
spondence may sometimes generate a form of higher
order. Thus, two point-rows ( 55) generate a system of

rays of the second order, and two pencils of rays ( 57),

a system of points of the second order. As a system of
points is more familiar to most students of geometry
than a system of lines, we study first the point-row of
the second order.
61. Tangent line. We
have shown in the last chapter
( 55) that the locus of intersection of corresponding

rays of two projective pencils is a point-row of the

second order ; that is, it has at most two points in com-
mon with any line in the plane. It is clear, first of all,

that the centers of the pencils are points of the locus;

for to the line SSf, considered as a ray of S, must

correspond some ray of S which meets it in S

f f
.
$',

and by the same argument S, is then a point where

corresponding rays meet. Any ray through S will meet
it in one point besides $, namely, the point P where
it meets its corresponding ray. Now, by choosing the
ray through S sufficiently close to the ray Stf, the point
P may be made to approach arbitrarily close to and ',

the ray S'P may be made to differ in position from the

37
38 PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY

tangent line at S' by as little as we please. We have,

then, the important theorem
The ray at ti
f
tvhich corresponds to the common ray 88?
is tangent to the locus at S'.

In the same manner the tangent at S may be

constructed.
62. Determination of the locus. We now show that
it is possible to assign arbitrarily the position of three

points, A,-B, and C, on the locus (besides the points S

and 8') ; Imt, these three points being chosen, the locus is

completely determined.
63. This statement is equivalent to the following:
Given three pairs of corresponding rays in two protective
pencils, it is possible to find a ray of one wJtich corre-
sponds to any ray of the other.

64. We proceed, then, to the solution of the funda-

mental
PROBLEM: Given three pairs of rays, aa', bb
r

, and cc
r
,

'
of two protective pencils, S and S r
,
to
find the ray d of S
f f

which corresponds to any ray d of S.

Call A the intersection of aa', B the intersection of bb

r
,

and C the intersection of cc (Fig. 12).. Join AB by the r

line u, and AC by the line u'. Consider u as a point-

row perspective to S, and u as a point-row perspective 1

to S u and u are projectively related to each other,

r 1
.

since S and ff- are, by hypothesis, so related. But their

point of intersection A is
a self-corresponding point, since
a and a! were supposed to be corresponding rays. It fol-
lows (52) that u and u f
are in perspective position,
and that lines through corresponding points all pass
 POINT-HOWS OF THE SECOND ORDER 39

through a point J/", the center of perspectivity, the

position of which will be determined by any two such
lines. But the intersection of c with u and the intersec-
tion of c with u' are corresponding points on
1
u and u',

and the line joining them is clearly c itself. Similarly,

V joins two corresponding points on u and n
1
,
and so the
center M of perspectivity of u and u is the intersection
r

. 12

of c and V. To find d in If corresponding to a given

r

line d of $, we note the point L where d meets ?/. Join

L to H
and get the point N
where this line meets u f
.

L and N are corresponding points on u and u\ and d

f

must therefore pass through N. The intersection D of

d and c? is thus another point on the locus. In the same
manner any number of other points may be obtained.
r
65. The lines u and u might have been drawn in

any direction through A (avoiding, of course, the line

a for u and the line a! for w'), and the center of per-
spectivity M
would be easily obtainable but the above ;

construction furnishes a simple and instructive figure.

An equally simple one is obtained by taking af for u
and a for u'.
40 PBOJECTIVE GEOMETRY
66. Lines joining four points of the locus to a fifth.

Suppose that the points S, S B, (7, and D are fixed,

1
,

and that four points, A, A^ A# and A^ are taken on the

locus at the intersection with it of any four harmonic

rays through B. These four harmonic rays give four

harmonic points, L, L^ etc., on the fixed ray SD. These,
in turn, project through the fixed point into four M
harmonic points, N, N$ etc., on the fixed line DS r
.

These last, four harmonic points give four harmonic

rays CA, CA^ CA^ CA^ Therefore the four points A
which project to B in four harmonic rays also pro-

ject to harmonic rays. But C may be any

in four

point on the locus, and so we have the very important

theorem,
Four points which are on the locus, and which project
to a four harmonic rays, project
fifth point of the locus in
to any point of the locus in four harmonic rays.

67. The theorem may also be stated thus:

The locus of points from which four given points are

seen along four harmonic rays is a point-row of the second

order through them.

68. A further theorem of prime importance also

follows :

Any two points on the locus may be taken as the centers

of two protective pencils which will generate the locus.

The points A, B, C, D, S, and

69. Pascal's theorem.
S mayf
thus be considered as chosen arbitrarily on the
locus, and the following remarkable theorem follows
at once.
 POINT-ROWS OF THE SECOND ORDER 41

Given six points, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, on the point-row of

the second order,: if we call

L the intersection of 12 with 45,

M the intersection of 23 with 56,
N the intersection of 34 with 61,
then L, M, and N are on a straight line.

70. To get the notation to correspond to the figure, we

may take (Fig. 13) ,4 = 1, J?= 2, = 3, = 4, 5 = 5, and
'
D
C= 6. If we make A = 1, C= 2, S= 3, J>== 4, #'= 5, and
B = 6, the points Z and -2V" are interchanged, but the line
is left unchanged.
It is clear that one
point may be named
arbitrarily and the
other five named in
5 I = 120 different

ways, but since, us

we have seen, two
different assignments
of names give the
same line, it follows
that there cannot be FIG. 13
more than 60 differ-

ent lines L MN obtained in way from a given set of

this
six points. As a matter of fact, the number obtained in
this way is in general 60. The above theorem, which
is of cardinal importance in the theory of the point-row
of the second order, is due to Pascal and was discovered
by him at the age of sixteen. It is, no doubt, the most

important contribution to the theory of these loci since

42 PKOJECTIVE GEOMETRY
the days of Apollonius. If the six points be called the
vertices of a hexagon inscribed in the curve, then the
sides 12 and 45 may be appropriately called a pair of

opposite sides. Pascal's theorem, then, may be stated

as follows :

The three pairs of opposite sides of a hexagon inscribed in

a point-row of the second order meet in three points on a line.

71. Harmonic points on a point-row of the second order.

Before proceeding to develop the consequences of this

theorem, we note another result of the utmost impor-
tance for the higher developments of pure geometry,
which follows from the fact that if four points on the
locus project to a fifth in four harmonic rays, they will

project to any point of the locus in four harmonic rays.

It is natural to speak of four such points as four har-
monic points on the locus, and to use this notion to
define projective correspondence between point-rows of
the second order, or between a point-row of the second
order and any fundamental form of the first order.
Thus, in particular, the point-row of the second order,
<r, said to be perspectively related to the pencil S when
is

every ray on S goes through the point on <r which

corresponds to it.
72. Determination of the locus. It is now clear that
chosen in the plane, are sufficient
five points, arbitrarily

to determine a point-row of the second order through

them. Two of the points may be taken as centers of
two projective pencils, and the three others will deter-
mine three pairs of corresponding rays of the pencils,
and therefore all pairs. If four points of the locus are
 POINT-BOWS OF THE SECOND ORDER 43

given, together with the tangent at one of them, the

locus is likewise completely determined. For if the point
at which the tangent is given be taken as the center 8
of one pencil, and any other of the points for $', then,
besides the two pairs of corresponding rays determined
by the remaining two points, we have one more pair,
consisting of the tangent at S and the ray SS . Simi-
f

larly, the curve is determined by three points and the

tangents at two of them.
73. Circles and conies as point-rows of the second order.
It is not difficult to see that a circle is a point-row of
the second order. Indeed, take any point S on the circle
and draw four harmonic rays through it. They will cut
the circle in four points, which will project to any other

point of the curve in four harmonic rays; for, by the

theorem concerning the angles inscribed in a circle, the
an'gles involved in the second set of four lines are
the same as those in the first set. If, moreover, we pro-
ject the figure to any point in space, we shall get a cone,
standing on a circular base, generated by two projective
axial pencils which are the projections of the pencils
at 8 and 8 f
. Cut across, now, by any plane, and we get
a conic section which is thus exhibited as the locus of
intersection of two projective
pencils. It thus appears
that a conic section a point-row of the second order.
is

It will later appear that a point-row of the second order

is a conic section. In the future, therefore, we shall
refer to a point-row of the second order as a conic.
74. Conic through five points. Pascal's theorem fur-
nishes an elegant solution of the problem of drawing a
conic through five given points. To construct a sixth
44 PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY

point on the conic, draw through the point numbered 1

an arbitrary line (Fig. 14), and let the desired point
6 be the second point of intersection
of this line with the conic. The point
L = 12 45 is obtainable at once ; also
the point N= 34 - 61. But L and N
determine Pascal's line, and the in-
tersection of 23 with 56 must be on
this line. Intersect, then, the line LN FIG. 14
with 23 and obtain the point M. Join
M to 5 and intersect with 61 for the desired point 6.
75. Tangent to a conic. If two points of Pascal's hex-

agon approach coincidence, then the line joining them

approaches as a limiting position the tangent line at that

point. Pascal's theorem thus affords a ready method of
drawing the tangent line to a conic
at a given point. If the conic is de-
termined by the points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5

(Fig. 15), and it is desired to draw

the tangent at the point 1, we may
call that point 1, 6. The points
L and M are obtained as usual,
and the intersection of 34 with LM
gives N. Join N
to the point 1 for
the desired tangent at that point.
76. Inscribed quadrangle. Two pairs of vertices may
coalesce, giving an inscribed quadrangle. Pascal's theo-
rem gives for this case the very important theorem
Two pairs of opposite sides of any quadrangle inscribed
in a conic meet on a straight line, upon which line also
intersect the two pairs of tangents at the opposite vertices.
 POINT-BOWS OF THE SECOND ORDER 45

For let the vertices be A, B, (7, and I>, and call the
vertex A
the point 1, 6 ; B, the point 2 ; 6', the point
3, 4 ; and D, the point 5 (Fig. 16). Pascal's theorem then

indicates that

and -2V, which

is the inter-
section of the

tangents at A
and C, are all

on a straight
line u. But FIG. 16
if we were to
call A the point 2, B
the point 6, 1, C the point 5, and
D the point 4, 3, then the intersection P
of the tangents
atB and D are also on this same
line u. Thus , M, N, and P are
four points on a straight line.

The consequences of this theorem

are so numerous and important
that we shall devote a separate

chapter to them.
77. Inscribed triangle. Finally,
three of the vertices of the hex-

agon may coalesce, giving a trian-

FIG. 17
gle inscribed in a conic. Pascal's
theorem then reads as follows (Fig. 17) for this case:
The three tangents at a triangle inscribed
the vertices of
in a conic meet the opposite sides in three points on a

straight line.
46 PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY
78. Degenerate conic. we apply Pascal's theorem
If
to a degenerate conic made up of a pair of straight
we get the
lines,

following theo-
rem (Fig. 18) :

If three pointy
A, B, C, are
chosen on one

line, and three

points, A f
, B\
C", are chosen on
FIG. 18
another, then the
three points L=AB'-A'B, N=BC'-B C, M=CA'-C A
r f

are all on a straight line.

PROBLEMS
1. In Fig. 12, select different lines u and u' and find
for each pair the center of perspectivity M.
2. Given four points, A, J5, C, D, in the plane, construct
a fifth point P such that the lines PA, PB, PC, PD shall be
four harmonic lines.

Suggestion. Draw a line a through the point A such that the four
lines a, AB, AC, AD are harmonic. Construct now a conic through
A, B, C, and D having a for a tangent at A.
3. Where are all the points P, as determined in the
preceding question, to be found?
4. Select any five points in the plane and draw the tan-
gent to the conic through them at each of the five points.

5. Given four points on the conic, and the tangent at one of

"
them, to construct the conic. (" To construct the conic means
here to construct as many other points as may be desired.)
 POINT-BOWS OF THE SECOND ORDER 47

6. Given three points on the conic, and the tangent at

two of them, to construct the conic.
7. Given five points, two of which are at infinity in
different directions, to construct the conic. (In this, and
in the following examples, the student is supposed to be
able todraw a line parallel to a given line.)
8. Given four points on a conic (two of which are at in-
finity and two in the finite part of the plane), together with
the tangent at one of the finite points, to construct the conic.
9. The tangents to a curve at its infinitely distant points
are called asymptotes if they pass through a finite part
its

of the plane. Given the asymptotes and a finite point of a

conic, to construct the conic.
10. Given an asymptote and three finite points on the
conic, to determine the conic.
11. Given four points, one of which is at infinity, and
given also that the line at infinity is a tangent line, to
construct the conic.
 CHAPTER V
PENCILS OF RAYS OF THE SECOND ORDER

79. Pencil of rays of the second order defined. If the

corresponding points of two

projective point-rows be
joined by straight lines, a system of lines is obtained
which is called a pencil of rays of the second order.
This name arises from the fact, easily shown ( 57), that
at most two lines of the system may pass through any
arbitrary point in the plane. For if through any point
there should pass three lines of the system, then this

point might be taken as the center of two projective

pencils, one projecting one point-row and the other pro-
jecting the other. Since, now, these pencils have three
rays of one coincident with the corresponding rays of
the other, the two are identical and the two point-rows
are in perspective position, which was not supposed.
80. Tangents to a circle. To get a clear notion of this

system of lines, we may first show that the tangents

to a circleform a system of this kind. For take any
two tangents, u and w', to a circle, and let A and B

be the points of contact (Fig. 19). Let now t be any

third tangent with point of contact at C and meeting u
and u inf
P and P r
respectively. Join -4, J5, P, P' 9 and
C to 0, the center of the circle. Tangents from any
point to a circle are equal, and therefore the triangles
POA and POCare equal, as also are the triangles P'OB
48
 PENCILS OF THE SECOND ORDER 49

and P OC.
f
Therefore the angle POP' is constant, being
equal to half the constant angle AGO + COB. This
being true, if we take any four harmonic points, JJ, jF>,

j^, P# the line w, they will project to

011 in four
harmonic lines, and the tangents
to the circle from these four
points will meet u f
in four har-
monic points, />', JJ', Jg', PI, be-
cause the lines from these points
*
to O inclose the same angles as
FIG. 19
the lines from the points Pv P^
7J, PI on 11.The point-row on u is therefore projective
to the point-row on u Thus the tangents to a circle
1
.

are seen to join corresponding points on two projective

point-rows, and so, according to the definition, form a

pencil of rays of the second order.
81. Tangents to a conic. If now this figure be pro-

jected to a point outside the plane of the circle, and

any section of the resulting cone be made by a plane,
we can easily see that the system of rays tangent to any
conic section is a pencil of rays of the second order.
The converse is also true, as we shall see later, and a
pencil of rays of the second order is also a set of lines

tangent to a conic section.

