Tectonophysics 627 (2014) 38–47

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Tectonophysics
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Crustal structure and tectonic evolution of Enderby Land, East Antarctica,

as revealed by deep seismic surveys
Masaki Kanao a,⁎, Vladimir D. Suvorov b, Mikiya Yamashita c, Boris Mishenkin b
a
National Institute of Polar Research, Research Organization of Information and Systems, 10-3 Midori-cho, Tachikawa-shi, Tokyo 190-8518, Japan
b
Trofimuk Institute of Petroleum Geology and Geophysics of Siberian Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, Koptyg Ave. 3, Novosibirsk 630090, Russia
c
Institute for Research on Earth Evolution, Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology, 3175-25 Showa-machi, Kanazawa-ku, Yokohama 236-0001, Japan

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Subsurface crustal structures of the metamorphic terrains in Enderby Land, East Antarctica, were obtained on the
Received 5 August 2013 basis of data from deep seismic surveys along with connecting reliable tectonic models. The lithospheric structure
Received in revised form 20 January 2014 of the early-Paleozoic Lützow-Holm Complex (LHC) at the western side of Enderby Land was delineated by
Accepted 7 April 2014
inland dipping velocity models and lower crustal reflectivity by the Japanese Antarctic Research Expedition.
Available online 18 April 2014
The seismic profiles across the Prince Charles Mountains (PCM) and Princess Elizabeth Land (PEL) by the Soviet
Keywords:
Antarctic Expedition demonstrated the graben structure beneath the Amery Ice Shelf. The Lambert graben and
Deep seismic surveys the underlying rift structure in the central part of the profile appeared to be associated with the Cretaceous
Crustal structure breakup. Tectonic evolution of the wider area in Enderby Land is discussed by combining the coastal structure
Tectonic evolution with that toward the inland plateau of the Gambursev Subglacial Mountains (GSM), with geological aspects
East Antarctica concerning the amalgamation and separation of the Gondwana supercontinent.
Enderby Land © 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Gondwana supercontinent

1. Introduction Kadmina et al., 1983). After the 1990's, many near-vertical reflection
surveys conducted to detect shallow crustal structures have been
Deep seismic surveys of continental crust have been conducted in undertaken in West Antarctica and the Antarctic Peninsula (Jokat
many geological terrains of the Earth in these last few decades. From et al., 1997; King and Bell, 1997; Sroda et al., 1997; Vedova et al.,
the 1990's particularly, several refraction and reflection deep seismic 1997). Therefore except for the seismic surveys by Russian and
surveys (DSS) in Precambrian terrains have demonstrated the details Japanese Antarctic programs as demonstrated in this paper, onshore
of continental growth processes (Brown et al., 1996; Clowes et al., seismic surveys over the East Antarctic continent (inside the
1999; Goleby et al., 1998). In contrast, neither of the polar regions Pre-Cambrian terrains) have been lacking in the last two decades.
have yet been extensively investigated by modern high-resolution Accumulating knowledge of the crustal architecture with relevant
imaging. In recent years, however, several interesting features, such as tectonics in Antarctica could give us a firm insight into the amalgamation
the delaminated lower crust and its subduction regimes into the upper and separation history of the Rodinia and Gondwana supercontinents.
mantle lithosphere, have been found in the Archean and Proterozoic During the International Polar Year in 2007–2008 (IPY2007–2008),
terrains of the Canadian Shield (Cook et al., 1999; Gabriela et al., 2005; the Gаmburtsev Mountain SEISmic experiment (GAMSEIS) deployed
Lynn et al., 2005). Although there have been several crustal studies many broadband seismic stations over the large highland on the ice
using broadband seismographs at permanent coastal stations in the sheet from the crest of the Gаmburtsev Subglacial Mountains (GSM)
Antarctic (Kanao, 1997; Reading, 2004), deep seismic surveys on to the vicinity of Dome-F, the Japanese inland station. S-wave receiver
the thick ice sheet over the Antarctic continent have scarcely been functions and Rayleigh phase velocities determined by using the data
conducted and the structure of the interior continent remains a indicate that the cratonic crust surrounding the GSM is 40–47 km in
significant frontier. thickness. This thickness agrees with that beneath Dome-F derived
The crustal structure of the whole Antarctic continent has been from gravity surveys held by the Japanese Antarctic Research
investigated by deep surveys conducted in the 1970's (Bentley, 1983; Expedition, and is also consistent with average Pre-Cambrian terrains
(Kanao et al., 2012). Beneath the GSM, the crustal thickness increases
up to 55–58 km and has been interpreted as providing isostatic
⁎ Corresponding author.
compensation for the high mountain elevations.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (M. Kanao), [email protected]
(V.D. Suvorov), [email protected] (M. Yamashita), [email protected] In this paper, we review the crustal structure of the wider area of
(B. Mishenkin). Enderby Land, East Antarctica, by comparing the results of Russian and

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2014.04.014
0040-1951/© 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
 M. Kanao et al. / Tectonophysics 627 (2014) 38–47 39

