The Islamic Concept of the Self

Qulsoom Inayat

Counselling psychology operates within a multicultural context. This requires that counselling
psychologists take steps to increase their multicultural competencies. One aspect of such competencies refers
to the knowledge base of counselling psychologists in terms of different black and ethnic minority groups.
Such an endeavour could serve to redress the underutilisation of services by black and ethnic minority
groups. This paper seeks to invite counselling psychologists to become more aware of the world view of
Muslim clients. This is important in light of the guilt felt by Muslim clients after the September 11th
bombings in America. Muslim clients are also persecuted as a result of this event and their feelings and
fears need to be validated if counselling psychologists are to empower and enable such clients in their
journeys. In an effort to clarify the world view of Muslim clients I have explored the differences between
Western and Islamic psychology. I have also described the Islamic model of the Self. This information could
facilitate therapists’ interventions so that Muslim clients can feel that their religion and spirituality are an
acceptable part of the therapy process.

PLETHORA OF FACTORS prevents highlighted some of the issues that lead to

A black and ethnic minority groups

from asking for help. These include
language barriers, myths about therapy,
black and ethnic minority group underutili-
sation of mental health services. Certainly,
the diagnosis of psychiatric disorders, if not
taboos and stigmas as well as justifiable myths carried out solely by white middle class
about mental health services that are held by psychiatrists, is based on the ethnocentric
referrers. McMillan (2005) reports that knowledge base of Western medicine. No
black and ethnic minority groups are more real attempt is made to develop any detailed
likely to experience compulsory admission, understanding of how Muslim patients’ reli-
longer length of hospital stay and are more gious beliefs influence their thinking about
likely to be prescribed drugs and ECT than health, illness and treatment. Yet there are
psychotherapy and counselling. Aitken an estimated 1.8 million Muslims living in
(1998) also reports that once people gain the UK (Muslim News, 1998).
access they may be exposed to institutional Multicultural counselling calls for the
racism and culturally insensitive or inappro- recognition of the variety of ethnic cultural
priate delivery of care. Failure by mental backgrounds’ of the clients that we meet.
health professionals to address racism and This leads to the need to account for this
normalise difference can serve to make insti- variety in our efforts to better counselling
tutional racism invisible thus allowing practice. Ethnic differences in mental health
discriminatory practices to go unchallenged utilisation are well documented (Flaherty &
(Drennan, 1999). Research highlights the Adams, 1998). Essentially, the results indicate
fact that service users often get misdiag- that individuals from ethnic minority groups
nosed due to a lack of linguistic and cultural underutilise mental health services. Individu-
understanding (Fernando, 1995). Kirmayer als who do access services average signifi-
(2003) and Greenbaum (2004) also stress cantly fewer treatment sessions than white
how language barriers can negatively affect clients, and drop out of therapy at signifi-
health outcomes, patient satisfaction, effi- cantly higher rates (Vail, 1996). Multicultural
cient use of resources and quality of care. counsellors are expected to draw on the
Black writers (Kareem & Littlewood, range of their multicultural competencies.
1992; Fernando, 1995; Robinson, 1995) have One such competency deals with the beliefs