82. The point-rows u and u r
are, themselves, lines of
the system, for to the common point of the two point-
rows, considered as a point of w, must correspond some
point of w', and the line joining these two corresponding
points is clearly u f
Similarly for the line u.
itself.

83. Determination of the pencil. now show that We

it is possible to assign arbitrarily three lines, a, 6, and c, of
50 PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY
the system (besides the lines u and u') ; but if these three
lines are chosen, the system completely determined.
is

This statement is equivalent to the following:

Given three pairs of corresponding points in two pro-
jective point-rows, it is
possible to find a point in one
which corresponds to any point of the other.

We proceed, then, to the solution of the fundamental

PROBLEM. Given three pairs of points, AA BB ?
,
f
,
and
CC', of two protective point-rows u and u r
, to find the point
D' of u which corresponds
f
to any given point D of u.
On the line a, joining A and A r
, take two points, S
and S f
, as centers of pencils perspective to u and u f

respectively (Fig. 20). The figure

will be much simplified if we take
S on BB' and on CC'. SA and S
S'A' are corresponding rays of S
and S', and the two pencils are
therefore in perspective position.
It is not difficult to see that the
axis of perspectivity m is the line

joining B r
and C. Given any point
D on u, to find the correspond-

ing point D
on u we proceed as
f r

FIG. 20
follows: Join D to S and note
where the joining line meets m. Join this point to S*.
This last line meets u in the desired point D
1 1
.

We have now in this figure six lines of the system,

a, 6, c, d, u, and u'. Fix now the position of u, u b,
f
and , <?,

d,and take four lines of the system, al9 a2 aa a4 which , , ,

meet b in four harmonic points. These points project to

 PENCILS OF THE SECOND OKDEll 51

D, giving four harmonic points on m. These again project

to ./>', giving four harmonic points on c. It is thus clear
that the rays a^ a^ a^ a^ cut out two projective point-
rows on any two lines of the system. Thus u and u are f

not special rays, and any two rays of the system will
serve as the point-rows to generate the system of lines.
84. Brianchon's theorem. From the figure also appears
a fundamental theorem due to Brianchon :

//' 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, (> are any six rat/a of a pencil of the,

second order, then the lines / = (12, 45), m = (23, 5(j),

n =(34, ()1 ) all pass through a point.
85. To make the notation fit the figure (Fig. 21), make
a=1, ft = 2, ?/'=3, J = 4, w = 5, = 6; or, interchanging
two of the lines, = 1,

b = G. Thus, by dif-

ferent namings of .the

lines, it appears that
not more than GO dif-

ferent Brianchon points

are possible. If we
call 12 and 45 oppo-
site vertices of a cir-
Fm. 21
cumscribed hexagon,
then Brianchon's theorem may be stated as follows:
The three lines joining the three pairs of opposite vertices

of a hexagon circumscribed about a conic meet in a point.

86. Construction of the pencil by Brianchon's theorem.
Brianchon's theorem furnishes a ready method of deter-

mining a sixth line of the pencil of rays of the second

52 PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY
order when five arc given. Thus, select a point in line
1 and suppose that line 6 is to pass through it. Then
Z = (12, 45), n = (34, 61), and the line m=
(23, 56) must
pass through (Z, n). Then (23, In) meets 5 in a point of
the required sixth line.
87. Point of contact
of a tangent to a conic.
If the line 2 approach as
a limiting position the
line 1, then the intersec-
tion (1, 2) approaches
as a limiting position
FIG. 22
the point of contact of
1 with the conic. This suggests an easy way to con-
struct the point of contact of any tangent with the conic.
Thus (Fig. 22), given the lines 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 to construct
the point of contact of 1 6. =
Draw Z = (12, 45),w =(23, 56) ;

then (34, Im) meets 1 in the

required point of contact T.
88. Circumscribed quadrilat-
eral. If two pairs of lines in
Brianchon's hexagon coalesce,
we have a theorem concern-
ing a quadrilateral circum-
scribed about a conic. It is
\
easily found to be (Fig. 23)
The four lines joining the two opposite pairs of vertices
and the two opposite points of contact of a quadrilateral
circumscribed about a conic all meet in a point. The

consequences of this theorem will be deduced later.

 PENCILS OF THE SECOND OEDER 53

89. Circumscribed triangle. The hexagon may further

degenerate into a -triangle, giving the theorem (Fig. 24)
The lines joining the vertices to

the points of contact of the opposite

sides of a triangle (drcumscribed
about a conic all meet in a point.

90. Briaiichon's theorem may

also be used to solve the follow-
ing problems:
. Fir,. 24
Givenfour tangents and the point
of contact on any one of them, to construct other tangents to
a conic. Given, three tangents and the points of contact of
any two of thrm, to construct other tangents to a conic.
91. Harmonic tangents. We have seen that a variable
tangent cuts out on any two fixed tangents projective
point-rows. Jt follows that if four tangents cut a fifth
in four harmonic points, they must cut every tangent in
four harmonic points. It is possible, therefore, to make
the following definition :

Four tangents to a conic are said to be harmonic when

they meet every other tangent in four harmonic points.
and perspectivity. This definition sug-
92. Projectivity

gests the possibility of defining a projective correspond-

ence between the elements of a pencil of rays of the
second order and the elements of any form heretofore
discussed. In particular, the points on a tangent are
said to be perspectively related to the tangents of a conic
when each point lies on the tangent which corresponds
to it. These notions are of importance in the higher
developments of the subject.
54 PEOJECTIVE GEOMETRY
93. Brianchon's theorem may also be applied to a

degenerate conic made up of two points and the lines

through them. Thus (Fig. 25),
If a, 6, c are three lines

through a point S, and a', 6',

1
c are three lines through an-
other point /?', then the lines

and n = (ra', c'a) all meet in

a point.

94. Law of duality. The

observant student will not
FJG. 25
have failed to note the re-

markable similarity between the theorems of this chap-

ter and those of the preceding. He will have noted
that points have replaced lines and lines have replaced

points; that points on a curve have been replaced by

tangents to a curve; that pencils have been replaced
by point-rows, and that a conic considered as made up
of a succession of points has been replaced by a conic
considered as generated by a moving tangent line. The
theory upon which this wonderful law of duality is based
will be developed in the next chapter.

PROBLEMS

1. Given four lines in the plane, to construct another

which shall meet them in four harmonic points.

2. Where are all such lines found ?
3. Given any five lines in the plane, construct on each
the point of contact with the conic tangent to them all.
 PENCILS OF THE SECOND ORDER 55

4. Given four lines and the point of contact on one, to

construct the conic. (" To construct the conic " means here
to draw as many other tangents as may be desired.)
5. Given three lines and the point of contact on two of
them, to construct the conic.
6. Given four lines and the line at infinity, to construct
the conic.
7. Given throe lines and the line at infinity, together
with the point of contact at infinity, to construct the conic.
8. Given three lines, two of which 'are asymptotes, to

construct the conic.

9. Given five tangents to a conic, to draw a tangent
which any one of them.
shall be parallel to

10. The lines a, b, c are drawn parallel to each other.

The lines a', b', c are also drawn parallel to each other.
1

Show why the lines (ab a'b), (be b'c), (ca' c'a) meet in a
1

,
1

, 9

point. (In problems 6 to 10 inclusive, parallel lines are to

be drawn.)
 CHAPTER VI
POLES AND POLARS

95. Inscribed and circumscribed quadrilaterals. The

following theorems have been noted as special cases of
Pascal's and Brianchon's theorems:

If a quadrilateral be inscribed in a conic, two pairs of

.

opposite sides and the tangents at opposite vertices inter-

sect in four points, all of which lie on a straight line.

If a quadrilateral be circumscribed about a conic, the

lines joining two pairs of opposite vertices and the lines
joining two opposite points of contact are four lines which
meet in a point.

96. Definition of the polar line of a point. Consider

the quadrilateral K, L, M, N inscribed in the conic

(Fig. 26). It
determines the
four harmonic
points A, 7?, 0,
D which pro-
ject from in toN
the four har-
monic points M,
FlG 20
Now -

the tangents at K and M meet in P, a point on the

line AB. The line AB is thus determined entirely by
56
 POLES AND POLAKS 57

the point O. For if we draw any line through it, meeting

the conic in K: and M, and construct the harmonic

conjugate of. with respect to and M, and also K

the two tangents at and K M
which meet in the point
P, then BP is the line in question. It thus appears
that the line LON
may be any line whatever through O ;

and since 7>, L, O, N

arc four harmonic points, we

may describe the line AH as the locus of points which

are harmonic conjugates of O with respect to the two
points where any line through meets the curve.
97. Furthermore, since the tangents at L and meet N
on this same line, it appears as the locus of intersections
of pairs of tangents drawn at the extremities of chords

through O.

98. This important line, which is completely deter-

mined by the point called the polar of O with
O, is

respect to the conic ; and the point is called the pole

of the line with respect to the conic.

99. If a point B
on the polar of 0, then it is har-
is

monically conjugate to with respect to the two inter-

sections K
and M
of the line BO
with the conic. But
for the same reason is on the
polar of B. We have,
then, the fundamental theorem

If one point lies on the polar of a second, then the

second lies on the polar of the first.

100. Conjugate points and lines. Such a pair of points

are said to be conjugate with respect to the conic. Simi-

larly, lines are said to be conjugate to each other with

respect to conic if one, and consequently each,

the

passes through the pole of the other.

58 PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY
101. Construction of the polar line of a given point.
Given a point P, within the conic (that
if it is is, if no
tangents may be drawn from to the P
conic), we may construct its polar line
by drawing through it any two chords
and joining the two points of inter-
section of the two pairs of tangents
at their extremities. If the point is P
outside the conic, we may draw the two tangents and
construct the chord of contact (Fig. 27).
102. Self-polar triangle. In Fig. 26 it is not difficult
to see that AOC is a self-polar triangle, that is, each
vertex is the pole of the opposite side. For #, 3/, 0, K
are four harmonic points, and they project to C in four
harmonic rays. The line (7(>, therefore, meets the line
AMN in a point on the polar of A, being separated from
A harmonically by the points M and N. Similarly, the
line CO meets KL in a point on the polar of A, and
therefore CO the polar of A. Similarly, OA
is is the

polar of (7, and therefore O is the pole of AC.

103. Pole and polar projectively related. Another very

important theorem comes directly from Fig. 26.

As a point A moves along a straight line its polar with
respect to a conic revolves about a fixed point and describes
a pencil protective to tJie point-row described by A.
For, fix the points L and ^V and let the point A move
along the line AQ\ then the point-row A is projective
to the pencil LK, and since K moves along the conic,
the pencil LK projective to the pencil
is 9 which in NK
turn is projective to the point-row (7, which, finally, is
projective to the pencil OC, which is the polar of A.
 POLES AND POLAES 59

104. Duality. We have, then, in the pole and polar

relation a device -for setting up a one-to-one correspond-
ence between the points and lines of the plane a cor-

respondence which may be called projective, because to

four harmonic points or lines correspond always four
harmonic lines or points. To every figure made up of
points arid lines will correspond a figure made up of
lines and points. To a point-row of the second order,
which a conic considered as a point-locus, corresponds
is

a pencil of rays of the second order, which is a conic

' '
considered as a line-locus. The name duality is used
to describe this sort of correspondence. It is important
to note that the dual relation is subject to the same
exceptions as the one-to-one correspondence is, and
must not be appealed where the one-to-one
to in cases

correspondence breaks down. We have seen that there

is in Euclidean geometry one and only one ray in a

pencil which has no point in a point-row perspective to

it for a corresponding point namely, the line parallel
;

to the line of the point-row. Any theorem, therefore,

that involves explicitly the point at infinity is not to
be translated into a theorem concerning lines. Further,
in the pencil the angle between two lines has nothing
to correspond to it in a point-row perspective to the

pencil. theorem, therefore, that mentions angles is

Any
not translatable into another theorem by means of the
law of duality. Now we have seen that the notion of
the infinitely distant point on a line involves the notion
of dividing a segment into any number of equal parts
in other words, of measuring. If, therefore, we call any
theorem that has to do with the line at infinity or with
60 PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY
the measurement of angles a metrical theorem, and any
other kind a protective theorem, we may put the case
as follows:

Any protective theorem involves another theorem, dual to

'

it, obtainable by interchanging everywhere the words point*

and *line.'

105. Self-dual theorems. The theorems of this chap-

ter will be found, upon examination, to be self-dual;
that is, no new theorem results from applying the
process indicated in the preceding paragraph. It is
therefore useless to look for new results from the theo-
rem on the circumscribed quadrilateral derived from
Brianchon's, which is itself clearly the dual of Pascal's
theorem, and in fact was first discovered by dualization
of Pascal's.
106. It should not be inferred from the above discus-
sion that one-to-one correspondences may not be devised
that will control certain of the so-called metrical rela-
tions. A very important one may be easily found that
leaves angles unaltered. The relation called similarity
leaves ratios between corresponding segments unaltered.
The above statements apply only to the particular one-
to-one correspondence considered.