Japanese seismic surveys, as well as the more recently deployed The late Proterozoic structures are interpreted as resulting from the
broadband networks in the inland plateau of East Antarctica. The initial uplift and exhumation of the Archaean Napier Complex, where
tectonic evolution of Enderby Land is interpreted by combining the the oldest metamorphic rocks (of original ages of 4000 Ma) were
structure from the coasts to the inland plateau by taking into account found in the broadening Archaean blocks (Black et al., 1987; Ellis,
the geological aspects for amalgamation and separation of the 1987). Additionally, Enderby Land is known to have higher seismic
supercontinents. velocities than other adjacent regions, with its center around the Napier
Complex, as determined by surface wave tomographic studies
2. Geological background (Ritzwoller et al., 2001; Roult et al., 1994). Moreover, the depth of the
lithospheric root beneath the Napier complex obtained from seismic
The geological features of Enderby Land have been attributed to sev- body wave tomography is found to be about 250 km (Polet and
eral crustal terrains associated with the evolution of Gondwana (Fig. 1). Anderson, 1995).
As viewed from Western Enderby Land and the adjacent Eastern The LHC experienced a regional metamorphism in the early Paleozoic
Dronning Maud Land, there are several distinct geological units; these (Shiraishi et al., 1992, 1994). Metamorphic grade increases progressively
are, from the east to the west, the Napier Complex (Archaean), the from the Prince Olav Coast (amphibolite facies; eastern part of the LHC)
Rayner Complex (late-Proterozoic), the Lützow-Holm Complex (LHC) to the Soya Coast (granulite facies; western part of the LHC) and the max-
(early-Paleozoic) and the Yamato–Belgica Complex (early-Paleozoic). imum thermal axis lies at southern Lützow-Holm Bay in a NNW-SSE

Fig. 1. Gondwana reconstruction at 480 Ma, centered on East Antarctica (modified after Lawver et al., in press), showing the geologic ages of major exposed coastal outcrops (Fitzsimons,
2003). The areas corresponding “Undifferentiated Precambrian” terrains belonging to each continental blocks of Gondwanaland (Australia, Africa, South America and Antarctica) are
distinguished by different colors (yellow dot, green dot, brown dot, and light blue dot), respectively. Abbreviations are as follows: SR – Shackleton Range; SPCM – Southern Prince Charles
Mountains; LT – Lambert Terrane; EG – Eastern Ghats; PB – Prydz Bay; DG – Denman Glacier; OH – Obruchev Hills; P.Or – Pinjarra Orogeny; TA.Cr – Terre Adélie Craton; G.Cr – Gawler
Craton; MR – Miller Range; GSM – Gamburtsev Subglacial Mountains; Lützow-Holm Bay (LHB). The Russian seismic survey in 1973 was conducted from the Prince Charles Mountains
(PCM) to the western edge of the Princess Elizabeth Land (PEL), in order to cross over the Amery Ice shelves in PB (blue solid line). Whereas the Japanese seismic profiles in 2000 and
2002 (two blue solid lines) were situated on the Lützow-Holm Complex (LHC), in the western part of the Enderby Land.
40 M. Kanao et al. / Tectonophysics 627 (2014) 38–47

direction (Hiroi et al., 1991; Motoyoshi et al., 1989). The transitional zone the compressional tectonic setting in the Proterozoic mobile belt
between amphibolite facies and granulite facies is located in the central (Young and Ellis, 1991). Depletions of heavy rare earth elements in
part of the LHC, which was defined as the first appearance of the low-Ti charnockites suggest that garnet was a residual phase in par-
orthopyroxene in ordinary basic to intermediate gneisses through tial melting, which requires high pressures and an over-thickened crust.
various reactions. The LHC was deformed under compressional stress The huge graben structure of the Amery Ice Shelf is considered to have
perpendicular to the thermal axis (almost parallel to the coast) during been formed during the Cretaceous breakup (Boger and Wilson,
metamorphism in the Pan-African region. Deep seismic surveys were 2003). In contrast, the western edge of Princess Elizabeth Land (PEL)
carried out on the continental ice-sheet of the LHC a total of three has been dated as one of the Pan-African mobile belt (Fitzsimons,
times in the 1978–80, 2000 and 2002 austral summers (Fig. 2). The latter 2000). In 1973, the Soviet Antarctic Expedition conducted deep seismic
two surveys were carried out as a program of the “Structure and Evolution surveys, from the PCM to PEL, which perfectly crossed the Amery Ice
of the East Antarctic Lithosphere” (SEAL) by the Japanese Antarctic Shelf from the outlet of Lambert Glacier. Crustal velocity models, Pn
expeditions (Kanao et al., 2004), the first survey was carried out before velocities and the crustal thickness for all the profiles were effectively
the SEAL program (Ikami and Ito, 1986; Ikami et al., 1984; Ito and Ikami, determined by the experiments (Kolmakov et al., 1975; Kurinin and
1984). Following these expeditions, crustal velocity models and simple Grikurov, 1982; Masolov et al., 1981).
reflection sections were obtained for the LHC.
In the area eastward of the Rayner complex, there exist the Prince 3. SEAL-DSS in LHC
Charles Mountains (PCM), in the Lambert Terrane, which is the most
easterly wedge of Enderby Land (Fig. 1). The Lambert Terrane experi- The geoscience project named “SEAL” was carried out for the austral
enced late-Proterozoic metamorphism to generate the granulite facies summer seasons of 1996–1997 in Western Enderby Land. The main
rocks at the upper part of the crust (Sheraton et al., 1987; Tingey, target of the seismic transect in SEAL was to obtain crustal reflection
1982). The intrusion of charnockites around the PCM is evidence of imaging and velocity structures in the different geological terrains in