2 Counselling Psychology Review

 The Islamic Concept of the Self

and knowledge held by counsellors regard- Several authors have contended that
ing the client’s culture of origin (Sue et al., counsellors’ personal and professional
1992). This paper addresses the paucity of values can influence a number of aspects of
information available to counselling psychol- the therapeutic process. Therefore, in order
ogists regarding Muslim clients’ world views for counsellors to offer their clients more
and the Islamic model of the Self. than simple empathy it is necessary that
appropriate theoretical models are applied
Western and Islamic psychology (Pargament, 1997). Any theory of coun-
Serious consideration has been given to selling incorporates heavily value-laden
aspects of client diversity such as origin, assumptions about people, the world and the
status, age, gender, disability, sexual orienta- process of helping. Such values consistently
tion and religion (British Association of affect the counsellor’s choice of therapeutic
Counselling, 1998). Such research has techniques.
stressed the need for a more diverse group of Western models of counselling rely on
counsellors to meet the needs of diverse the psychological principles, which under-
groups of clients (Wheeler, 2000). However, pin their discipline. These principles need to
the impact of counsellor diversity upon be consciously appreciated so that their
counsellors perception of competence has influence can guide counsellors in their
been far less evident in the literature efforts to enhance the treatment of Muslim
(Patel, 1988). clients. It is also important for counsellors to
Conflict may occur in counselling when begin to appreciate the fact that the princi-
clients and counsellors differ in their reli- ples that underscore Islamic psychology are
gious beliefs. This may lead to counsellors at variance with those that inform Western
viewing the inclusion of spiritual/religious psychology (Frager, 1999). In the next
material in counselling as less important section I will explore some of these differ-
than their clients (Bergin & Jensen, 1990). It ences between the two psychological
is also, interesting to note that Muslim reli- approaches.
gious clients often fear that their values will
be undermined by secular counselling Comparison between Western and
(Jafari, 1993). More recently, Inayat (2002) Islamic psychology
reported the journey of five Muslims as they Western psychology assumes that the
struggled to come to terms with what it Universe is a material entity without mean-
means to be a Muslim in the aftermath of the ing or purpose. The human being is consid-
twin towers episode. She suggests that it is ered to be composed of a physical body and
important to note the guilt that these a mind developed from the physical nervous
Muslims feel as well as their desire to exam- system. Human nature is described in terms
ine other injustices that have been commit- of human limitation and neurotic tenden-
ted in the name of Islam. The author argues cies (self psychology) or an innate goodness
that the devastation of the twin towers in and an essentially positive view of human
America highlights the need to recognise nature (humanistic psychology). In terms of
clients who may benefit from counselling the Self, self-esteem and a strong sense of
within a religious/spiritual framework. ego identity are deemed to be vital for
Since, such clients face their own guilt of psychological health. Loss of identity is symp-
association with the perpetuators of this tomatic of psychopathology.
atrocity. As well as dealing with the anger of Psychological avenues of understanding
those around them. Furthermore, such the human psyche have evolved to deal with
clients may be engaged in a difficult process different aspects of the human entity. Ego
of renegotiating their identity as members of psychology deals with the principles of pain
the Muslim community. and pleasure as the motivation for existence.

Counselling Psychology Review 3

Qulsoom Inayat

Behavioural psychology focuses on condi- dimensions, the internal (imaan) and exter-
tioned reflexes. Cognitive psychology deals nal forms of worship (ibadah).
with mental functions. Humanistic psychol- Five basic duties or pillars constitute the
ogy highlights the drive towards fulfilling external form of the worship (ibadah).
human potential. Transpersonal psychology These include:
explores ego-transcending consciousness. 1. Shahadah (a deep understanding and
Each branch of psychology illuminates an verbal acceptance of oneness of Allah
aspect of the human condition. However, and prophet Muhammed (Peace be
Islamic psychology seeks to approach human Upon Him, PBUH) as the final
existence and its meaning in a more holistic messenger);
fashion. 2. Salah (five compulsory daily prayers);
Islamic psychology contends that the 3. Zakah (giving charity to the poor);
Universe was created in accordance with the 4. Fasting (abstaining from eating and
will of God (Allah), and is permeated with drinking during the month of
His presence. Islamic psychology considers Ramadan); and
the spiritual heart (qalb) to be the most 5. Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca, if means
important component of the human psyche. provide).
This heart is the location of inner intuition, The internal form of worship is referred to
understanding and wisdom. All human as ‘imaan’ and has seven facets, which
beings are deemed to be located between includes belief in:
angels and animals. We share both natures 1. Oneness of God (Allah);
and have the potential to rise higher than 2. Allah’s Angels;
the angels or sink lower than animals. 3. Allah’s Books;
Human personality is described as a 4. Allah’s Messengers;
mixture of traits and tendencies that evolve 5. The Day of Judgement (the hour of
over time and are related to different stages reckoning);
of evolution. Islamic psychology contends 6. Destiny or fate (al-Qadr); and
that a sense of separate identity places a veil 7. Life after death.
between Allah and human beings. This veil
prevents us from actualising our true and The Islamic model of the Self
pure nature. Islamic psychology posits that Muslims generally hold that faith protects
abstract logic is the domain of the ‘lower against ill health as well as helping to
intellect’. The ‘higher intellect’ enables us to manage health problems when they do
understand the true meaning of life. occur. The fact that Islam plays a major part
In Islamic psychology the written word is in shaping the Muslim’s understanding,
considered to be limited. The highest states experience and expression in mental distress
of spiritual development are experiential is well-documented (Ansari, 1992; Hussain,
and are beyond description. The purpose of 1999; Badri, 2000). Amongst Muslims, there
life is to evolve in all aspects of our being and is a strong tendency to conceptualise illness
in doing so to come closer to Allah. From as occurring according to the will of God
this viewpoint faith requires a belief in the (Allah), who is understood to be a higher
truth behind the varied appearances of the power that cannot be perceived by the
material world. (See Table 1 for a compari- senses.
son of Traditional and Islamic psychology) The four central concepts in the delin-
eation of personality in Islam are spiritual
The Muslim world view heart (qalb), ego (nafs), soul (ruh) and
Islamic beliefs have a central role in the lives divine potential (fitra). See Figure 1.
of many Muslims. Sarwar (1998) describes
the belief system or articles of faith in two

4 Counselling Psychology Review

 The Islamic Concept of the Self

Table 1: A comparison of Traditional and Islamic psychology.