PROBLEMS

1. Given a quadrilateral, construct the quadrangle polar

to it with respect to a given conic.
2. A point moves along a straight line. Show that its
polar lines with respect to two given conies generate a
point-row of the second order.
 POLES AND POLARS 61

3. Given five points, draw the polar of a point with re-

spect to the conic: passing through them, without drawing

the conic itself.
4. Given five lines, draw the polar of a point with re-

spect to the conic tangent to them, without drawing the

conic itself.

5. Dualize problems 3 and 4.

6. Given four points on the conic, and the tangent at one

of them, draw the polar of a given point without drawing
the conic. Dualize.
7. A point moves on a conic. Show that its polar line
with respect to another conic describes a pencil of rays of
the second order.
Suggestion. Replace the given conic by a pair of protective pencils.
8. Showthat the poles of the tangents of one conic with
respect to another lie on a conic.

9. The polar of a point A with respect to one conic is f/,

and the pole of a with respect to another conic is A Show '.

travels along a line, A also travels along another

A '
that as
line. In general, if A describes a curve of degree n, show
that A '
describes another curve of the same degree n. (The
degree of a curve is the greatest number of points that it

may have in common with any line in the plane.)

 CHAPTER VII

METRICAL PROPERTIES OF THE CONIC SECTIONS

107. Diameters. Center. After what has been said in

the last chapter one would naturally expect to get at
the metrical properties of the conic sections by the
introduction of the infinite elements in the plane. En-

tering into the theory of poles and polars with these

elements, we have the following definitions:
The polar line of an infinitely distant point is called
a diameter, and the pole of the infinitely distant line is

called the center, of the conic.

108. From the harmonic properties of poles and polars,
The center bisects all chords through it ( 39).
JEvery diameter passes through the center.

All chords through the same point at infinity (that is,

each of a set of parallel cJiords) are bisected by the diameter
which is the polar of that infinitely distant point.
109. Conjugate diameters. We have already defined
conjugate lines as lines which pass each through the
pole of the other ( 100).
Any diameter bisects all chords parallel to its conjugate.
The tangents at the extremities of any diameter are
parallel, and parallel to the conjugate diameter. \

Diameters parallel to the sides of an inscribed paral-

lelogram are conjugate.
All these theorems are easy exercises for the student.
 METEICAL PROPERTIES 63

110. Classification of conies. Conies are classified ac-

cording to their .-relation to the infinitely distant line.
If a conic hay two points in common with the line at

infinity, it is called a hyperbola; if it has no point in

common with the infinitely distant line, it is called an

ellipse ; if it is
tangent to the line at infinity, it is called
a parabola.
111. In a hyperbola the center is outside the curve

( 101), since the two tangents to the curve at the points

where it meets the line at infinity determine by their
intersection the center. As previously noted, these two
tangents are called the asymptotes of the curve. The
ellipse and the parabola have no asymptotes.

112. center of the parabola is at infinity, and there-

The
fore diameters
all its are parallel, for the pole of a tan-
line is the point of contact.
gent
Tlie locus middle points of a series of parallel
of the-

chords in a parabola is a diameter, and the direction of

the line of centers is the same for all series of parallel
chords.
The center of an ellipse is within the curve.

113. Theorems concerning asymptotes. We derived as

a consequence of the theorem of Brianchon ( 89) the
proposition that if a triangle be circumscribed about
a conic, the lines joining the vertices to the points
of contact of the opposite sides all meet in a point.

Take, now, for two of the tangents the asymptotes of

a hyperbola, and let any third tangent cut them in A
and B (Fig. 28). If, then, is the intersection of the

asymptotes, and therefore the center of the curve,

64 PKOJECTIVE GEOMETRY
then the triangle GAB is circumscribed about the curve.
By the theorem just quoted, the line through A par-
allel to OB, the line through B
parallel to 0-4, and the
line OP through the point of
contact of the tangent AB
all meet in a point 0. But
OACB isa parallelogram, and
PA = PJi. Therefore
The asymjttotes cut off on
each tangent a segment which is

Inserted It/ the point of contact.

Fiu. 28
114. If we draw a line OQ
parallel to AB, then OP and
are conjugate diam- OQ
eters, since OQ is parallel to the tangent at the point
where OP
meets the curve. Then, since J, P, B, and
the point at infinity on AB are four harmonic points,
we have the theorem
Conjugate diameters of the hyperbola are harmonic
conjugates with respect to the asymptotes.
115. The chord A"B", parallel to the diameter OQ, is

bisected at P f

by the conjugate diameter OP. If the

asymptotes in A B\ then A , P B
A"B" meet the f 1 f 1
chord , , ,

and the point at infinity are four harmonic points, and

therefore P is the middle point of A'fi'. Therefore
1

A A =JB
f rr f ff
and we have the theorem
Tfie segments cut off on any chord between the Jtyperbola
and its
asymptotes are equal.
116. This theorem furnishes a ready means of con-

structing the hyperbola by points when a point on the

curve and the two asymptotes are given.
 METRICAL PROPERTIES 65

117. For tlie circumscribed quadrilateral, Brianchon's

theorem gave ( 88) The lines joining opposite vertices
and the lines joining opposite points of contact are four
lines meeting in a point. Take now for two of the
and let AB and CD be any
tangents the asymptotes,
other two (Fig. 29).
If B and D
are op-

posite vertices, and

also A
and C, then
A C and BD are par-
allel, and parallel to
PQ, the line joining
the points of con-
tact of AB and CD,
for these are three of
the four lines of the
theorem just quoted. The fourth is the line at infinity
which joins the point of contact of the asymptotes. It
is thus seen that the triangles ABC and ADC are

equivalent, and therefore the triangles AOB and COD

are also. The tangent AB
may be fixed, and the tangent
CD chosen arbitrarily; therefore

The triangle formed by any tangent to the hyperbola

and the two asymptotes is of constant area.

118. Equation of hyperbola referred to the asymptotes.

Draw through the point of contact P of the tangent
AB two
lines, one parallel to one asymptote and the
other parallel to the other. One of these lines meets
OB at a distance y from O, and the other meets OA at
a distance x from O. Then, since P is the middle point
66 PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY
of AB y x is and y is one half of OR
one half of OA
The area of the parallelogram whose adjacent sides are
x and y is one half the area of the triangle AOB^ and
therefore, by the preceding paragraph, is constant. This
area is equal to xy sin #, where a is the constant angle
between the asymptotes. It follows that the product xy
is constant, and since x and
y are the oblique coordi-
nates of the point 7J the asymptotes being the axes
,

of reference, we have
Tlie equation of the hyperbola, referred to the
asymptotes
as axe.^ is xy constant.=
This identifies the curve with the hyperbola as de-
fined and discussed in works on analytic geometry.
119.
Equation of
parabola. We
have
defined the parabola
as a conic which is

tangent to the line

at infinity ( 110).
Draw now two tan-

gents to the curve

(Fig. 30), meeting in
A, the points of con-
tact being B and C.

These two tangents,

together with the
line at infinity, form
a triangle circum-
scribed about the
conic. Draw through B a parallel to AC, and through
C a parallel to AB. If these meet in J9, then AD is a
 METRICAL PROPERTIES 67

diameter. Let AD meet the curve in P, and the chord

BC in Q. P
is then the middle point of AQ. Also, Q
the middle point of the chord 7>G and therefore the
f
is ,

diameter bisects all chords parallel to B C. In par-

AD
ticular, AD passes through P, the point of contact of
the tangent drawn parallel to BC.
Draw now another tangent, meeting AB in B* and AC
in C'. Then
these three, with the line at infinity, make
a circumscribed quadrilateral. But, by Krianchon's the-
orem applied to a quadrilateral ( 88), it appears that a
parallel to AC through B', a parallel to through 6", AB
and the lineBC D
meet in a point f . Also, from the similar
triangles BB'D* and BAC we have, for all positions of the
tangent line^C', y//y JiJjf==AC:A .
^
or, since B D'=AC',
f

= AC:AB = constant.
A G" : JUJf

If another tangent meet AB in B" and A C in C", we have

AC' BB = AC" BB", :

f
:

and by subtraction we get

C'C" B'J3"
i = constant;
whence
The segments cut off on any two tangents to a parabola
by a variable tangent are proportional.
If now we take the tangent Ifff as axis of ordinates,
and the diameter through the point of contact O as axis
of abscissas, calling the coordinates of (x, y) and of B
C (V, #'), then, from the similar triangles BMD* and
CQ'D', we have
y :
y = JW D'C = BB'
: : AB'.
Also y :
y'
= E'D' :C'C=AC r
: C'C.
68 PBOJECTIVE GEOMETEY
If now a line is drawn through A parallel to a diameter,
meeting the axis of ordinates in K, we have

and OM AK = BB* AB = y
: :
]
:
y
r
,

and, by multiplication,

or x:x f
= y*:y'*;
whence
The abscissas of two points on a parabola are to each
other as the squares of the corresponding coordinates, a
diameter and the tangent to the curve at the extremity of
the diameter being the axes of reference.

The last equation may be written

2 f
where 2p stands for y' :x .

The parabola is thus identified with the curve of the

same name studied in treatises on analytic geometry.
120. Equation of central conies referred to conjugate
diameters. Consider now a central conic, that is, one
which is not a parabola and the center of which is
therefore at a finite distance. Draw any four tangents
to it, two which are parallel (Fig. 31). Let the
of

parallel tangents meet one of the other tangents in A

and B and the other in C and Z>, and let P and Q be
the points of contact of the parallel tangents and 8 B
of the others. Then AC, BD, PQ, and RS all meet in
a point W
( 88). From the figure,
PW: WQ = AP QC = PD : :
BQ,
or AP.#Q = PD. QC.
 METRICAL PROPERTIES 69

If now DC is a fixed tangent and AB a variable one,

we have from this equation

AP-BQ = constant.
This constant will be positive or negative according as
PA and BQ are measured in the same or in opposite
directions. Accordingly we write

Since AD and BC are parallel tangents, PQ is a diam-

eter and the conjugate diameter is parallel to AD. The
middle point of PQ is the
center of the conic. We take
now for the axis of abscissas
the diameter PQ, and the
conjugate diameter for the
axis of ordinates. Join A to

Q and B to P ami draw a

line through 8 parallel to
the axis of ordinates. These
three lines all meet in a point
N, because AP, BQ, and AB
form a triangle circumscribed FlG
to the conic. meet
Let NS
PQ in M. Then, from the properties of the circum-
scribed triangle ( 89), Jf, JV, $, and the point at infinity
on NS are four harmonic points, and therefore is the N
middle point of M& If the coordinates of S are (#, y),
so that OM is x and MS is y, then MN= y/Z. Now
from the similar triangles PMN and PQB we have
70 PROJECTIVE GEOMETEY
and from the similar triangles PQA and

whence, multiplying, we have

J
2
/4 a
2
= jf/4 (a + *)(- *)>
where
,
a = --1-

or, simplifying, a?/a* + if/ ft* = 1,

2
which the equation of an ellipse when b has a posi-
is

tive sign, and of a hyperbola when W has a negative

sign. We
have thus identified point-rows of the second
order with the curves given by equations of the second

degree.
PROBLEMS
1. Draw a chord of a given conic which shall be bisected
by a given point P.
Show that all chords of a given conic that are bisected
2.

by given chord are tangent to a parabola.

a
3. Construct a parabola, given two tangents with their

points of contact.
4. Construct a parabola, given three points and the direc-
tion of the diameters.

6. A line u' is drawn through the pole U of a line u and

at right angles to u. The line u revolves about a point P.
Show that the line n' is tangent to a parabola. (The lines u

and u are called normal conjugates.)

1

6. Given a conic and its center 0, to draw a line through

a given point P parallel to a given line q. Prove the fol-
lowing construction Let p be the polar of JP, Q the pole of
:

q, and A the intersection of p with OQ. The polar of A is

the desired line.
 CHAPTER VIII

INVOLUTION

121* Fundamental theorem. The important theorem

concerning two complete quadrangles ( 26), upon which

the theory of four harmonic points was based, can easily
be extended to
the case where
the four lines
KL, tfl!, MN,
M'N' do not
all meet in the

same point A,
and the more
general theo-
rem that re-
FIG. 32
sultsmay also
be made the basis of a theory no less important, wliich has
to do with six points on a line. The theorem is as follows :

Griven two complete quadrangles, K, L, M, N and

K L M N', so related that KL and K'L' meet in A,
r
,
f
,
f
,

MN and M'N in A', KN and K'N' in B, LM and UM!

1

in B', LN and L'N' in C, and KM and K'M' in C", then,

A B, B , and C are in a straight C

r 1 f
if A, , line, the point
also lies on that straight line.
The theorem follows from Desargues's theorem
(Pig. 32). It is seen that KK', LL r
, MM', NN' all
71
72 PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY
meet ina point, and thus, from tbe same theorem, ap-
plied to the triangles KLM&nd K'ti M\ the point Cf is on
the same line with A and B As in the simpler case, it
1
.

is an indefinite number of quadrangles

seen that there is

which may be drawn, two sides of which go through

A and A', two through B and B', and one through C.
The sixth side must then go through C r
. Therefore,

122. Two pairs of points, A, A 1

and B, B 1
, being given,
then the point C' corresponding to any given point C is

unitjuely determined.

The construction, of this sixtli point is easily accom-

plished. Draw through A and A' any two lines, and
cut across them by any line through C in the points
L and Join N
N. to B and L to B\ thus determining
the pointsX and M on the two lines through A and A 1
.

