F.Y.B.Sc.

(Autonomy): ELS1102: Semiconductor Devices

Unit-I Semiconductor Basics

Introduction to Semiconductor Materials, Intrinsic Semiconductors and
Extrinsic semiconductors, n type semiconductors, p type semiconductors with
reference to energy levels, Donors, Acceptors, concept of Fermi Level

Acknowledgements & references: [For educational purpose only]

Electronic Principles : Albert Malvino, David Bates, Tata Mc Graw Hill (7th ed.)
Web Resources- https://images.app.goo.gl/op1okzd4ZMt27KpUA,
https://images.app.goo.gl/w3zYLwf6zDF8dPKq5,
https://images.app.goo.gl/y1Xxj8xDnLv3dm65A,
https://images.app.goo.gl/k89heGYs4QWyQPpG8,
https://images.app.goo.gl/cX9sRekoHctsP6wY6,
https://images.app.goo.gl/cY3rWbiPBj47FiSz7,
https://images.app.goo.gl/3v2Udke7pFSNWYZw7

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1. Classification of materials, Introduction to Semiconductor Materials:
In electronic world, we can classify the materials boldly in three types: conductors of
electricity (metals), insulators of electricity (resistors) and semiconductors (with electrical
properties between those of a conductor and those of an insulator).

Metal like copper is a good conductor. The reason is lies in its atomic structure. The nucleus of
Cu atom has 29 protons (positive charges) and 29 electrons (negative charges) circle the nucleus
in distinct orbits (or technically shells). There are 2 electrons in the first orbit, 8 electrons in the
second, 18 in the third, and 1 in the outer orbit. As long as number of protons in the nucleus is
equal to the number of electrons orbiting around the nucleus is same, the net charge is zero and
the system is stable.

The outer the orbit of an electron, the smaller is the attraction of the nucleus. In outer orbit,
electron experiences lesser pull from the nucleus, hence, travels more slowly. The outermost
orbit is called the valence orbit and electrons in valence orbit are valence electrons. This orbit
controls the electrical properties of the atom. Since the attraction between the nucleus and the

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electron is weaker, some external energy (e.g. temperature/electric field etc) can easily dislodge
this electron from the atom. Hole is said to be created in the place of dislodged electron. Hole is
absence of electron from where it is expected to be present. Furthermore, the dislodged electron
is no longer under the influence of nucleus, it is free electron. Note that with this, the system no
longer remains stable as the net charge is not zero (but positive due to lesser no. of electrons).
In case of electrical conductors like copper, the dislodging of valence electrons from their
respective valence orbits with specific external force is easier because of their typical atomic
structures.
In case of electrical insulators like wood, this dislodging process is difficult or even impossible
because of their atomic structures.
The best conductors (silver, copper, and gold) have one valence electron (easier to dislodge),
whereas the best insulators have eight valence electrons (very difficult to dislodge).
A semiconductor is an insulator which can be made conductor under special conditions. The
best semiconductors have four valence electrons.

Germanium (Ge) is a semiconductor having four electrons in the valence orbit.

Another material is silicon (Si) which is abundant on earth.

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At room temperature, a silicon crystal acts like an insulator because it has only a few free
electrons-hole pairs produced by thermal energy.

Without it, modern electronics, communications, computers and their applications would be
impossible.

2. Intrinsic Semiconductors and Extrinsic semiconductors:

Intrinsic semiconductor is the purest form of semiconductor. A silicon crystal is

intrinsic semiconductor if every atom in the crystal is a silicon atom only. i.e. intrinsic
semiconductor has no impurity in the form of oxidation, corrosion etc. As intrinsic
semiconductor is pure, it is a stable system. Moreover, there are ideally no electron-hole
pairs generated that can help in conduction. Practically very few are generated - due to
thermal energy.
Extrinsic semiconductor is a semiconductor having some other material purposefully
added to it. The process of adding another material to basic intrinsic semiconductor is
called ‘doping’. Hence Semiconductor after the process of doping is called ‘doped
semiconductor’. Doping increases the conductivity of semiconductor.
The material or atom(s) added to the intrinsic semiconductor is referred to as the impurity
atom(s). To dope a silicon crystal, it is necessary to melt a pure silicon crystal. This
converts silicon from solid state to liquid state. To this, suitable impurity is doped. The
extrinsic semiconductor has more applications than intrinsic semiconductor.
The more the addition of impurity atoms (doping concentration), the greater will be the
conductivity. In this way, a semiconductor can be lightly doped (less doping concentration)
or heavily doped (high doping concentration); as per the requirement.
A lightly doped semiconductor, has less conductance or high resistance, and a heavily
doped semiconductor has high conductance and a low resistance. i.e. –
(doping concentration α conductance) , (doping concentration α [1/resistance] )

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There are 2 types of extrinsic semiconductor –