Fig. 2. (left) Map showing the location of seismic survey in LHB (Kanao et al., 2011). Solid and open stars indicate the shot locations in SEAL-2002 and –2000, respectively. Large and small
circles represent the geophone stations on ice sheet for both the survey operations. The size of each shot given is weight of dynamite used. (right) Crustal structural model of the LHC by
seismic survey for SEAL-2000 profile (a), and SEAL-2002 (b) modified after wide-angle reflection and refraction analyses (Miyamachi et al., 2003; Yoshii et al., 2004). Numerals labeled in
the crust and upper mantle were P-wave velocities.
 M. Kanao et al. / Tectonophysics 627 (2014) 38–47 41

this area by deep refraction/reflection probing on the continental ice SEAL-2002 profile was located perpendicular to that of SEAL-2000 in
sheet (Kanao et al., 2004). Harley and Hensen (1990) presented a order to achieve an image of the difference in subsurface structure
NEE-SWW cross section on the basis of geological interpretation between granulite and amphibolite metamorphic facies zones
throughout Western Enderby Land. Moreover, from other geophysical appearing in the outcrops from the Sôya Coast to the Prince Olav
data, such as magnetic anomalies (Golynsky et al., 1996), we can iden- Coast. During the survey, we carried out ground-based measurements
tify the approximate boundary between two adjacent crustal terrains. of the gravity, radio echo soundings for bedrock topography, together
As for the LHC, the magnetic anomalies vary according to the metamor- with GPS positioning of the recording stations. The obtained velocities
phic grade of the surface geology, from amphibolite facies (Prince Olav in the topmost crust vary from 5.9 km/s in the NE part of the profile,
Coast) to an amphibolite–granulite transitional zone (central coastal to nearly 6.2 km/s in the SE part (Miyamachi et al., 2003; Fig. 2).
area), and to a relatively high-grade granulite facies zone (Sôya Coast; These variations correlate well with the metamorphic grade of surface
Fig. 2). By conducting DSS, we could obtain a deep image of the subsur- geology from amphibolite facies (middle grade) in the NE to the granulite
face structure and modify the cross section based on the surface facies (high grade) in the SW part of the profile.
geology. Miyamachi et al. (2003) pointed out the seismic velocity discontinuity
In the austral summer of 2000, the first seismic survey by SEAL lying around 20 km depth by refraction and wide-angle studies. The
(SEAL-2000) was carried out on the continental ice sheet of the Mizuho discontinuity appeared to correspond with a boundary between the
Plateau in the central part of the LHC (Tsutsui et al., 2001a). A total of upper crust and the middle crust. However, they could not identify
3300 kg of dynamite charges at seven shot points along the inland tra- strong reflections from the boundary between the middle and the
verse routes generated enough seismic energy to obtain information lower crust. The velocities in the middle and the lower part of the
concerning the velocity models and reflectivity beneath the continental crust were assumed to be about the same as obtained by the SEAL-2000
margin of the LHC. The recording stations were installed at 1 km inter- results, since the exact Pn waves could also not be detected in the
vals along a total profile of 190 km in length. The profile along the tra- SEAL-2002 surveys. However, we can follow the velocities in the deeper
verse routes by SEAL-2000 was the same as in previous experiments part of the crust from the crossing point between the two profiles of
in 1987–1980 (Ikami et al., 1984; Ito and Ikami, 1984); however, the SEAL-2000 and SEAL-2002 (Fig. 2). The Moho depth was also
spacing of recording stations was ten times as sparse in the previous determined by tracing the SEAL-2000 results to be approximately
surveys (about 10 km interval). Therefore, more detailed results could 40 km, which continues almost horizontally flat along the profile of
be achieved by SEAL-2000 than by the previous experiments. SEAL-2002. Thus, the crustal thickness seems not to change drastically
The seismic velocities in the crust and uppermost mantle obtained in a transect parallel with the coast in the northern part of the Mizuho
by SEAL-2000 were determined by using first-arrival phases, the later Plateau.
observable wide-angle reflected phases such as PmP as well as the Seismic reflection studies have also been carried out to identify the
refracted waves within the crust and the Moho discontinuity. The crustal reflectivity beneath the Mizuho Plateau. Seismic reflections in
velocities in the uppermost crust along the profile in SEAL-2000 were the LHC were first studied by Normal Move-Out analyses of the data
determined to be 6.2 km/s on average (Tsutsui et al., 2001a; Fig. 2). of previous surveys (Ito and Kanao, 1996). After that, more detailed im-
Those velocities were 0.2 km/s higher than previous surveys, which ages of reflections were obtained from the SEAL surveys (Tsutsui et al.,