The line KM determines the desired point C Manifestly, 1

.

starting from 6 f/
we come in this way always to the
,

same point C. The particular quadrangle employed is

of no consequence. Moreover, since one pair of opposite
sides in a complete quadrangle is not distinguishable
in any way from any other, the same set of six points
will be obtained by starting from the pairs AA' and
CO', or from the pairs BB and Cff.
f

123. Definition of involution of points on a line.

Three pairs of points on a line are said to be in involu-

tion if through each be drawn a pair of opposite

pair may
sides of a complete quadrangle. If two pairs are fixed and
one of the third pair describes the line, then the other also
describes the line,and the points of the line are said to be
paired in the involution determined by the two fixed pairs.
 INVOLUTION 73

124. Double-points in an involution. The points C and

'
describe projective point-rows, as may be seen by fixing
the points L and M. The self-corresponding points, of
which there are two or none, are called the double-points in
the involution. It is not difficult to see that the double-

points in the involution are harmonic conjugates with

respect to corresponding points in the involution. For,
fixing as before the points L and M, let the intersection
of.the lines CL and C'M be P (Fig. 33). The locus of P is
a conic which goes through the double-points, because the

point-rows C and
Cf are projective,
and therefore so
are the pencils
LC and MC f

which generate
the locus of P.
Also, when C
and C' fall to-

gether, the point FIG. 33

P coincides with
them. Further, the tangents at L and M
to this conic
described by P
are the lines LB and MB. For in the

pencil at L the ray L M

common to the two pencils which
is the ray LB and corresponds to the
1

generate the conic

ray MB of M> which is therefore the tangent line to the

conic at M. Similarly for the tangent at L. LB is LM
therefore the polar of B
with respect to this conic, and
B and Br are therefore harmonic conjugates with respect
to the double-points. The same discussion applies to any
other pair of corresponding points in the involution.
74 PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY
125. Desargues's theorem concerning conies through
four points.Let DD' be any pair of points in the in-
volution determined as above, and consider the conic

passing through the five points A", L, M, JV, I). We

shall use Pascal's theorem to show that this conic also

passes through D f
. The point D f
is determined as fol-

lows : Fix L and M as before (Fig. 34) and join D to Z,,

giving on MN
the point -N1 .
Join r
Nto B,

giving on LK
the point K'.
Then MK' de-
termines the

point If on
the line AA\

given by the FJG. 3-1

complete quad-
rangle K r
, L, M, N ?
. Consider the following six points,
numbering them in order: D = 1, 7>'= 2, J/= 3, JV= 4,
7i=5, and = 6. We have the following intersections:
JS = (12-4f>), K'= (23-56), N'= (34-61); and since by

construction B, N
and K are on a straight line, it fol-
f
,
1

lows from the converse of Pascal's theorem, which is

easily established, that the six points are on a conic.
We have, then, the beautiful theorem due to Desargues :

The system of conies through four points meets any line

in the plane in pairs of points in involution.

126. It appears also that the six points in involution

determined by the quadrangle through the four fixed
 INVOLUTION 75

points belong also to the same involution with the

points cut out by the system of conies, as indeed we
might infer from the fact that the three pairs of oppo-
sitesides of the quadrangle may be considered as

degenerate conies of the system.

127. Conies through four points touching a given line.
It is further evident that the involution determined on
a line by the system of conies will have a double-point
where a conic of the system is tangent to the line. We
may therefore infer the theorem
TJirougJi four fixed points in the plane two conies or
none may be draivn tangent to any given line.

128. Double correspondence. We have seen that cor-

responding points in an involution form two projective
point-rows superposed on the same straight line. Two
projective point-rows superposed
on the same straight line are, how-
ever, not necessarily in involution,
as a simple example will show.
Take two lines, a and a', which
both revolve about a fixed point S
and which always make the same
angle with each other (Fig. 35).
These lines cut out on any line \ \
in the plane which does not pass \
through S two projective point- FJG Ar-

rows, which are not, however, in

involution unless the angle between the lines is a right

angle. For a point P may correspond to a point P\

which in turn will correspond to some other point
76 .PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY
than P. The peculiarity of point-rows in involution
is that any point will correspond to the same point,
in whichever point-row it considered as belonging.
is

In this case, if a point P corresponds to a point P', then

the point P 1
corresponds back again to the point P.
The points P and P 1
are then said to correspond dovbly.
This notion is worthy of further study.
129. Steiner's construction. It will be observed that
the solution of the fundamental problem given in 83,
Given three pairs of points of two protective point-rows, to

FIG. 36

construct other pairs^ cannot be carried out if the two

point-rows lie on the same straight line. Of course the
method may be easily altered to cover that case also,
but it worth while to give another solution of the
is

problem, due to Steiner, which will also give further

information regarding the theory of involution, and
which may, indeed, be used as a foundation for that
theory. Let the two point-rows A, J5, (7, />, and A\
ffj C f
!>',-
,
be superposed on the line u. Project
them both to a point 8 and pass any conic ic through S.
We thus obtain two projective pencils, a, 6, c, d, and
 INVOLUTION 77

a', J', (?', d 1

, at S, which meet the conic in the points

, & 7, S, , ', 7', ',... (Fig. 36). Take now

ami a 1

7 as the center of a pencil projecting the points a', ',

S', -, and take 7' as the center of a pencil projecting

the points #, y8, S, These two pencils are projective

.

to each other, and since they have a self-corresponding

ray in common, they are in perspective position and
corresponding rays meet on the line joining (70;', 7'^)
to (7/8', 7'$).The correspondence between points in
the two point-rows on u is now easily traced.
130. Application of Steiner's construction to double
correspondence. Steiner's construction throws into our
hands an important theorem concerning double corre-
spondence: If two projective point-rows, superposed on
the same line, have one pair of points which correspond
to each other doubly, then all pairs correspond to each
other doubly, and the line is paired in involution. To
make this appear, let us call the point A on u by two
names, A and P', according as it is thought of as
belonging to the one or to the other of the two point-
rows. If this point is one of a pair which correspond to
each other doubly, then the points A' and P
must coin-
cide (Fig. 37). Take now any point C, which we will
also call
1
. R We must show that the corresponding
point C' must also coincide with the point It. Join all
the points to 8, as before, and it appears that the points
a and TT' coincide, as also do the points CC'TT and yp f .

By the above construction the line y'p must meet 7/0'

on the line joining (70:', 7'^) with (777-', 7V). But these
four points form a quadrangle inscribed in the conic,
and we know by 95 that the tangents at the opposite
78 PTtOJECTIVE GEOMETRY
vertices 7 and 7' meet on the line v. The line
f

yp
is thus a tangent to the conic, and C and fi are f

the same point. That two projective point-rows super-

posed on the same line are also in involution when

one and therefore all pairs, correspond doubly
pair,
may be shown by taking $ at one vertex of a complete

FIG. 37

quadrangle which has two pairs of opposite sides going

through two pairs of points. The details we leave to
the student.
131. Involution of points on a point-row of the second
order. It is important to note also, in Steiner's con-

struction, that we have

obtained two point-rows of the
second order superposed on the same conic, and have
paired the points of one with the points of the other
in such a way that the correspondence is double. We
may then extend the notion of involution to point-rows
of the second order and say that the points of a conic
are paired in involution when they are corresponding
 INVOLUTION 79

points of two protective point-rows superposed on tJte conic,

and when they correspond to each other doubly. With this
definition we may prove the theorem : The lines joining

corresponding points of a point-row of the second order in

involution all pass through a fixed point U, and the line

joining any two points A, B meets the line joining the

two corresponding jwintu A', B in the

1

points of a line u, which is the polar

of U with respect to the conic. For
take A and A' as the centers of two
pencils, the first perspective to the
point-row A', B C 1
,
f
and the second
perspective to the point-row A, B, C.
Then, since the common ray of the
two pencils corresponds to itself, they are in perspec-
tive position, and their axis of perspectivity u (Fig. 38)
is the line which joins the point (Alt', A'B) to the

point (AC', A C).' It is then immediately clear, from

r

the theory of poles and polars, that Bff and CC pass

f

through the pole U of the line u.

132. Involution of rays. The whole theory thus far

developed may be dualized, and a theory of lines in

involution may be built up, starting with the complete
quadrilateral. Thus,
The three pairs of rays which may be drawn from a
point through the three pairs of opposite vertices of a
complete quadrilateral are said to be in involution. If the
pairs aa and bb are fixed, and the line c describes a pencil,
f f

the corresponding line c

f
also describes a pencil, and the
rays of the pencil are said to be paired in the involution
determined by aa and bb
r r
.
80 PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY
133. Double rays. The self-corresponding rays, of
which there are two or none, are called double rays of
the involution. Corresponding rays of the involution
are harmonic conjugates with respect to the double

rays. To the theorem of Desargues ( 125) which has

to do with the system of conies through four points
we have the dual:

The tangents from a fixed point to a system of conies tan-

gent to four fixed lines form a pencil of rays in involution.
134. If a conic of the system should go through the
fixed point, it is clear that the two tangents would co-
incide and indicate a double ray of the involution. The
theorem, therefore, follows:
Two conies or none may be drawn through a fixed point
to be tangent to four fixed lines.

135. Double correspondence. It further appears that

two projective pencils of rays which have the same
center are in involution if one pair of rays correspond
to each other doubly. From this it is clear that we

might have defined six rays in involution as six rays

which pass through a point and also through six points
in involution. While this would have been entirely in
accord with the treatment which was given the corre-
sponding problem in the theory of harmonic points and
lines, it is more satisfactory, from an aesthetic point of

view, to build the theory of lines in involution on its own

base. The student can show, by methods entirely analo-

gous to those used in the second chapter, that involution

isa projective property ; that is, six rays in involution are
cut by any transversal in six points in involution.
 INVOLUTION 81

136. Pencils of rays of the second order in involution.

We may also extend the notion of involution to pen-
cils of rays of the second order. Thus, the tangents to a
conic are in involution when they are corresponding rays
of two protective pencils of the second order superposed
upon the same conicy and when they correspond to each
other doubly. We have then the theorem:

137. The intersections of corresponding rays of a pen-

cil of the second order in involution are all on a straight
line u, and the intersection of any two tangents ab, when
joined to the intersection of the corresponding tangents a'V,
gives a line which passes through a fixed point U, the pole
of the line u with respect to the conic.

138. Involution of rays determined by a conic. We

have seen in the theory of poles and polars ( 103)
that if a point P moves along a line w, then the polar
of P revolves about a point. This pencil cuts out on m
another point-row P', projective also to P. Since the

polar of P
passes through P', the polar of P f
also passes

through P, so that the correspondence between P and

P r
is double. The two point-rows are therefore in invo-
lution, and the double points,if
any exist, are the points
where the line m meets the conic, A similar involution
of raysmay be found at any point in the plane, corre-
sponding rays passing each through the pole of the other.
We have called such points and rays conjugate with
respect to the conic ( 100). We may then state the
following important theorem :

139. A conic determines on every line in its plane an

involution of points, corresponding points in the involution
82 PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY

being conjugate with respect to the conic. The double points,

if any exist, are the points where the line meets the conic.
140. The dual theorem reads: A conic determines at

every point in the plane an involution of rays, correspond-

ing rays being conjugate with respect to the conic. The
double rays, if any exist, are the tangents from the point
to the conia.

PROBLEMS
1. Two lines are drawn through a point on a conic so

as always to make right angles with each other. Show that

the lines joining the points where they meet the conic again
all pass through a fixed point.
2. Two lines are drawn through a fixed point on a conic

so as always to make equal angles with the tangent at that

point. Show that the lines joining the two points where the
lines meet the conic again all pass through a fixed point.

Four lines divide the plane into a certain number of

3.

regions. Determine for each region whether two conies or

none may be drawn to pass through points of it and also
to be tangent to the four lines. (See 144.)
If a variable quadrangle move in such a way as
4.

always to remain inscribed in a fixed conic, while three of

itssides turn each around one of three fixed collinear points,
then the fourth will also turn around a fourth fixed point
collinear with the other three.

6. State and prove the dual of problem 4.

6. Extend problem 4 as follows If a variable polygon of

:

an even number of sides move in such a way as always to

remain inscribed in a fixed conic, while all its sides but one
pass through as many fixed collinear points, then the last side
will also pass through a fixed point collinear with the others.
 INVOLUTION 83

7. If a triangle QRS be inscribed in a conic, and if a

transversal * meet two of its sides in A and A', the third
side and the tangent at the opposite vertex in 11 and B', and
the conic itself in C and C", then A A BB\ CC*
1

,
are three
pairs of points in an involution.
8. Use the last exercise to solve the problem : Given live

points, Q, R, S, C, C\ on a conic, to draw the tangent at any-

one of them.
State and prove the dual of problem 7 and use
9. it to

prove the dual of problem 8.

10. If a transversal cut two tangents to a conic in B and

B\ their chord of contact in .4, and the conic itself in P

and P', then the point .1 is a double point of the involution

determined by BIV and PP'.
11. State and prove the dual of problem 10.

12. If a variable conic pass through two given points,

P and 7 >f , and if it be tangent to two given lines, the chord
of contact of these two tangents will always pass through
one of two fixed points on PP r
.

13. Use the last theorem to solve the problem: Given

four points, P, P', Q, S, on a conic, and the tangent at one of
them, Q, to draw the tangent at any one of the other points, 5.

Apply the theorem of problem 10 to the case of a

14.

hyperbola where the two tangents are the asymptotes. Show

in this way that if a hyperbola and its asymptotes be cut

by a transversal, the segments intercepted by the curve and

by the asymptotes respectively have the same middle point.
15. In a triangle circumscribed about a conic, any side is

divided harmonically by its point of contact and the point

where it meets the chord joining the points of contact of the
other two sides.
 CHAPTER IX
METRICAL PROPERTIES OF INVOLUTIONS

141. Introduction of infinite point; center of involution.

We connect the projective theory of involution with the
metrical, as usual, by the introduction of the elements at

infinity. In an involution of points on a line the point

which corresponds to the infinitely distant point is called

the center of the involution.Since corresponding points

in the involution have been shown to be harmonic con-

jugates with respect to the double points, the center is

midway between the double points when they exist. To
construct the center (Fig. 39) we draw as usual through
A and A r
any two rays and cut them by a line parallel
to AA f
in the points Kand M. Join these points to
B and J5', thus, determining on AK and A'N the points L
and N. LN meets AA f
in the center of the involution.
84
 METRICAL PROPERTIES 85

Fundamental metrical theorem. From the figure

142.
we see that the triangles OLB and PLM are similar, P
1

being the intersection of KM

and LN. Also the tri-
angles KPN and BON are We
similar. thus have
OBiPK=ON:PN
and OB':PM=OL:PL;
whence OB OB 1
: PK PM = ON-OL-.PN- PL.
In the same way, from the similar triangles OA L and
PKL, and also (Ll'-ZV and PMN, we obtain
O^t -
OA': PK PJf = 0-ZVT- OL: PN PL,
and this, with the preceding, gives at once the funda-
mental theorem, which is sometimes taken also as the
definition of involution:

OA OA' = OB OB'= constant,

or, in words,
The product of the distances from the center to two cor-

responding points iri an involution of points is constant.