(1) n-type semiconductor and (2) p-type semiconductor

(1) n-type semiconductor:

To increase the number of free electrons, pentavalent atoms ( 5 electrons in valence orbit
- arsenic, antimony, phosphorus etc) are added to the molten silicon. Out of these 4
electrons form covalent bonds with 4 neighboring Si atoms with 1 electron left unpaired.
In other words, it is a free electron. Because the pentavalent atoms effectively donate the
valence electrons to this system, they are often referred to as donor impurities. This is still
a stable system. Semiconductor doped with donor impurities is called n-type
semiconductor. Each single pentavalent atom introduces one free electron in the system.
This effectively increases the overall conductivity of this system.
Since the free electrons (in 10s of millions) outnumber the few thermally generated holes
in an n-type semiconductor, the free electrons are called the majority carriers and the
holes are called the minority carriers.

(2) p-type semiconductor:

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To increase the number of free holes, trivalent atoms ( 3 electrons in valence orbit -
aluminum, boron, and gallium etc) are added to the molten silicon. All of these 3 electrons
form covalent bonds with 3 neighboring Si atoms with 1 electron of 4th Si atom left
unpaired. In other words, there is a free hole (site of absence of electron). Because the
trivalent atoms effectively donate this valence hole to this system- which can accept an
electron, they are often referred to as acceptor impurities. This is still a stable system.
Semiconductor doped with acceptor impurities is called p-type semiconductor. Each
single trivalent atom introduces one free hole in the system.
This (also) effectively increases the overall conductivity of this system.
Since the free holes (in 10s of millions) outnumber the few thermally generated electrons
in an p-type semiconductor, the free holes are called the majority carriers and the
electrons are called the minority carriers.

3. Energy Bands in Solids:

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Electrons associated with every material are revolving in their specific orbits around their
respective nucleus. Due to this, each electron is associated to specific energy. The
electrons in inner shells are tightly bound to the nucleus as compared to those in outer
shells. The outermost shell (valence shell) electrons effectively having higher associated
energies are called conduction band electrons and the set of their associated energies is
conduction band (C.B.)of that material. The inner shell electrons effectively having lesser
associated energies are called valence band electrons and the set of their associated
energies is valence band (V.B.) of that material. The energy gap between the bottom level
of C.B. and top level of V.B. is band gap of that material. The C.B., the V.B. and the
band gap define the material.

[Fermi level of a material can be considered to be hypothetical energy level of electron

of that material, such that at thermodynamic equilibrium, this energy level would have
a 50% probability of being occupied at any given time.]

Fermi level is the highest energy state occupied by electrons in a material at absolute
zero temperature.

Fermi level is a hypothetical energy level below which all the states are occupied.

Energy band diagram for a material depicts V.B., C.B. and band gap for that material.
If required, Fermi level is also shown in the diagram.

The position of the Fermi level in relation to the band energy levels is a crucial factor in
determining electrical properties of material.

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3. Fermi Level for Intrinsic & Extrinsic Semiconductors:

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Parameter N-Type P-Type

Impurity doped Pentavalent impurity Trivalent impurity
Examples of doped atoms arsenic, antimony, boron, gallium, indium,
bismuth, phosphorus aluminium
Also known as Donor Acceptor
Majority carriers Electrons Holes
Position of fermi level Closer to conduction band Closer to valence band
(CB) (VB)

4. Donors, Acceptors: [Covered previously in n-type and p-type semiconductors]

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5. Dependence of Fermi Level on Temperature and Doping Concentration, Carrier

Concentrations:

Carrier Concentrations is the no. of free charge carriers generated. It is directly

proportional to doping concentration and also to adequate external energy like
temperature, electrical energy etc.

Doping Concentration –

The more the doping concentration (i.e. more no. of trivalent or acceptor impurity
atoms in p-type and more no. of pentavalent or donor impurity atoms in n-type),
more is the shift of Fermi level towards V.B. (in p-type) and towards C.B. in n-type.

For intrinsic semiconductor as the temperature increases no. of electrons and no. of
holes increase equally. Fermi level thus remains approximately at the center of the band
gap. Hence Fermi level is independent of the temperature in intrinsic semiconductor..

For extrinsic semiconductor it is different. In n-type semiconductor, electrons come

from two sources- 1. From donor atoms- which are easily separated from parent atom and
do not vary much with temperature. 2. Intrinsically produced electrons- which increase
with increase in temperature. This shows that, as the temperature rises the material
becomes more and more intrinsic and Fermi level moves closer to intrinsic position (at
the center of the forbidden gap).

Similarly for p-type semiconductor, as the temperature rises the material becomes more
and more intrinsic and Fermi level moves closer to intrinsic position (at the center of the
forbidden gap).

Thus both n- and p-type semiconductors become more and more intrinsic – EF at
the centre of band gap- at high temperature.

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