were conducted on the same route in 1978–1980 (Ito and Ikami, 2001b; Yamashita et al., 2006). In both the SEAL-2000 and SEAL-2002
1984). One reason for the discrepancy in topmost crustal velocities surveys, we can identify clear PmP phases for all shot records. The
may be the accuracy of estimated velocities within the ice-sheet and reflective cross sections were investigated by customary reflection
bedrock elevation by radio echo sounding during the survey in 2000. approaches. Dipping Moho reflections were identified along the Mizuho
In previous deep surveys, we could not utilize the accurate bedrock routes by SEAL-2000 (Tsutsui et al., 2001b). These deepening reflections
elevation, as was used in the SEAL-2000 survey. A second reason for toward the inland area were fairly well correlated with the seismic
the discrepancy between the topmost crustal velocities is the advantage velocity models and gravity analyses as described above, and were
of increased spacing of the recording stations in SEAL-2000, which expected in the typical passive continental margins affected by regional
achieved an improvement of the horizontal resolution in travel time tectonic stresses. On the other hand, flat lying reflections around the
analyses. Moho and lower crustal depths were identified by the SEAL-2002
The velocities in the lower crust and uppermost mantle cannot be survey (Yamashita et al., 2006).
determined exactly only by using SEAL-2000 data due to the insufficient More precise reflection images of the deeper structure in the LHC
number of Pn waves in the sections recorded at a far distance. By consid- were also obtained by using the same dataset of the SEAL-2000 and
ering the travel times from previous surveys in 1978–1980 (Ikami and SEAL-2002 profiles (Kanao et al., 2011). Detailed processing of the sur-
Ito, 1986; Ikami et al., 1984), seismic velocities in the deeper crust vey data has produced enhanced reflection images of the crust–mantle
take values of 6.7–6.9 km/s, and the Pn velocities were approximately boundary and of the internal crustal structure. Laminated layering
8.1 km/s (Yoshii et al., 2004). The Moho depth was determined to be around the crust–mantle boundary was imaged by using coherency en-
40 km on average and to slightly decline from the coast to the inland hancement processing after Normal Move Out corrections were applied
area with a deepening of about a few kilometers along the Mizuho tra- to far-offset data. The repetitive crust–mantle transition zone inferred
verse routes (Fig. 2). An inclination of the Moho along the SEAL-2000 by the SEAL-2002 profile suggests the presence of compressive stress
profile agrees well with the density models by ground-based gravity in a NE-SW orientation during the Pan-African orogenesis, which
surveys along the same Mizuho routes (Kanao et al., 1994; Toda et al., occurred at the last stage of formation of a mobile belt between East
2003). A difference in the Bouguer gravity anomalies between the and West Gondwana (Fitzsimons, 2000, 2003). Successive breakup of
point closest to the coast and the inland terminal point (near the the supercontinent in the mid-Mesozoic could account for the formation
Mizuho station) was determined to be approximately 50 mgal; thus, of the stretched reflection structure above the Moho as imaged in the
the difference in crustal thickness between the two points was calculated SEAL-2000 profile.
to be about a few kilometers by assuming the obtained velocity–density
model derived from previous and SEAL-2000 experiments. For the second 4. USSR-DSS in PCM–PEL
experiment in the SEAL program, SEAL-2002, a deep survey was carried
out almost parallel with the coastal lines (NE-SW) on the northern In the area eastward of the Rayner Complex, in the most eastern
Mizuho Plateau of the LHC during the 2002 austral summer (Miyamachi wedge of Enderby Land, are the PCM. From the PCM to PEL, the Soviet
et al., 2003). A total amount of 5000 kg of dynamite charges with Antarctic Expedition conducted a deep survey in 1973, which perfectly
seven big explosions was utilized in a profile of 160 km in length. The crossed the Amery Ice Shelf at the outlet of the Lambert Glacier
42 M. Kanao et al. / Tectonophysics 627 (2014) 38–47

Fig. 3. (upper) Extended map showing the target region by seismic studies around Amery Ice shelf in Prydz Bay (PB), from the Prince Charles Mountains (PCM) to the western edge of the
Princess Elizabeth Land (PEL). Shot points and recording stations are indicated by open triangles and by open circles, respectively. The bold line is the 1973 DSS profile (Kolmakov et al.,
1975). (lower) A cross section of the crust beneath PCM–PEL profile. Number over boundaries are average velocity in covered media (km/s), number under boundaries are velocity at that
boundaries. Circles are the depth from reflected waves (solid near critical, open – overcritical), rectangle the same from refracted waves in addition are shown velocities on interval
denoted arrows (Kolmakov et al., 1975; Masolov et al., 1981).