143. Existence of double points.

Clearly, according
as the constant positive or
is
negative the involution
will or will not have double points. The constant is
the square of the distance from the center to the
double points. If A and A' lie both on the same side
of the center, the product OA OA! is positive ; and if

they lie on opposite sides, it is negative. Take the case

where they both lie on the same side of the center, and
take also the pair of corresponding points BB1. Then,
since OA OA! = OB OB\ it cannot happen that B and
B f
are separated from each other by and A'. This is A
evident enough if the points are on opposite sides of
the center. If the pairs are on the same side of the
86 PEOJECTIVE GEOMETRY

center, and Bbetween A and A', so that OB is

lies

greater, say, than OA, but less than OA', then, by the
equation OA OA' = OB OB', we must have OB' also
less than OA' and greater than OA. A similar discus-
sion may be made for the case where A and A' lie on
opposite sides of 0. The results may be stated as
follows, without any reference to the center:
Given two pairs of points in an involution of points, if
the points of one pair are separated from each other by
the points of the other pair, then the involution has no
double points. If the points of one pair are not separated

from each other by the points of the other pair, then the
involution has two double points.

144. An entirely similar criterion decides whether an

involution of rays has or has not double rays, or whether
an involution of planes has or has not double planes.
145. Construction of an involution by means of circles.
The equation just derived, OA OA' = OB OB', indicates
another simple way in which
points of an involution of

points may be constructed.

f [

Through A and A' draw any V ,

circle,and draw also any cir-

through B and B to cut
f
cle
the first in the two points G
and G' (Fig. 40). Then any circle through G and &
will meet the line in pairs of points in the involution
determined by AA' and BB'. For if such a circle meets
the line in the points CC', then, by the theorem in the

geometry of the circle which says that if any chord is

 METRICAL PROPERTIES 87

drawn through a fixed point within a the product

circle,

of its segments is constant in whatever direction the chord is

drawn, and if a secant line be drawn from a faced point

without a circle, the product of the secant and its external

segment is constant in whatever direction the secant line is

drawn, we have OC OC = OG OG = constant. So that

f r

for all such points OA OA'= OB OB'=OC OC'. Fur-

-

ther, the line GG meets A A in the center of the invo-

1 1

lution. To find the double points, if they exist, we draw

a tangent from O to any of the circles through GG f
.

Let T be the point of contact. Then lay off on the

line OA a line OF equal to OT. Then, since by the above
theorem of elementary geometry OA OA = OT 2 = OF\ 1

we have one double point F. The other is at an equal

distance on the other side of 0. This simple and effec-

tive method
of constructing an involution of points is
often taken as the basis for the theory of involution.
In projective geometry, however, the circle, which is not
a figure that remains unaltered by projection, and is

essentially a metrical notion, ought not to be used to

build up the purely projective part of the theory.
146. It ought to be mentioned that the theoiy of

analytic geometry indicates that the circle is a special

conic section that happens to pass through two partic-
ular imaginary points on the line at infinity, called the
circular points and usually denoted by / and J. The
above method of obtaining a point-row in involution is,
then, nothing but a special case of the general theorem
of the last chapter ( 125), which asserted that a system
of conies through four points will cut any line in the

plane in a point-row in involution.

88 PROTECTIVE GEOMETRY
147. Pairs in an involution of rays which are at right

angles. Circular involution. In an involution of rays

there is no one ray which may be distinguished from
all the others as the point at infinity is distinguished
from all other points on a line. There is one pair of
rays, however, which does differ from all the others in
that for this particular pair the angle is a right angle.
This is most easily shown by using the construction
that employs circles, as indicated above. The centers of
all the circles through G and G lie on the perpendicular
1

bisector of the line GG f

. Let
this line AA!
meet the line
in the point C (Fig. 41), and
draw the circle with center C
which goes through G and G'.
Fjr
This circle cuts out two points
M and M
in the involution. The rays
'
GM and G M' are
clearly at right angles, being inscribed in a semicircle.
If, therefore, the involution of points is projected to

G, we have found two corresponding rays which are

at right angles to each other. Given now any invo-
lution of rays with center (7, we may cut across it

by a straight line and proceed to find the two points

M and M 1

Clearly there will be only one such pair

.

unless the perpendicular bisector of f

coincides with GG
the line AA f
In this case every ray is at right angles
.

to its corresponding ray, and the involution is called

circular.
148. Axes of conies. At
the close of the last chapter
( 140) we gave the theorem A
conic determines at every
:

point in its plane an involution of rays, corresponding rays

 METRICAL PROPERTIES 89

being conjugate with respect to the conic. Tlie double rays,

if any exist, are the tangents from the point to tJie roni<:
lu particular, taking the point as the center of the
conic, we find that conjugate diameters form a system
of rays in involution, of which the asymptotes, if there
are any, are the double rays. Also, conjugate diameters
are harmonic conjugates with respect to the asymptotes.

By the theorem of the last paragraph, there are two

conjugate diameters which are at right angles to each
other. These are called axes. In the case of the parab-

ola, where the center is at infinity, and on the curve,

there are, properly speaking, no conjugate diameters.
While the line at infinity might be considered as con-
jugate to all the other diameters, not possible to
it is

assign to it any particular direction, and so it cannot be

used for the purpose of defining an axis of a parabola.
There is one diameter, however, which is at right angles
to its conjugate system of chords, and this one is called
the axis of the parabola. The circle also furnishes an

exception in that every diameter is an axis. The invo-

lution in this case is circular,
every ray being at right
angles to its conjugate ray at the center.
149. Points at which the involution determined by
a conic is circular. It is an important problem to dis-
cover whether for any conic other than the circle it is
possible to find any point in the plane where the invo-
lution determined as above by the conic is circular.

We shall proceed to the curious problem of proving the

existence of such points and of determining their num-
ber and situation. We shall then develop the important

properties of such points.

90 PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY
150. It is clear,hi the first place, that such a point
cannot be on the outside of the conic, else the involu-
tion would have double rays and such rays would have
to be at right angles to themselves. In the second
place, if two such points exist, the line joining them
must be a diameter and, indeed, an axis. For if F
and F were two such points, then, since the conjugate
1

ray at F to the line FF must be at right angles to it,

f

and also since the conjugate ray at F to the line FF'

r

must be at right angles to it, the pole of FF must f

be at infinity in a direction at right angles to FF 1

.

The line FF is then a diameter, and since it

1
is at

right angles to its conjugate diameter, it must be an

axis. From this it follows also that the points we are

seeking must all lie on one of the two axes, else we

should have a diameter which does not go through
the intersection of the axes the center of the conic.
At least one axis, therefore, must be free from any
such points.
151. Let now 1* be a point on one of the axes
(Fig. 42),
and draw any ray through it, such as q. As q revolves
about P, its pole Q moves along a line at right angles
to the axis on which P lies, describing a point-row p

projective to the pencil of rays q. The point at infinity

in a direction at right angles to q also describes a point-
row projective to q. The line joining corresponding
points of these two point-rows is always a conjugate
line to q and at right angles to j, or, as we may call it,
a conjugate normal to q. These conjugate normals to gy
joining as they do corresponding points in two projec-
tive point-rows, form a pencil of rays of the second
 METRICAL PROPERTIES 91

order. Butsince the point at infinity on the point-row

Q corresponds to the point at infinity in a direction

at right angles to </, these point-rows are in perspec-
tive position and the normal conjugates of all the lines

through P meet in a point. This point lies on the

same axis with P, as is seen by taking q at right angles
to the axis on which P lies. The center of this pencil

may be called JP', and thus we have paired the point P

with the point P By r
.
moving the point P along the
axis, and by keeping the
ray q parallel to a fixed
direction, we may see that
the point-row P and the
point-row P are projective.
r

Also the correspondence is

double, and by starting
from the point P r
we arrive
at the point P. Therefore
the point-rows P and P f
are
in involution, onlyand if

the involution has double points, we shall have found

in them the points we are seeking. For it is clear that
the rays through P and the corresponding rays through
P f
are conjugate normals ; and if and coincide, we P P f

shall have a point where all rays are at right angles

to their conjugates. We
shall now show that the invo-
lution thus obtained on one of the two axes must have
double points.
152. Discovery of the foci of the conic. We know
that on one axis no such points as we are seeking can
lie ( 150). The involution of points PP* on this axis
92 PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY
can therefore have no double points. Nevertheless, let
PP and RR' be two pairs of corresponding points on
!

this axis (Fig. 43). Then we know that P and P r

are

separated from each other by R and R ( 143). Draw

f

a circle on PP as a diameter, and one on RR as a

1 j

diameter. These must intersect in

two points, F and F', and since the
center of the conic, is the center
of the involution PP\ //', as is

easily seen, it follows that and F F r

are on the other axis of the conic.

Moreover, FR and FR' are con-

jugate normal rays, since RFR' is

inscribed in a semicircle, and the

two rays go one through R and the other through R'.
The involution of points PP RR therefore projects
f
9
f

to the two points and F F in two pencils of rays in

1

involution which have for corresponding rays conjugate

normals to the conic. We may, then, say :

There are tivo and only two points of the plane where
the involution determined by the conic is circular. These
two points lieon one of the axes, at equal distances from
the center, on the inside of the conic. These points are
called the foci of the conic.

153. The circle and the parabola. The above dis-

cussion applies only to the central conies, apart from

the circle. In the circle the two foci fall together at the
center. In the case of the parabola, that part of the

investigation which proves the existence of two foci on

one of the axes will not hold, as we have but one
 METRICAL PROPERTIES 93

axis. It is seen, however, that as P moves to infinity,

carrying the q with it, q becomes the line at infin-

lino,

ity, which for the parabola is a tangent line. Its pole

Q is thus at infinity and also the point /*', so that P
and P 1
together at infinity, and therefore one focus
fall

of the parabola is at infinity. There must therefore be

another, so that
A
parabola has one and only one focus in the finite
part of the plane.

154. Focal properties of conies. We proceed to de-

velop some theorems which will exhibit the importance
of these points in the theory of the conic section.
Draw a tangent to the conic, and also the normal
at the point of contact P. These
two lines are clearly conjugate
normals. The two T and
points
JV", therefore, where they meet the
axis which contains the foci, are

corresponding points in the invo-

lution considered above, and are
therefore harmonic conjugates with respect to the foci

(Fig. 44); and if we join them to the point P, we

shall obtain four harmonic lines. But two of them
are at right angles to each other, and so the others
make equal angles with them (Problem 4, Chapter II).
Therefore
The a point on the conic
lines joining to the foci make
equal angles with the tanyent.

It follows that rays from a source of light at one

focus are reflected by an ellipse to the other.
94 PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY
155. In the case of the parabola, where one of the
foci must be considered to be at infinity in the direction
of the diameter, we have
A diameter makes the same
angle with the tangent at its
extremity as that tangent does
with the line from its point of
contact to the focus (Fig. 45).

156. This last theorem is the basis for the construc-

tion of the parabolic reflector. A
ray of light from the
focus is reflected from such a reflector in a direction

parallel to the axis of the reflector.

157. Directrix. Principal axis. Vertex. The
polar of
the focus with respect to the conic is called the directrix.
The axis which contains the foci is called the principal
axis, and the intersection of the axis with the curve is
called the vertex of the curve. The directrix is at right

angles to the principal axis. In a parabola the vertex

is equally distant from the focus and the directrix,

these three pointsand the point at infinity on the axis

being four harmonic points. In the ellipse the vertex is
nearer to the focus than it is to the directrix, for the
same reason, and is farther from
in the hyperbola it
the focus than itfrom the directrix.
is

156. Another definition of a conic. Let P be any point

on the directrix through which a line is drawn meeting
the conic in the points A and B (Fig. 46). Let the tan-
gents at A and B meet in T, and call the focus F. Then
TF and PF are conjugate lines, and as they pass through
a focus they must be at right angles to each other. Let
 METRICAL PROPERTIES 95

TF meet AB in C. Then 1*,

y
A, C , Ji are four harmonic
points. Project these four points parallel to TF upon
the directrix, and we then get
the four harmonic points P,
M, Q, N. Since, now, TFP is

a right angle, the angles MFQ

and NFQ are equal, as well
as the angles AFC and BFC.
Therefore the triangles MAF
and NFB are similar, and
FA\AM=FBiBN. Dropping
perpendiculars AA and BB'
f

upon the directrix, this \&-

Flic. 4(1
. We
have thus the property often taken as the definition
of a conic:

The ratio of the distances from a point on the conic to

the focus and the directrix is constant.

159. Eccentricity. By taking the point at the vertex

of the conic, we note that this ratio is less than unity
for the ellipse, greater than unity for the hyperbola,
and equal to unity for the pa-
rabola. This ratio is called the

eccentricity.
160. Sum or difference of focal
distances. The ellipse and the
hyperbola have two foci and
two directrices. The eccentricity, of course, is the same
for one focus as for the other, since the curve is sym-
metrical with respect to both. If the distances from
96 PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY
a point on a conic to the two foci are r and /, and
the distances from the same point to the corresponding
directrices are d and d f

(Fig. 47), we have r : d=

r':
d'=(rr') (dd'). In the
:

ellipse (d + d ) is constant,
f

being the distance between

the directrices. In the hyper-
bola this distance is (d d ).
1

It follows (Fig. 48) that

In the ellipse the sum of the

focal distances of any point FIG. 48

on the curve is constant, and
in the hyperbola the difference between the focal distances
is constant.