Traditional psychology Islamic psychology

The Universe is a material entity without The Universe was created in accordance with
meaning or purpose. Allah’s will and is permeated with His presence.

The human being is composed of a physical The spiritual heart is the most important
body and mind developed from the physical element of the human being. This heart is the
nervous system. location of inner intuition, understanding and
wisdom.

Descriptions of human nature focus on human All humans are located between the angels and
limitations and neurotic tendencies (self animals. We share both natures and have the
psychology), or on innate goodness and an potential to rise higher than the angels or sink
essentially positive nature (humanistic lower than animals.
psychology).

Self-esteem and a strong sense of ego identity A sense of separate identity is a veil between
are important and loss of identity is Allah and human beings that prevents us from
pathological. knowing our divine nature.

Personality is a unified structure. The human being is composed of a set of traits

and tendencies, which are related to different
stages of spiritual evolution.

Logical reasoning is the highest human skill. Abstract logic is the ‘lower intellect’

Logical reasoning leads to knowledge and The ‘higher intellect’ enables us to understand
wisdom. the true meaning of life.

Almost all significant knowledge can be The written word is limited and that the
transmitted using logically organised rational highest states of spiritual development are
prose. beyond rational description.

Faith means believing in things that are nor Faith means belief in the truth behind the
real or ideas that have no solid evidence. varied appearances of material creation.

Counselling Psychology Review 5

Qulsoom Inayat

Figure 1: Islamic Model of Personality.

♥
Self/Nafs

Qalb

Fitra

Ruh

The concept of the soul (ruh) made them testify concerning themselves, (saying):
The soul (ruh) is directly connected with the ‘Am I not your Lord (who cherishes and sustains
Divine, even if one is unconscious of that you)?’– They said: ‘Yea! We do testify!’ (This), lest
connection. The soul has several levels or ye should say on the Day of Judgment: ‘Of this we
facets of the complete soul. These levels are: were never mindful’:
mineral, vegetable, animal, personal, Even before we are born our souls met with
human, secret and secret of secret souls. Allah. Thus every human being has already
Each level represents a different stage of experienced the Divine.
evolution and the process that it goes The fitrah incorporates both physical
through in its growth. The soul is holistic, and spiritual tendencies, which seek gratifi-
and extends to all aspects of the person i.e. cation and actualisation within each life
body, mind and spirit. Each level of the soul transaction. Such gratification results in
has valuable gifts and strengths. Each level is wholeness in man’s spiritual and physical
also imbued with weaknesses that need to be constitution. The spiritual inclination is
overcome to proceed to the next stage of dictated by an innate state of purity. The
development. The goal is to develop the physical inclination is actualised by adher-
strengths and achieve a balance between ence to the Shariah (Islamic code of
these levels. conduct).
According to Islam, man is born in a state
The concept of the fitra of natural purity. Unlike other forms of
Fitra refers to the primordial state of man – creation human beings have the ability and
his natural condition and disposition. An the choice to leave this natural state of pure
optimistic view of human nature is rooted in being. In order to actualise fitrah man is
this concept. Islam posits that the natural required to gain control over his negative
state of man is positive, good and incorrupt- tendencies. Human personality, therefore, is
ible. This idea is related to the idea that all dependent on the psychological or psychical
souls made a pledge to Allah before earthly implications of fitrah that occur within the
existence, acknowledging him as their Lord Self. Since emotions and desires form an
(Quran 7:172, Ali, 1975). integral part of man, the psychological impli-
When thy Lord drew forth from the Children of cations are directly related to his emotional
Adam – from their loins – their descendants, and states.