(Kolmakov et al., 1975; Kurinin and Grikurov, 1982; Masolov et al., The crustal structure beneath the PCM indicates deep Moho depths
1981). The Lambert Glacier is known as the biggest in the Antarctic; of around 28–30 km with Pn velocities of 7.7–7.9 km/s. The average
thus, the subsurface structure around the region is expected to be very velocity in the crust was obtained to be 6.1–6.2 km/s. Moreover, a
unique when compared to the surrounding Precambrian Shield in East velocity discontinuity was identified at upper crustal depths (0–3 km)
Antarctica. A total of five big explosives (1000–2500 kg of dynamite) with velocities of 5.7–5.9 km/s. Finally, a slightly deepened signature
generated enough energy to detect the PmP, Pg, and Pn waves at the of the Moho toward the PCM, about a few kilometers down to 30 km
15 stations along the AB profile of 600 km in length (Fig. 3). In addition in depth, was also identified. Analysis of the crustal structure beneath
to the main observations, four stations were installed along the Amery the Amery Ice Shelf indicates the remarkable signature of a thinned
Ice Shelf; these six channel analog seismic stations were deployed at crust with the topmost depths of the Moho discontinuity at about
200 m intervals along an entire profile of 15–20 km in length. 22 km. The Pn velocities and the crust velocities were determined to
Crustal velocities, Pn velocities, and the crustal thickness for the be 7.8–7.9 km/s and 6.1–6.2 km/s, respectively. In the middle depth of
entire profile 600 km in length were effectively determined by the the crust, around 8–10 km, a velocity discontinuity was also identified
experiments. The travel time curves along the profile crossing over for a short distance of about 20 km in length with velocities of
the Amery Ice Shelf represent different reduction velocities of 5.8–5.9 km/s. Compared with the shallow structures between the
8.1 km/s (for Pn and PmP waves) and 6.2 km/s (for Pg). Seismic PCM and the Amery Ice Shelf, there seems to exist a large structural
waves from sedimentary cover beneath the Amery Ice Shelf are gap (faulting or some kind of suture) in the area bordering the two
shown as Ps phases. For the allocation of the stations, a special technique adjacent terrains. This gap is presumably associated with the formation
was adopted by using correlation waves, and was capable of constructing of the huge Amery graben structure and/or related rift systems
a cross section of the profile. It takes into account discrete seismic (Masolov et al., 1981; Ravich et al., 1978).
observations and gentle seismic layers with slowly changing veloc- The obtained structure beneath PEL was attributed to complex
ity (Puzyrev et al., 1970, 1973). A total cross section of the crustal regimes from the upper crustal level to the crust–mantle boundary.
structure beneath the PCM–PEL profile across the Amery Ice Shelf The Moho was defined as the eastward declining discontinuity from
is indicated in Fig. 3 (Kolmakov et al., 1975; Kurinin and Grikurov, 30 to 33 km in depth. The lowermost velocities were determined to
1982). be 6.0–6.1 km/s, which were the same values as those beneath the
 M. Kanao et al. / Tectonophysics 627 (2014) 38–47 43