PROBLEMS
1. Construct the axis of a parabola, given four tangents.
Given two conjugate lines at right angles to each
2.

other, and let them meet the axis which has no foci on it
in the points A and B. The circle on AB as diameter will

pass through the foci of the conic.

3. Given the axes of a conic in position, and also a

tangent with its point of contact, to construct the foci and

determine the length of the axes.
4. Given the tangent at the vertex of a parabola, and

two other tangents, to find the focus.

6. The locus of the center of a circle
touching two given
circles is a conic with the centers of the given circles for
its foci.

6. Given the axis of a parabola and a tangent, with its

point of contact, to find the focus.

 METRICAL PROPERTIES 97

7. The locus of the center of a circle which touches a

given line and a given circle consists of two parabolas.

8. Let F and /*" be the foci of an ellipse, and P any
point 011 it. Produce FP to G, making PG equal to PF 1
.

Find the locus of 6?.

9. If the points G of a circle be folded over upon a

point F, the creases will all be tangent to a conic. If is F

within the circle, the conic will be an ellipse ; if F is without
the circle, the conic will be a hyperbola.
10. If the points G in the last example be taken on a
straight line, the locus is a parabola.
11. Find the foci and the length of the principal axis of
the conies in problems 9 and 10.
12. In problem 10 a correspondence is set up between
straight lines and parabolas. As there is a fourfold infinity
of parabolas in the plane, and only a twofold infinity of
straight lines, there must be some restriction on the par-
abolas obtained by this method. Find and explain this
restriction.

13. State and explain the similar problem for problem 9.

14. The last fourproblems are a study of the conse-
quences of the following transformation : A point O is fixed
in the plane. Then to any point P is made to correspond
the line p at right angles to OP and bisecting it. In this
correspondence, what happens to p when P moves along a
straight line ? What corresponds to the theorem that two
lines have only one point in common ? What to the theorem
that the angle sum of a triangle is two right angles? Etc.
 CHAPTER X
ON THE HISTORY OF SYNTHETIC PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY

161. Ancient results. The theory of synthetic pro-

jectivegeometry as we have built it up in this course is
lessthan a century old. This is not to say that many of
the theorems and principles involved were not discov-
ered much earlier,. but isolated theorems do not make a
theory, any more than a makes a building.
pile of bricks
The materials for our building have been contributed

by many different workmen from the days of Euclid

down to the present time. Thus, the notion of four
harmonic points was familiar to the ancients, who con-
sidered it from the metrical point of view as the division
of a line internally and externally in the same ratio * ;

* The more general notion of anharmonic ratio, which includes

the harmonic ratio as a special case, was also known to the ancients.
While we have not found it necessary to make use of the anharmonic
ratio in building up our theory, it is so frequently met with in treatises
on geometry that some account of it should be given.
Consider any four points, A, B, C, D, on a line, and join them to
any point 8 not on that line. Then the triangles ASB, CSD, ASD,
CSB, having all the same altitude, are to each other as their bases.
Also, since the area of any triangle is one half the product of any two
of its sides by the sine of the angle included between them, we have

AB x CD_ASxBS
_ tinASB x CSx DsinCaD =
AD x CB~~AS x DS sin ASD xCSxBS sin C8B~ain ASD x sinC-SB*
Now the fraction on the right would be unchanged if instead of the
points A, B, C, Dwe should take any other four points A', B', C', IX
lying on any other line cutting across SA, SB, SC, 8D. In other
 SYNTHETIC PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY 99

the involution of six points cut out by any transversal

which intersects; the sides of a complete quadrilateral

words, the fraction on the left is unaltered in value if the points

A) B, C, D
are replaced by any other four points perspective to them.
Again, the fraction on the left is unchanged if some other point were
taken instead of S. In other words, tlw fraction on the rigid -is
unaltered if we replace the four lines SA, SB, SC, SI) by any other four
lines perspective to them. The fraction on the left is called the anluir-
monic ratio of the four points A, ft, C, J) the fraction on the right
;

is called the anharmonic ratio of the four lines SA, SB, SC, SI). The

anharmonic ratio of four points is sometimes written (A BCD), so that

BXCD =
AD x CB V '

If we take the points in different order, the value of the anharmonic

ratio will not necessarily remain the same. The twenty-four different
ways of writing them will, however, give not more than six different
values for tho anharmonic ratio, for by writing out the fractions
which define them we can find that (A BCD) = (BADC) = (CDAB) =
(DGttA). If we write (ABCD) = a, it is not difficult to show that
the six values arc

a; I/a; 1-a; l/(l-a); (a-l)/a; a/(a-l).

The proof of this we leave to the student.
If A , B, C, D are four harmonic points (see Fig. 6, p. 22), and a quad-
KLMN
rilateral is constructed such that K
L and MN pass through
A, KN and LM through C, LN through B, and KM
through D, then,
projecting A, B, C, D
from L upon KM, we have (A BCD) = (KOMD),
where is tho intersection of KM
with LN. But, projecting again
the points K, 0, M, from D N
back upon the line AB, we have
(KOMD) = (CBAD). From this we have
(ABCD) = (CBAD),
or a = l/a;
whence a = lora = 1. But it is easy to see that a = 1 implies that
two of the four points coincide. For four harmonic points, therefore,
the six values of tho anharmonic ratio reduce to three, namely, 2, ,

and 1. Incidentally we see that if an interchange of any two

points iti an anharmonic ratio does not change its value, then the
four points are .harmonic.
Many theorems of projective geometry are succinctly stated in
terms of anharmonrc ratios. Thus, the anharmonic ratio of any four
100 PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY
was studied by Pappus* but these notions were not
;

made the foundation for any general theory. Taken by

themselves, they are of small consequence; it is their
relation to other theorems and sets of theorems that
gives them their importance. The ancients were doubt-
less familiar with the theorem, Two lines determine a

point, and two points determine a line, but they had

no glimpse of the wonderful law of duality, of which
this theorem is a simple example. The
principle of
projection,by which many properties of the conic sec-
tions maybe inferred from corresponding properties
of the circle which forms the base of the cone from
which they are cut a principle so natural to modern
mathematicians seems not to have occurred to the
Greeks. The ellipse, the hyperbola, and the parabola

elements of a form is equal to the anharmonic ratio of the corresponding

four elements in any form protectively related to it. The anharmonic
ratio of the lines joining any four fixed points on a conic to a variable
fifth point on the conic is constant. The
locus of points from which four points
in a plane are seen along four rays of
constant anharmonic ratio is a conic
through the four points. Weleave these
theorems for the student, who may
also justify the following solution of
the problem : Given three points and
a certain anharmonic ratio, to find a
fourth point which shall have with the
given three the given anharmonic ratio.
Let A,B,D be the three given points
(Fig. 49). On any convenient line
through A take two points I? and 7X FKI. 49
such that A&/A& is equal to the

given anharmonic ratio. Join BB' and DD" and let the two lines
meet in 8. Draw through S a parallel to AB'. This line will meet
AB in the required point C.
*
Pappus, Mathematical Collections, vii, 129.
 SYNTHETIC PEOJECTIVE GEOMETRY 101

were to them entirely different curves, to be treated

separately with methods appropriate to each. Thus the
focus of the ellipse was discovered some five hundred

years before the focus of the parabola It was not till!

1522 that Verner* of Niirnberg undertook to demon-

strate the properties of the conic sections by means of
the circle.
162. Unifying principles. In the early years of the
seventeenth century that wonderful epoch in the

history of the world which produced a Galileo, a Kep-

ler,a Tycho Brahe, a Descartes, a Desargues, a Pascal,
a Cavalieri, a Wallis, a Fermat, a Huygens, a Bacon,
a Napier, and a goodly array of lesser lights, to say
nothing of a Rembrandt or of a Shakespeare there

began to appear certain unifying principles connecting

the great mass of material dug out by the ancients.
Thus, in 1604 the great astronomer Kepler f introduced
the notion that parallel lines should be considered as

meeting at an infinite distance, and that a parabola is at

once the limiting case of an ellipse and of a hyperbola.
He also attributes to the parabola a "blind focus"

(eaewis focus) at infinity on the axis.

163. Desargues. In 1639 Desargues,$ an architect of

Lyons, published a little treatise on the conic sections,

in which appears the theorem upon .which we have
founded the theory of four harmonic points ( 25).

* J .Verne ri, Libellus super vigintiduobus elementis conicis, etc. 1522.

t Kepler, Ad Vitellionem paralipomena quibus astronomiae pars

optica traditur. 1604.

Desargiies, Bruillon-project d'une atteinte aux e*ve*nements des
J
rencontres d'un cdne avec un plan. 1639. Edited and analyzed by
Poudra, 1864.
102 PKOJECTIVE GEOMETRY

Desargues, however, does not make use of it for that

purpose. Four harmonic points are for him a special

case of six points in involution when two of the three

pairs coincide giving double points. His development

of the theory of involution is also different from the

purely geometric one which we have adopted, and is

based on the theorem ( 142) that the product of the
distances of two conjugate points from the center is

constant. He also proves the projective character of

an involution of points by showing that when six lines
pass through a point and through six points in involu-
tion, then any transversal must meet them in six points
which are also in involution.
164. Poles and polars. In this little treatise is also
contained the theory of poles and polars. The polar
line is called a traversal.* The harmonic properties of
poles and polars are given, but Desargues seems not
to have arrived at the metrical properties which result
when the infinite elements of the plane are introduced.
"
Thus he says, When the traversal is at an infinite
distance, all is unimaginable."

165. Desargues's theorem concerning conies through

four points. We
find in this little book the beautiful
theorem concerning a quadrilateral inscribed in a conic
section, which is given by his name in 138. The
theorem is not
given in terms of a system of conies
through four points, for Desargues had no conception of
* The term
pole was first introduced, in the sense in which we
f '

have used it, in 1810, by a French mathematician named Servois

(Gergonne, Annales des MatMmatujiieH, I, .337), and the corresponding
term polar by the editor, Gergonne, of this same journal three years
* '

later.
 SYNTHETIC PROTECTIVE GEOMETRY 103

any such system. He states the theorem, in effect, as

follows : Given a simple quadrilateral inscribed in a conic
section, every transversalmeets the conic and the four sides
of the quadrilateral in six points which are in involution.
166. Extension of the theory of poles and polars to

space. As an illustration of his remarkable powers of

generalization, we may note that Desargues extended
the notion of poles and polars to space of three dimen-
sions for the sphere and for certain other surfaces of
the second degree. This is a matter which has not
been touched on in this book, but the notion is not
difficult to grasp. If we draw through any
point in P
space a line to cut a sphere in two points, A and 7?, and
then construct the fourth harmonic of P
with respect to
A and 7?, the locus of this fourth harmonic, for various
lines through ./', is a plane called the polar plane of P
with respect to the sphere. With this definition and theo-
rem one can easily find dual relations between points
and planes in space analogous to those between points and
lines in a plane.
Desargues closes his discussion of this
matter with the remark, "Similar properties may be
found for those other solids which are related to the
sphere in the same way that the conic section is to the
circle." It should not be inferred from this remark,

however, that he was acquainted with all the different

varieties of surfaces of the second order. The ancients
were well acquainted with the surfaces obtained by
revolving an ellipse or a parabola about an axis. Even
the hyperboloid of two sheets, obtained by revolving the

hyperbola about its major axis, was known to them,

but probably not the hyperboloid of one sheet, which
104 PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY
results from revolving a hyperbola about the other
axis. All the other solids of the second degree were
probably unknown until their discovery by Euler.*
167. Desargues had no conception of the conic section
as the locus of intersection of corresponding rays of two

projective pencils of rays. He seems to have tried to

describe the curve by means of a pair of compasses,

moving one leg back and forth along a straight line

instead of holding it fixed as in drawing a circle. He
does not attempt to define the law of the movement
necessary to obtain a conic by this means.
168. Reception of Desargues's work. Strange to say,
Desargues's immortal work was heaped with the most vio-
"
lent abuse and held up to ridicule and scorn Incredi- !

ble errors ! Enormous mistakes and falsities !

Really it

is
impossible for anyone who is familiar with the science

concerning which he wishes to retail his thoughts, to

keep from laughing!" Such were the comments of re-
viewers and critics. Nor were his detractors altogether
ignorant and uninstructed men. In spite of the devotion
of his pupils and in spite of the admiration and friend-

ship of men like Descartes, Fermat, Mersenne, and

Roberval, his book disappeared so completely that two
centuries after the date of its publication, when the
French geometer Chasles wrote his history of geometry,
there was no means of estimating the value of the work
done by Desargues. Six years later, however, in 1845,
Chasles found a manuscript copy of the "Bruillon-
project," made by Desargues's pupil, De la Hire.

* Euler, Introductio in analysin

infinitorum, Appendix, cap. V.
1748.
 SYNTHETIC PROJECTIVE GEOMETBY 105

169. Conservatism in Desargues's time. It is not neces-

sary to suppose that this effacement of Desargues's work

for two centuries was due to the savage attacks of his
critics. All this was in accordance with the fashion of
the time, and no man
escaped bitter denunciation who
attempted to improve on the methods of the ancients.
Those were days when men refused to believe that a
heavy body falls at the same rate as a lighter one, even
when Galileo made them see it with their own eyes
at the foot of the tower of Pisa. Could they not turn
to the exact page and line of Aristotle which declared
that the heavier body must fall the faster! "I have
read Aristotle's writings from end to end, many times,"
wrote a Jesuit provincial to the mathematician and
astronomer, Christoph Scheiner, at Ingolstadt, whose
telescope seemed to reveal certain mysterious spots on
"
the sun, and I can assure you I have nowhere found
anything similar to what you describe. Go, my son, and
tranquilize yourself ; be assured that what you take for
spots on the sun are the faults of your glasses, or of
your eyes." The dead hand of Aristotle barred the
advance in every department of research. Physicians
would have nothing to do with Harvey's discoveries
"
about the circulation of the blood. Nature is accused
"
of tolerating a vacuum ! exclaimed a priest when Pas-
cal began his experiments on the Puy-de-Dome to show
that the column of mercury in a glass -tube varied in

height with the pressure of the atmosphere.