6 Counselling Psychology Review

 The Islamic Concept of the Self

Both emotional and psychological emotions, desires and the need for gratifica-
dimensions have positive and negative tion. Islamic psychology identifies a process
tendencies. If man’s emotions are controlled of growth and development of the nafs. Each
and directed towards higher spiritual ends, level of development is associated with
then his psychical nature is disciplined. The specific traits and disorders as well as meth-
biological nature of man serves as an instru- ods for transformation and healing.
ment for the drives of the psyche. The lower
Self – comprised of animalistic desires, Self development
passions, etc. – needs to be transformed into Imbalance is viewed as stuckness at different
a spiritually higher state so that the self can levels of the nafs or ruh. The goal of life is to
be liberated from the bondage to the lower cleanse the heart, to educate, or transform,
Self. Thus the trend towards the gratification the Self, and to find Allah. The lowest level
of the biological and emotional needs of of the self is dominated by pride, egotism,
man become subsumed under the desire to and totally self-centered greed and lust. This
serve Allah in every life transaction includ- level is the part within each person that leads
ing the gratification of natural desires. away from Truth. The highest level is the
pure self, and at this level there is no duality,
The concept of qalb no separation from God.
In Islamic psychology the heart refers to the The Self is actually a living process rather
spiritual heart or qalb. This contains the than a static structure in the psyche. It refers
deeper intelligence and wisdom. It is a place to a process that comes about from the inter-
of gnosis and deep spiritual wisdom. The goal action of body and soul. When the soul
is to develop a heart that is sincere, loving becomes embodied, it forgets its original
and compassionate. Also, to develop the nature and becomes enmeshed in material
heart’s intelligence. This intelligence of the creation. This creates the Self. Islamic schol-
heart is deeper and more grounded than ars typically highlight three states of the Self
rational, abstract intelligence. It is said that in the Quran as; nafs ammarah; nafs
when the ‘eyes of the heart’ open one can see lawwamah and nafs mutma’inna.
beyond the surface appearance of existence.
When the ‘ears of the heart’ are opened one Nafs Ammarra (the commanding or lower
can hear the reality of the truth behind Self) – Quran (12:53, Ali, 1975)
words. The spiritual heart functions in a simi- ‘Nor do I absolve my own self (of blame): the
lar way to the physical heart. Just as the phys- (human) soul is certainly prone to evil, unless my
ical heart supplies blood to the body, the Lord do bestow His Mercy: but surely my Lord is
spiritual heart nourishes the soul with Oft-forgiving, Most Merciful.’
wisdom and spiritual light. It also purifies the This self is prone to the lower aspects of the
gross personality traits. When the physical Self, representing the negative drives in
heart is diseased the body suffers. When the man. It can be viewed as analogous to the
spiritual heart is diseased the soul suffers. Freudian concept of the ‘id’, e.g. ‘I want it
According to Islamic psychology emotions now’. In normal circumstances, nafs ammara
arise from the ego (nafs) not from the heart. lies in a dormant state. It is awakened only
when it is provoked. The teaching Islam
The concept of the nafs gives in order to nullify such provocation is
The nafs is the aspect of the psyche that can one of avoidance.
be viewed along a continuum. It has the
potential of functioning from the grossest to Nafs Lawwamma (The self-reproaching
the highest level. The nafs at the lowest level Self) – Quran (75:2, Ali, 1975)
refers to our negative traits and tendencies. ‘And I do call to witness the self-reproaching spirit:
For most of us the nafs is controlled by (Eschew Evil).’