Amery Ice Shelf. A complex discontinuity between the middle and the extensional stress may have followed the breakup. The seafloor spread-
lower crust was found about 20–24 km in depth with velocities within ing direction revealed by magnetic anomalies and fracture zones
the middle crust of 5.8–5.9 km/s. Another velocity jump around the trending to the north of the LHC at this age is WNW-ESE and NNE-
upper crustal level can be found at a few kilometers in depth. The SSW, respectively (Nogi et al., 1992). Moreover, the fastest direction
lower and upper seismic velocities were determined to be 6.2–6.3 km/s for shear wave splitting by SKS phases at the Japanese Syowa Station
and 5.4–5.6 km/s, respectively. The topmost crust of it was thought to (Kubo et al., 1995) was NE-SW, which was almost perpendicular to
be occupied by a thick sedimentary layer (or meta-sedimentary the breakup direction. Thus, the seismic wave anisotropy observed in
supracrustal rocks), appears to be connected with the basement rocks the uppermost mantle had been originated in the upwelling materials
beneath the Amery Ice Shelf. that spread almost parallel with the coast line. The reflective lower
As a whole profile 600 km in distance, a complex crustal structure crust of the LHC, as revealed by the SEAL profiles, may have also been
was characterized by the seismic survey in 1973. Several velocity enhanced under the extensional conditions during the last stage of
jumps together with lateral variations of the velocity discontinuities in breakup.
the crustal level can be found in vertical cross sections for distinct The crustal structure beneath the PCM revealed by the seismic
terrain. The resulting crustal architecture might be associated with survey in 1973 indicated the existence of a deep Moho around
past tectonics relating chiefly to the extensional stress needed to form 28–30 km with Pn velocities of 7.6–6.8 km/s (Fig. 3). Mac. Robertson
the Amery great graben structure and rift systems. Land, including the PCM, must have experienced late-Proterozoic
metamorphism during the Grenvillion orogenic events in order to
5. Tectonic evolution of Enderby Land have supplied the granulite facies metamorphic rocks at the upper
part of the crust. Rb–Sr dating provides similar ages of about
A crustal structural model beneath the Mizuho Plateau in the LHC 1000 Ma in an east-west trending 500-km-wide belt in the Prydz
has been attributed to have lateral and vertical variations by SEAL Bay–PCM–MAW area (Tingey, 1982), which appears to continue
seismic surveys as presented in the previous sections. These crustal into the Rayner Complex in Enderby Land (Sheraton et al., 1987).
heterogeneities are considered to have been associated with past re- The intrusion of charnockites around the PCM is evidence of the
gional tectonics, such as orogenic activity, together with metamorphism compressive tectonic setting in the Proterozoic mobile belt (Young
in the late Proterozoic to early Paleozoic (Hiroi et al., 1991; Motoyoshi and Ellis, 1991). Depletion of heavy rare earth elements in the low-Ti
et al., 1989). From geological aspects during the Pan-African orogeny, charnockites suggests that garnet was a residual phase in partial
the LHC was known to be under compressive stress in a NNW-SSE direc- melting, which requires high pressures and an over-thickened crust at
tion, which is perpendicular to the thermal axis in the southern part of that time. When compared to the adjacent area, the deep crustal
the Sôya Coast. For example, Ishikawa et al. (1994) interpreted the thickness beneath the PCM corresponds well with the signature of the
southern part of the Sôya Coast as the highest metamorphic grade in remaining crustal root.
the southern LHC. The granulite fabrics imply regional ductile deforma- The crustal structure beneath the Amery Ice Shelf indicates the re-
tion during peak metamorphism with the formation of a WNW-ESE markable signature of the thinned crust (Lambert Graven structure)
subhorizontal mineral lineation, showing development of high-strain with the topmost depths of the Moho discontinuity at about 22 km.
structures. The southward (inland) declined Moho signature beneath The resulting crustal architecture might be involved in the past exten-
the Mizuho Plateau as revealed by SEAL-2000 (Tsutsui et al., 2001b; sional and rifting tectonics associated with the formation of this huge
Yoshii et al., 2004) could be correlated with the above geological history graben structure beneath the Amery Ice Shelf. A breakup process during
during the Pan-African orogeny. the Cretaceous was suggested to be the main contributor, as revealed by
A crustal lithologic model of the LHC was presented by a comparison the brittle faulting system in the PCM (Boger, 2011; Boger and Wilson,
of metamorphic rock velocities under high-pressure conditions with 2003). On the other hand, the obtained PEL crustal structure was attrib-
previous, and SEAL seismic velocities (Ishikawa and Kanao, 2002; uted to the complex regimes of a seismic velocity model of the upper
Kanao et al., 2004). Previous studies have suggested that the middle crustal level to the depths of the crust–mantle boundary. The crustal
and lower crusts were composed of felsic gneiss together with pyroxene composition of the western edge of the PEL was mainly formed in the
granulite and pyroxene granulite with minor amounts of felsic rocks, re- Pan-African age of 500–600 Ma (Fitzsimons, 2000). The Moho at the
spectively. The existence of a thin lower part of the crust suggested by PEL was defined as an eastward declining architecture varying from
the SEAL-2002 reflection study (Yamashita et al., 2006) indicates that 28–33 km in depth. This deepening toward an eastern direction corre-
the lower crust in the LHC had been shaved off and became thin beneath sponds to the edged locality besides the Lambert graben structure.
the Mizuho Plateau during the last stage of the Gondwana assembly. In Relatively low velocities in Pn (7.6–7.8 km/s) over the whole profile
contrast, the thick and relatively homogeneous upper crust in the LHC compared with the other shield region were considered to be associated
was assumed to be composed of felsic gneiss lithology. In order to ex- with the rift/graben structure around the Prydz Bay area. A crustal den-
plain the above crustal signature, a tectonic evolution model of the sity model by Mishra et al. (1999) also represented the same signature
LHC during the Pan-African orogenic age can be proposed, involving as in the seismic velocity model. The existence of low-density sediments
the following stages. At first, a collision of the East Gondwana block (2350 kg/m3) and thinned crust underlying the Amery Ice Shelf was
(the Archaean Napier craton) and the westward Proterozoic geologic assumed in order to fit the gravity anomalies along the seismic profile.
body (continent or island arc; the Yamato–Belgica Complex) occurred.
Then, the LHC was exhumed by wedge extrusion and extruded onto 6. Extended structure toward the inland plateau
the Napier Complex, followed by exposure of the LHC due to surface
erosion. Since it is generally known that West Gondwana descended The GSM holds the most enigmatic tectonic features in East
eastward under the broad Pan-African belts, the amalgamation of Antarctica, but until recently only limited information was available
Gondwana was regarded as being caused by collision tectonics along on the deep structure beneath the mountain range (Cogley, 1984;
with symmetrical subductions where late Proterozoic island arcs and DeConto and Pollard, 2003). Buried beneath the thick ice sheet, the
ophiolites were thrust between East-west Gondwana. mountains are characterized by peak elevations reaching about 3000
The Gondwana supercontinent had begun to breakup in relation to m above sea level (Bell et al., 2011). A crustal thickness of over 40 km
the Antarctica/Australia–India rifting (Anderson, 1994; Storey, 1995) beneath the GSM and the surrounding region was estimated by using
at 150 Ma when the LHC was under extensional stress, which induced spaceborne and airborne data (von Frese et al., 1999). As part of the
a thinning process at the continental margins. Subsequent uplifting of GAMSEIS project during IPY2007-2008, more than 30 broadband seis-
the uppermost mantle materials, such as gabbro, into the crust under mometers were deployed over a large area in the middle of East
44 M. Kanao et al. / Tectonophysics 627 (2014) 38–47