170. Desargues's style of writing. Nevertheless, author-

ity counted for less at this time in Paris than it did in

Italy, and the tragedy enacted in Rome when Galileo

106 PliOJECTIVE GEOMETRY
was forced to deny his inmost convictions at the bid-

ding of a brutal Inquisition could not have been staged

in France. Moreover, in the little company of scientists
of which Desargues was a member the utmost liberty
of thought and expression was maintained. One very
good reason for the disappearance of the work of De-
sargues is to be found in his style of writing. He failed
to heed the very good advice given him in a letter from
"
his warm "admirer Descartes.* You may have two de-
signs,
both very good and very laudable, but which do
not require the same method of procedure: The one is
to write for the learned, and show them some new prop-
erties of the conic sections which they do not already

know; and the other is to write for the curious un-

learned, and to do it so that this matter whioh until
now has been understood by only a very few, and which
is nevertheless very useful for perspective, for paint-

ing, architecture, etc., shall become common and easy to

all who wish to study them in your book. If you have
the first idea, then it seems to me that it is necessary
to avoid using new terms ; for the learned are already
accustomed to using those of Apollonius, and will not
readily change them for others, though better, and thus
yours will serve only to render your demonstrations
more difficult, and to turn away your readers from your
book. If you have the second plan in mind, it is cer-
tain that your terms, which are French, and conceived
with spirit and grace, will be better received by persons
not preoccupied with those of the ancients. . . .
But, if
you have that intention, you should make of it a great
CEuvres de Desargues, t. II, 132.
 SYNTHETIC PllOJECTIVE GEOMETRY 107

volume ; explain it all so fully and so distinctly that

those gentlemen who cannot study without yawning;
who cannot distress their imaginations
enough to grasp
a proposition in geometry, nor turn the leaves of a book
to look at the letters in a figure, shall find nothing in

your discourse more difficult to understand than the

description of an enchanted palace in a fairy story."
The point of these remarks is apparent when we note
that Desargues introduced some seventy new terms in
his little book, of which only one, involution, has sur-
vived. Curiously enough, this is the one term singled
out for the sharpest criticism and ridicule by his re-
viewer, De Beaugrand.* That Descartes knew the char-
acter of Desargues's audience better than ho did is also
evidenced by the fact that De Beaugrand exhausted his
patience in reading the first ten pages of the book.
171. Lack of appreciation of Desargues. Desargues's
methods, entirely different from the analytic methods
just then being developed by Descartes and Format,
seem to have been little understood. "Between you
"
and me," wrote Descartes f to Mersenne, I can hardly
form an idea of what he may have written concerning
conies." Desargues seems to have boasted that he owed
nothing to any man, and that all his results had come
from his own mind. His favorite pupil, De la Hire, did
not realize the extraordinary simplicity and generality
of his work. It is a remarkable fact that the only one
of all his associates to understand and appreciate the
methods of Desargues should be a lad of sixteen years I
CEuvres de Desargucs, t. II, 370.
(Euvrcs de Descartes, t. II, 499.
108 PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY
172. Pascal and his theorem. One does not have to
believe all the marvelous stories of Pascal's admiring
sisters to credit him with wonderful precocity. We have
the fact that in 1640, when he was sixteen years old,
he published a little placard, or poster, entitled "Essay
pour les conique," * in which his great theorem appears
for the first time. His manner of putting it may be a
puzzling to one who has only seen it in the form
little

given in this book, and it may be worth while for the

student to compare the two methods of stating it. It is
"
given as follows :
If in the 8, Q we draw
plane of M,
through M the two lines and MK
MV, and through the
point S the two lines SK and SV, and let be K
tfie inter-

section of MKand SK; V the intersection of and MV

SV ; A the intersection of MA and SA (A is the inter-
section of SV and MK), and p the intersection of MV
and SK; and if through two of the four points A, K,
/A, V, which are not in the same straight line with and M
S, such as K
and V, we pass the circumference of a circle
cutting the lines MV, MP, SV, SK in the points 0, P,

Q, N; I say that the lines MS, NO, PQ are of the same

" "
order" (By lines of the same order Pascal means
lines which meet in the same point or are parallel.) By

projecting the figure thus described upon another plane

he is able to state his theorem for the case where the
circle is replacedby any conic section.
must be understood that the "Essay" was
173. It

only a r6sum of a more extended treatise on conies

which, owing partly to Pascal's extreme youth, partly
to the difficulty of publishing scientific works in those
CEuvres de Pascal, par Brunschvig et Boutroux, 1. 1, 252.
 SYNTHETIC PKOJECTIVE GEOMETRY 109

days, and also to his later morbid interest in religious

* examined a
matters, was never published. Leibniz copy
of the complete work, and has reported that the great
theorem on the mystic hexagram was made the basis of
the whole theory, and that Pascal had deduced some four
hundred corollaries from it. This would indicate that
here was a man able to take the unconnected materials
of projective geometry and shape them into some such

symmetrical edifice as we have

to-day. Unfortunately
for science, Pascal's early death prevented the further

development of the subject at his hands.

" "
174. In the Essay Pascal gives full credit to
Uesargues, saying of one of the other propositions,
"
We prove this property also, the original discoverer of
which is M. Desargues, of Lyons, one of the greatest
minds of this age . . . and I wish to acknowledge that
I owe to him the little which I have discovered." This
acknowledgment led Descartes to believe that Pascal's
theorem should also be credited to Desargues. But in
the scientific club which the young Pascal attended
in company with his father, who was also a scientist
of some reputation, the theorem went by the name of
'la Pascalia,' and Descartes' s remarks do not seem to
have been taken seriously, which indeed is not to be
wondered at, seeing that he was in the habit of giving
scant credit to the work of other scientific investigators
than himself.
175. De la Hire and his work. De la Hire added
little to the development of the subject, but he did put
into print much of what Desargues had already worked
Chasles, Histoire de la G6om6trie, 70.
110 PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY

out, not fully realizing, perhaps, how much was his

own and how much he owed to his teacher. Writing in
1679, he says,* "I have just read for the first time
M. Desargues's treatise, and have made a copy
little

of it have a more perfect knowledge of it."

in order to
It was this copy that saved the work of his master
from oblivion. De la Hire should be credited, among
other things, with the invention of a method by which

figures iA the plane may be transformed into others

of the same order. His method is extremely interest-
ing, and will serve as an exercise for the student in
synthetic protective geometry. It is as follows: Draw
two parallel lines, a and 6, and select a point in their P
plane. Through any point M
of the plane draw a line
meeting a in A and b in B. Draw a line through B
parallel to AP, and let it meet MP
in the point It M 1
.

may be shown that the point

1
thus M
obtained does not

depend at all on the particular ray MAB

u&ed in deter-
mining it, so that we have set up a one-to-one correspondence
between the points M and M in plane. The student
?
the

may show that as M describes a point-row, M describes 1

a point-row projective to As M describes a conic,

it.

M f
describes another conic. This sort of correspon-
dence is called a collineation. It will be found that the
points, on the line b transform into themselves, as does
also the single point P. Points on the line a trans-
form into points on the line at infinity. The student
should remove the metrical features of the construction
and take, instead of two parallel lines a and b, any
two lines which may meet in a finite part of the plane.
CEuvres de Desargues, t. I, 231.
 SYNTHETIC PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY 111

The collineationa special one in that the general

is

one has an invariant triangle instead of an invariant

point and line.
176. Descartes and his influence. The history of syn-
thetic projective geometry has little to do with the work
of the great philosopher Descartes, except in an indirect

way. The method of algebraic analysis invented by

him, and the differential and integral calculus which

developed from it, attracted all the interest of the

mathematical world for nearly two centuries after
Desargues, and synthetic geometry received scant atten-
tion during the rest of the seventeenth century and for
the greater part of the eighteenth century. It is difficult
for moderns to conceive of the richness and variety of
the problems which confronted the first workers in the
calculus. To come into the possession of a method
which would solve almost automatically problems which
had baffled the keenest minds of antiquity; to be able
to derive in a few moments results which an Archimedes
had toiled long arid patiently to reacli or a Galileo had
determined experimentally; such was the happy expe-
rience of mathematicians for a century and a half after
Descartes, and it is not to be wondered at that along
with this enthusiastic pursuit of new theorems in anal-
ysis should come a species of contempt for the methods
"
of the ancients, so that in his preface to his Mechanique
ft

Analytique," published in 1788, Lagrange boasts, One

will find no figures in this work." But at the close of
the eighteenth century the field opened up to research

by the invention of the calculus began to appear so

thoroughly explored that new methods and new objects
112 PROJEOTIVE GEOMETRY
of investigation began to attract attention. Lagrange
himself, in his later years, turned in weariness from
analysis and mechanics, and applied himself to chemistry,
tf
physics, and philosophical speculations. This state of
"
mind," says Darboux,* we find almost always at certain
moments in the lives of the greatest scholars." At any
rate, after lying fallow for almost two centuries, the
field of pure geometry was attacked with almost religious

enthusiasm.
177. Newton and Maclaurin. But in hastening on
to the epoch of Poiicelet and Steiner we should not
omit to mention the work of Newton and Maclaurin.
Although their results were obtained by analysis for the
most part, nevertheless they have given us theorems
which fall naturally into the domain of synthetic pro-
" "
jective geometry. Thus Newton's organic method f
of generating conic sections is closely related to the
method which we have made use of in Chapter III.
It is as follows If two angles, A OS and AO'S, of given
:

magnitudes turn about their respective vertices, and 0',

in such a way that the point of intersection, S, of one pair

of arms always lies on a straight line, the point of inter-

section, A, of the other pair of arms mil describe a conic.
The proof of this is left to the student.
178. Another method of generating a conic is due to

Maclaurin.J The construction, which we also leave for

the student to justify, is as follows If a triangle C PQ
r
:

-move in such a way that its sides, PQ, QC , and C P, turn

f f

* See Ball, History of Mathematics, French edition, t. II, 233.

t Newton, Principia, lib. i, lemma XXI.
t Maclaurin, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of
London, 1736.
 SYNTHETIC PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY 113

around three fixed points, R, A, B, respectively, while two of

its vertices, P, Q, slide along two fixed lines, CB and CA
r

respectively,
then the remaining vertex will describe a conic.
179. Descriptive geometry and the second revival.
The second revival of pure geometry was again to take

place at a time of great intellectual activity. The period

at the close of the eighteenth and the beginning of
the nineteenth century adorned with a glorious list
is

of mighty names, among which are Gauss, Lagrange,

Legendre, Laplace, Monge, Carnot, Poncelet, Cauchy,

Fourier, Steiner, Von Staudt, Mobius, Abel, and many
others. The renaissance may be said to date from the in-
vention by * of the
Monge theory of descriptive geometry.
Descriptive geometry is concerned witli the representa-
tion of figures in space of three dimensions by means
of space of two dimensions. The method commonly
used consists in projecting the space figure on two
planes (a vertical and a horizontal plane being most
convenient), the projections being made most simply
for metrical purposes from infinity in directions perpen-
dicular to the two planes of projection. These two

planes are then made to coincide by revolving the hori-

zontal into the vertical about their common line. Such
is the method of descriptive geometry which in. the

hands of Monge acquired wonderful generality and ele-

gance. Problems concerning fortifications were worked
so quickly by this method that the commandant at the

military school at M&iSres, where Monge was a drafts-

man and viewed the results with distrust. Monge
pupil,
afterward became professor of mathematics at M6zieres
Monge, G6om6trie Descriptive. 1800.
114 PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY
and gathered around him a group of students destined
to have a share in the advancement of pure geometry.

Among these were Hachette, Brianchon, Dupin, Chasles,

Poncelet, and many others.
180. Duality, homology, continuity, contingent rela-
tions. Analytic geometry had left littleto do in the

way of discovery of new material, and the mathemati-

cal world was ready for the construction of the edifice.
The group of men that followed Monge
activities of the
were directed toward this end, and we now begin to
hear of the great unifying notions of duality, homol-
ogy, continuity, contingent relations, and the like. The
devotees of pure geometry were beginning to feel the
need of a basis for their science which should be at
once as general and as rigorous as that of the analysts.
Their dream was the building up of a system of geom-
etry which should be independent of analysis. Monge,
and after him Poncelet, spent much thought on the so-

called "principle of continuity," afterwards discussed

by Chasles under the name of the "principle of con-

tingent relations." To get a clear idea of this principle,
consider a theorem in geometry in the proof of which
certain auxiliary elements are employed. These ele-

ments do not appear in the statement of the theorem,

and the theorem might possibly be proved without them.
In drawing the figure for the proof of the theorem,
however, some of these elements may not appear, or,
"
as the analyst would
say, they become imaginary. No
matter," says the principle of contingent relations, "the
theorem is true, and the proof is valid whether the

elements used in the proof are real or imaginary."

 SYNTHETIC PKOJECTIVE GEOMETKY 115

181. Poncelet and Cauchy. The efforts of Poncelet

to compel the acceptance of this principle independent
of analysis resulted in a bitter and perhaps fruitless

controversy between him and the great analyst Cauchy.