Counselling Psychology Review 7

Qulsoom Inayat

This state corresponds to the Self when it development is considered to take place in
becomes aware of wrong-doing and feels the spiritual heart (qalb) (Sheikh & Gatrad,
remorse. The self-reproaching soul succumbs 2000). In this sense, a ‘well’ or ‘true’ or
to wrongdoing but then regrets its actions ‘clean’ or ‘guided’ heart that is calm and so
and reproaches itself for being weak and is within the sanctions of Islamic teachings is
vulnerable. These feelings of remorse cause it equated with a stable or sound state of
to turn back to Allah, to repent sincerely, and mental health. Here the perception is one of
to receive spiritual solace. It is better for each the connections between ‘psyche’ and
nafs to blame itself whenever it commits a ‘soma’, the multiple ways in which physical
wrong. Allah has created two courts of justice. and psychological problems interact. There-
Nafs Lawwamma is an inner court of justice fore, the distressed person primarily notices
within each person. When a person trans- and reports somatic symptoms. Mental
gresses his/her boundaries the conscience is unrest is thought to be the manifestations of
there to reprimand. It is then up to each indi- an incongruent heart – an unstable soul –
vidual to heed or ignore the voice of that is lost and so has become distant from its
conscience. However, Allah has also prepared ‘creator’, Allah. A ‘rusted’ or ‘hard’ heart is
an outer court of justice, which will convene a symptom of chronic ill feelings and ulti-
on the Day of Judgement. Here only Truth mately God’s displeasure. This state is
will prevail and Allah will reward or punish described mainly as an aching heart, a trem-
His servants according to His Decree. bling heart and pressure in the heart.
While the head is the vital and animating
Nafs Mutma’inna (The peaceful Self) – principle, the heart/soul is the locus of
Quran (89:27-28, Ali, 1975) thought, feeling, awareness and memory.
(To the righteous soul will be said:) ‘O (thou) soul, One ‘thinks’, ‘becomes aware’ or ‘recalls’ in
in (complete) rest and satisfaction! the heart (Quran 63:3; 7:179, Ali, 1975).
‘Come back thou to thy Lord, well pleased (thyself), Thus, ‘illness’ is the illness of the heart or
and well-pleasing unto Him!’ body. This mode of articulation is not to say
This state is the state of inner peace and that thinking in the heart is emotional illit-
happiness, when you feel satisfied and eracy (an inability to understand and
content with yourself. In order to achieve communicate emotions adequately), but
this state it is necessary to activate the that it is thinking that is metaphoric and
remorseful self and control the lower closely connected to feelings. This feature of
commanding self. The satisfied soul believes expression is rooted in the Quran (2:10, Ali,
that all happiness and sorrow is by the 1975): ‘In their hearts is a disease’.
decree of Allah. It, therefore, feels no need As mental distress in the practising
to lament at misfortunes or to boast at Muslim community is generally expressed as
success. moral transgression or the result of Divine
Will, religious interventions or methods are
Conclusion frequently resorted to for healing. Fasting
In Islamic psychology four essential elements (sawm), repentance (taubah) and regular
of the human psyche soul (ruh), ego (nafs), recitation (zikr) of the Quran are common
spiritual heart (qalb) and divine potential features of the treatment and healing
(fitra) are considered to reside in the region process. Thus, the belief in the treatment is
of the physical heart. It is, therefore, not closely tied with the belief about illness.
surprising that the physical heart is indicated Underlying this belief is the idea of regain-
as being the seat of emotional pain by ing connection and intimacy with Allah and
Muslim clients. Somatic symptoms hold a in the process enabling one to gain a cogni-
significant place in the Muslim cultural tive grasp of their situation. This is expected
system since psychological and spiritual to reduce motivation for sin and relief from

8 Counselling Psychology Review

 The Islamic Concept of the Self

distress, which leads to better health. This (Littlewood, 1992), therapist-patient differ-
understanding is reinforced in the following ences (Bimrose & Bayne, 1995), patient-ther-
verses of the Quran (13:28, Ali, 1975): ‘Surely apist alliance (Kareem, 1992) and
in the remembrance of Allah do hearts find rest’. pigeonholing and stereotyping of clients
Research into black and ethnic minority (Bhugra & Bhui, 1998),
health and mental health has been critiqued Even less is known about how therapists
for a number of methodological weaknesses interpret the subjective distress that they
(Sashidharan & Francis, 1993). Although, a encounter in their clients. Counselling
number of researchers (Redfern & Dryden, psychology is emerging to represent a peda-
1993; Netto et al., 2001; Shafi, 1998), have gogic shift in the therapeutic encounter. The
suggested that empathy and a positive thera- time is right to empower therapists and
peutic alliance are the most important clients to build a bridge of open communi-
factors in effective counselling. It is clear cation so that commonalties can be shared
that very little is known about how black and and differences can be celebrated.
ethnic minority patients present their subjec-
tive distress. In terms of the small number of Correspondence
ethnic minority clients who seek therapy Dr Qulsoom Inayat
there appears to be a significant body of 6, Arlington Road, Woodford Green,
evidence suggesting that such clients are Essex IG8 9DE.
disenchanted with the inability of coun- Tel: 020 8498 9780
selling and psychotherapy to address such E-mail: [email protected]
fundamental issues as illness presentation

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Correction
Counselling Psychology Review – May 2005
Trainee Counselling Psychologist Prize
An interpretative phenomenological analysis of maternal identify following child
suicide: Abridged
Olivia Thrift, University of Surrey.

Please note that future citation of this paper should reference Olivia Thrift as
sole author. Adrian Coyle was the supervisor of above paper should not be cited as a
co-author.

10 Counselling Psychology Review