Antarctica, extending from the crest of the GSM to Dome-F at the GSM was found to be 40–45 km thick, consistent with the average
western end of the target area. Teleseismic events recorded by Pre-Cambrian crustal thickness observed globally (Mooney et al.,
GAMSEIS provide new information on the fine crustal structure and 1998; Rudnick and Gao, 2003). The crustal thickness at the western
help to constrain the origin of the GSM as well as the structure and end of the GAMSEIS study area (crustal thickness of 47 km) is in good
evolution of the Pre-Cambrian craton in East Antarctica. agreement with that beneath Dome-F, as obtained from the gravity
Based on the GAMSEIS data, studies using receiver functions and anomalies (Kanao et al., 2012). The eastern end of the GAMSEIS study
Rayleigh wave phase velocities have provided significant estimates area (crustal thickness of 42–45 km) also agrees well with the crustal
of the crustal thickness beneath the GSM and the surrounding thickness estimates obtained beneath the “TransAntarctic Mountain
region (Hansen et al., 2010). The cratonic crust surrounding the SEISmic experiment (TAMSEIS)” profile from Wilkes Land (Hansen

Fig. 4. (upper) General location of inland traverse area for gravity surveys conducted by Japanese expeditions (red thick line; from SYO to Dome-F), along with broadband seismic stations
deployed by GAMSEIS (dark blue triangles) and TAMSEIS (red triangles; extending from McM to near Dome-A). Some of the seismic stations deployed before the International Polar Year
are also indicated by the other red triangles (mainly located in West Antarctica and near McM). The POLENET stations in West Antarctica deployed during the IPY are also indicated by the
light blue triangles. Major location names are provided. Abbreviations are as follows. POLENET; the POLer Earth observing NETwork, McM; McMurdo Station, TAM; Trans-Antarctic
Mountains, WSB; Wilkes Subglacial Basin, VSH; Vostok Subglacial Highlands, SPA; South Pole Station, GSM; Gambursev Subglacial Mountains; SYO; Syowa Station, LHB; Lützow–Holm
Bay. Locations of the DSS profiles by Russia and Japan are represented by the three solid lines. (lower) An illustration of the combined crustal cross section across East Antarctica from
LHB to Dome-F, GSM, and TAM (modified after Kanao et al., 2012; the region inside green open square on the map). The Moho topography (thick solid red line), bedrock topography
(black solid line), and the surface elevation of the ice sheet (light blue solid line) are shown.
 M. Kanao et al. / Tectonophysics 627 (2014) 38–47 45