In his review of Poncelet's great work on the projec-
tive properties of figures* Cauchy says, "In his pre-
liminary discourse the author insists once more on the

necessity of admitting into geometry what lie calls the

principle of continuity.' We
have already discussed
that principle . . . and we have found that that prin-

ciple is, properly speaking, only a strong induction,

which cannot be indiscriminately applied to all sorts of
questions in geometry, nor even in analysis. The rea-
sons which we have given as the basis of our opinion
are not affected by the considerations which the author
has developed in his Traite des Proprietes Projectives
des Figures." Although this principle is constantly made
use of at the present day in all sorts of investigations,

careful geometricians are in agreement with Cauchy

in this matter, and use it only as a convenient work-

ing tool for purposes of exploration. The one-to-one

correspondence between geometric forms and algebraic

analysis is subject to many and important exceptions.
The field of analysis ismuch more general than the
field of geometry, and while there may be a clear
notion in analysis to correspond to every notion in

geometry, the opposite is not true. Thus, in analysis

we can deal with four coordinates as well as with
three, but the existence of a space of four dimensions
* Poncelet, Traite" des Proprie*te*s Projectives des Figures. 1822.
(See p. 357, Vol. II, of the edition of 1806.)
116 PBOJECTIVE GEOMETRY
to correspond to it does not therefore follow. When
the geometer speaks of the two real or imaginary inter-
sections of a straight line with a conic, he is really
speaking the language of. algebra. Apart from the

algebra involved, the height of absurdity to try to

it is

distinguish between the two points in which a line

fails to meet a conic!
182. The work of Poncelet. But Poncelet's right to
the title "The Father of Modern Geometry" does not
stand or fall with the principle of contingent relations.
In spite of the fact that he considered this principle
the most important of all his discoveries, his reputation
rests on more solid foundations. He was the first to
study figures in homology, which is, in effect, the colline-
ation described in 175, where corresponding points
lie on straight lines through a fixed point. He was the

first to give, by means of the theory of poles and polars,

a transformation by which an element is transformed

into another of a different sort. Point-to-point trans-
formations will sometimes generalize a theorem, but
the transformation discovered by Poncelet may throw a
theorem into one of an entirely different aspect. The .

principleof duality, first stated in definite form by

Gergonne,* the editor of the mathematical journal in

which Poncelet published his researches, was based by
Poncelet on his theory of poles and polars. He also put
into definite form the notions of the infinitely distant
elements in space as all lying on a plane at infinity.
183. The debt which analytic geometry owes to syn-
thetic geometry. The reaction of pure geometry on
Gergonne, Annales de MatMmatiques, XVI, 209. 1826.
 SYNTHETIC PROJEOTIVE GEOMETRY 117

analytic geometry is clearly seen in the development of

the notion of the class of a curve, which is the number
of tangents that may be drawn from a point in a plane
to a given curve lying in that plane. If a point moves

along a conic, it is easy to show and the student

is recommended to furnish the proof that the polar
line with respect to a conic remains tangent to another
conic. This may be expressed by the statement that the
conic is of the second order and also of the second class.
if a point moved
It might be thought that along a
cubic curve, its with respect to a conic would
polar line
remain tangent to another cubic curve. This is not the
case, however, and the investigations of Poncelet and
others to determine the class of a given curve were
afterward completed by Pliicker. The notion of geo-
metrical transformation led also to the very important

developments in the theory of invariants, which, geo-

metrically, are the elements and configurations which
are not affected by the transformation. The anharmonic
ratio of four points is such an invariant, since it remains
unaltered under all projective transformations.
184. Steiner and his work. In the work of Poncelet
and his contemporaries, Chasles, Brianchon, Hachette,
Dupin, Gergonne, and others, the anharmonic ratio en-
joyed a fundamental rdle.- It is made also the basis of
the great work of Steiner,* who was the first to treat
of the conic, not as the projection of a circle, but as the
locus of intersection of corresponding rays of two pro-

jective pencils. Steiner not only related to each other,

* Steiner, Systematische Entwickelung der Abhangigkeit geome-
trischer Gestalten von einander. 1832.
118 PROJECTIVE GEOMETEY
in one-to-one correspondence, point-rows and pencils
and all the other fundamental forms, but he set into

correspondence even curves and surfaces of higher de-

grees. This new and fertile conception gave him an
easy and direct route into the most abstract and diffi-

cult regions of pure geometry. Much of his work was

given without any indication of the methods by which
he had arrived at it, and many of his results have only
recently been verified.
185. Von Staudt and his work. To complete the the-
ory of geometry as we have it to-day it only remained
to free it from its dependence on the semimetrical basis
of the anharmonic ratio. This work was accomplished by
Von Staudt,* who applied himself to the restatement
of the theory of geometry in a form independent of

analytic and metrical notions. The method which has

been used in Chapter II to develop the notion of four
harmonic points by means of the complete quadrilateral
is due to Von Staudt. His work is characterized by a
most remarkable generality, in that he is able to discuss
real and imaginary forms with equal ease. Thus he
assumes a one-to-one correspondence between the points
and lines of a plane, and defines a conic as the locus
of points which lie on their corresponding lines, and a

pencil of rays of the second order as the system of lines

which pass through their corresponding points. The
point-row and pencil of the second order may be real
or imaginary, but his theorems still apply. An illustra-
tion of a correspondence of this sort, where the conib
is imaginary, is given in 15 of the first chapter. In
* Von Staudt, Geometrie der Lage. 1847.
 SYNTHETIC PEOJECTIVE GEOMETRY 119

defining imaginary points on a line, Von

conjugate
Staudt made use. of an involution of points having no
double points. His methods, while elegant and power-
ful, are hardly adapted to an elementary course, but

Reye* and others have done much toward simplifying

his presentation.
186. Recent developments. It would be only confus-
ing to the student to attempt to trace here the later
developments of the science of projective geometry. It
is concerned for the most part witli curves and surfaces

of a higher degree than the second. Purely synthetic

methods have been used with marked success in the
study of the straight line in space. The struggle be-
tween analysis and pure geometry has long since come
to an end. Each has its distinct advantages, and the
mathematician who
cultivates one at the expense of the
other will never attain the results that he would attain
ifboth methods were equally ready to his hand. Pure
geometry has to its credit some of the finest discov-
eries in mathematics, and need not apologize for having
been born. The day of its usefulness has not passed
with the invention of abridged notation and of short
methods in analysis. While we may be certain that any
geometrical problem may always be stated in analytic
form, it does not follow that that statement will be
simple or easily interpreted. For many mathematicians
the geometric intuitions are weak, and for such the
method will have little attraction. On the other hand,
there will always be those for whom the subject will
have a peculiar glamor who will follow with delight

Keye, Geometric der Lage. Translated by Holgate, 1897.

120 PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY
the curious and unexpected relations between the forms
of space. Therea corresponding pleasure, doubtless,
is

for the analyst in tracing the marvelous connections

between the various fields in which he wanders, and it
is as absurd to shut one's eyes to the beauties in one

as it is to ignore those in the other. "Let us cultivate

geometry, then," says Darboux,* "without wishing in

all points to equal it to its rival. Besides, if we were

tempted to neglect it, it would not be long in finding

in the applications of mathematics, as once it has al-

ready done, the means of renewing its life and of

developing itself anew. It is like the Giant Aritseus,
who renewed his strength by touching the earth."
*
Ball, loc. cit. p. 261.
 INDEX
(The numbers refer to the paragraphs)

Abel (1802-1829), 179 Conic, 73, 81

Analogy, 24 Conjugate diameters, 114, 148
Analytic geometry, 21, 118, 119, Conjugate normal, 151
120, 146, 176, 180 Conjugate points and lines, 100,
Anharmonic ratio, 46,161, 184,185 109, 138, 139, 140
Apollonius (second half of third Constants in an equation, 21
century B. c.), 70 Contingent relations, 180, 181
Archimedes (287-212 B.C.), 176 Continuity, 180, 181
Aristotle (384-322 B.C.), 169 Continuous correspondence, 9, 10,
Asymptotes, 111, 113, 114, 115, 21, 49
116, 117, 118, 148 Corresponding elements, 64
Axes of a conic, 148 Counting, 1, 4
Axial pencil, 7, 8, 23, 60, 64 Cross ratio, 46
Axis of perspectivity, 8, 47
Darboux, 176, 186
Bacon (1661-1626), 162 Do Beaugrand, 170
Bisection, 41, 109 Degenerate pencil of rays of the
Brianchon (1786-1864), 84, 86, 86, second order, 58, 93
88, 89, 90, 95, 105, 113, 174, 184 Degenerate point-row of the
second order, 56, 78
Calculus, 176 De la Hire (1640-1718), 168, 171,
Carnot (1796-1832), 179 176
Cauchy (1789-1857), 179, 181 Desargues (1693-1662), 25, 26, 40,
Cavalieri (1598-1647), 162 121, 125, 162, 163, 164, 166, 166,
Center of a conic, 107, 112, 148 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 174, 175
Center of involution, 141, 142 Descartes (1696-1650), 162, 170,
Center of perspectivity, 8 171, 174, 176
Central conic, 120 Descriptive geometry, 179
Chasles (1793-1880), 168, 179, 180, Diameter, 107
184 Directrix, 157, 158, 159, 160
Circle, 21, 78, 80, 145, 146, 147 Double correspondence. 128, 180
Circular involution, 147, 149, 160, Double points of an involution, 124
151 Double rays of an involution, 133.
Circular points, 146 134
Class of a curve, 183 Duality, 94, 104, 161, 180, 182
Classification of conies, 110 Dupin (1784-1873), 174, 184
Collineation, 175
Concentric pencils, 60 Eccentricity of conic, 159
Cone of the second order, 59 Ellipse, 110, 111, 162
121
122 PKOJECTIVE GEOMETRY
Equation of conic, 118, 119, 120 Leibniz (1646-1716), 173
Euclid (ca. 300 B. o.), 6, 22, 104 Linear construction, 40, 41, 42
Euler (1707-1783), 166
Maclaurin (1698-1746), 177, 178
Fermat (1601-1666), 162, 171 Measurements, 23, 40, 41, 104
Foci of a conic, 162, 163, 154, 155, Mersenne (1688-1648), 168, 171
166, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162 Metrical theorems, 40, 104, 106,
Fourier (1768-1830), 179 107, 141
Fourth harmonic, 29 Middle point, 39, 41
Fundamental form, 7, 16, 23, 36, Mb'bius (1790-1868), 179
47, 60, 184 Monge (1746-1818), 179, 180
Galileo (1564-1642), 162, 169, 170, Napier (1550-1617), 162
176 Newton (1642-1727), 177
Gauss (1777-1855), 179 Numbers, 4, 21, 43
Gergonne (1771-1859), 182, 184 Numerical computations, 43, 44,
Greek geometry, 161 46

Hachette (1769-1834), 179, 184 One-to-one correspondence, 1, 2,

Harmonic conjugates, 29, 30, 39 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 24, 36,
Harmonic elements, 36, 49, 91, 37, 43, ($0, 104, 100, 184
163, 185 Opposite sides of a hexagon, 70
Harmonic lines, 33, 34, 35, 66, 67 Opposite sides of a quadrilateral,
Harmonic planes, 34, 36 28, 29
Harmonic points, 29, 31, 32, 33, Order of a form, 7, 10, 11, 12, 13,
34,35,36, 43,71,161 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21
Harmonic tangents to a conic,
91, 92 Pappus (fourth century A.D.),
Harvey (1578-1667), 169 161
llomoiogy, 180, 182 Parabola, 110, 111, 112, 119, 162
Huygens (1629-1695), 162 Parallel lines, 39, 41, 162
Hyperbola, 110, 111, 113, 114, 115, Pascal (1623-1662), 69, 70, 74, 75,
116,117,118,162 76, 77, 78, 95, 105, 125, 162,
169, 171, 172, 173
Imaginary elements, 146, 180, 181, Pencil of planes of the second
182,185 order, 69
Infinitely distant elements, 6, 9, Pencil of rays, 6, 7, 8, 23 ;
of the
22, 39, 40, 41, 104, 107, 110 second order, 57, 60, 79, 81
Infinity, 4, 5, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, Perspective position, 6, 8, 35, 37,
17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 41 61, 63, 71
Involution, 37, 123, 124, 125, 126, Plane system, 16, 23
127, 128, 129, 180, 131, 132, 133, Planes on space, 17
134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, Point of contact, 87, 88, 89, 90
161, 163, 170 Point system, 16, 23
Point-row, 6, 7, 8, 9, 28 of the ;

Kepler (1571-1630), 162 second order, 66, 60, 61, 66,

67, 72
Lagrange (1736-1813), 176, 179 Points in space, 18
Laplace (1749-1827), 179 Pole and polar, 98, 99, 100, 101,
Legendre (1762-1838), 179 138, 164, 166
 INDEX 123

Poncelot (1788-1867), 177, 179, Separation of harmonic conju-

180, 181, 182, 188, 184 gates, 38
Principal axis of a conic, 167 Sequence of points, 49
Projection, 101 Sign of segment, 44, 45
Projective axial pencils, 59 Similarity, 106
Projective correspondence, 9, 35, Skew lilies, 12
8(5, 87, 47, 71, 92, 104 Space system, 19, 23
Projective pencils, 53, 64, 68 Sphere, 21
Projective point-rows, 61, 79 Steincr (1796-1863), 129, 130, 131,
Projective properties, 24 177, 179, 184
Projective theorems, 40, 104 Steiner's construction, 129, 130,
131
Quadrangle, 26, 27, 28, 29 Superposed point- rows, 47, 48, 49
Quadric conn, 69 Surfaces of the second degree, 166
Quadrilateral, 88, 95, 96 System of lines in space, 20, 23
Systems of conies, 125
Koberval (1002 1675), 168
Ruler construction, 40 Tangent line, 61, 80, 81, 87, 88,
89, 90, 91, 92
Schemer, 169 Tycho Brahe (1546-1601), 162
Self -cor responding elements, 47,
48, 49, 50, 51 Vcrner, 161
Self-dual, 105 Vertex of conic, 157, 159
Self -polar triangle, 102 Von Staudt (1798-1867), 179, 185
Separation of elements in involu-
tion, 148 Wallis (1616-1703), 162