et al., 2009; Lawrence et al., 2006). An illustration of the combined huge graben structure of the Amery Ice Shelf was thought to continue
crustal cross section across East Antarctica from LHB to Dome-F, GSM, into the graben in the eastern Indian Peninsula.
and TAM is shown in Fig. 4 (Kanao et al., 2012). The proposed tectonic history on the basis of geological evidence
Beneath the GSM, Hansen et al. (2010) observed thicker crust, with with support from the seismic survey results in both LHC and PCM–
the Moho at a depth of 55–58 km. It was suggested that the thicker crust PEL is shown in Table 1. The basic concepts in configuring the table
beneath the GSM provides isostatic support for the high mountain are described as follows. The Grenville and Pan-African orogenic events
elevations. Three-dimensional surface wave tomography models, also and the succeeding mid-Mesozoic breakup of Gondwana could be the
developed by using GAMSEIS data, also indicate a thickened crust two major issues affecting the formation of the present structure in
around the GSM (An et al., 2010). Additionally, high velocity anomalies the target areas. The Pan-African orogenic event is associated with the
beneath the GSM determined by Rayleigh wave phase analyses NE-SW compression regime between East and West Gondwana
(Heeszel et al., 2013) support the idea of a crustal root beneath this (Fitzsimons, 2000, 2003), presumably generating the strong seismic
region and do not show any evidence of a mantle plume (low seismic reflections observed in the LHC, together with the formation of PEL at
velocities) in the upper mantle. The thicker crust beneath the GSM the same age, overlapping the Grenville orogeny. After that, during the
might reflect ancient continental tectonic features associated with breakup stage of Gondwana, the NW-SE extension regime at the LHC
Proterozoic–Paleozoic orogenic events in East Antarctica. Pan-African formed the heterogeneity around the Moho discontinuity of the area
or Grenville orogenic/metamorphic events may be the most plausible in particular. At the same time, the NW-SE extension regime also affected
candidates to explain the formation of the GSM (Fitzsimons, 2000, the formation of the Lambert graben structure in the PCM–PEL.
2003). The GAMSEIS survey deployed a significant number of seismic
stations over the large highland on the ice sheet from the crest of the
GSM to the vicinity of Dome-F during the International Polar Year
7. Discussion 2007–2008. The acquired seismic data helped to refine crustal structure
estimates beneath the GSM and to constrain the origin of the mountain
The tectonic evolution models for Enderby Land associated with the range as well as the broad structure and evolution of the East Antarctic
formation of the crustal structure by DSS are discussed in terms of the craton. Receiver functions and Rayleigh phase velocities determined by
detailed process of the supercontinent assembly. It is generally thought using the inland data (Hansen et al., 2010) indicate that the cratonic
that the Napier Complex was a nucleus during the amalgamation of crust surrounding the GSM is 40–47 km thick. These values agree with
East-West Gondwanaland. The Rayner Complex, a rim of the Napier those from the Japanese ground traverse gravity surveys around
nucleus, has recently been revealed to be divided into the two major Dome-F and are consistent with average Pre-Cambrian crustal thick-
districts of the western half (Pan-African overlapped on the Grenville nesses (Kanao et al., 2012). Beneath the GSM, Hansen et al. (2010)
event; between the Napier and the LHC) and the eastern half found that the crust thickens to 55–58 km, and suggested that this
(Grenvillion event only; between the Napier and the PCM) (Shiraishi thicker crust provides isostatic support for the high mountain eleva-
et al., 1994). Nevertheless, the western part of the Rayner Complex tions. Thicker crust beneath the GSM might reflect the ancient continen-
was differentially reworked at the Pan-African age, the surface structure tal formation history associated with Proterozoic or Paleozoic orogenic
here seems to be almost at right angles to the generally N-S trending events and succeeding Cretaceous rifting (Ferraccioli et al., 2011). A
East African/Antarctic Orogen as evidenced by magnetic anomalies continuation from the coastal region to the GSM is uncertain; however,
(Golynsky et al., 1996, 2002). Thus, the existence of a suture at a right the upper mantle velocities revised by surface wave investigations
angle joining the LHC and the Prydz Bay area might also be speculated. (Heeszel et al., 2013) suggest late-Proterozoic terrains, as compared to
From the amalgamated geocronological and structure-geological other Pre-Cambrian results. This implies that the GSM could be contin-
studies in East Africa and Dronning Maud Land area, the existence of ued from the PCM as one of the big suture zones at the Grenvillion
big suture zones formulated during the Pan-African orogeny is orogeny.
proposed. The suture seems to continue from the LHC to the Shackleton The deep crustal structure of the Pan-African and Grenvillion mobile
Range (Grunow et al., 1996; Lawver and Scotese, 1987; Yacobs and belts in East Antarctica will be clarified by making several kinds of deep
Golynsky, 2002), which almost crosses the inland area of the central
Dronning Maud Land. Neoproterozoic sedimentary rocks together
with mafic/ultramafic rocks indicate that the Shackleton Range might
Table 1
contain a Late Neoproterozoic/Early Paleozoic suture zone (Talarico Summary of tectonic history proposed by seismological studies in LHC and PCM–PEL.
et al., 1999). As a consequence, it is important to clarify the outline of The Grenville and Pan-African orogenic events and their succeeding mid-Mesozoic
the eastern margin of the East African/Antarctic Orogen and evaluate breakup of Gondwana could be the major two issues affecting to form the present
structure in these areas.
the possibility of the triple junction from the two above-mentioned
big sutures around the LHC as suggested by Yacobs and Golynsky
(2002).
The Paleo position of the Napier Craton and the adjacent Rayner
Complex has much significance in the Gondwana amalgamation. From
the above consideration, there are two suggestions for the Paleo
location (before the Pan-African orogeny) of the Napier Complex and
the surrounding Rayner Complex. The first suggestion is that a
standalone nucleus existed before the Pan-African age. However, since
the major age of the PCM is during the Grenvillion orogenic event, this
cannot be supported by the evidence in this paper. The second suggestion
is that the Napier nucleus had been connected to the East Gondwana
main block before the Pan-African orogeny. A collision tectonic model
of East-West Gondwana for the development of the LHC during the last
stage of Pan-African events was proposed by Ishikawa and Kanao
(2002), who also stand with the second suggestion. Finally, the evolution
model for the PCM–PEL region seems to be related mainly to the tectonic
history in the Grenvillion orogenic event and the Cretaceous breakup. The
46 M. Kanao et al. / Tectonophysics 627 (2014) 38–47

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The authors would like to express sincere thanks to Prof. K. Shiraishi, Ashworth, J.R., Brown, M. (Eds.), High Temperature Metamorphism and Crustal
a Director-general of NIPR, as well as Profs. Y. Motoyoshi, T. Hokada and Anatexis, pp. 320–370.
Heeszel, S.D., Wiens, D.A., Nyblade, A.A., Hansen, S.E., Kanao, M., An, M., Zhao, Y., 2013.
Y. Nogi for their fruitful discussion about the geological interpretation of
Rayleigh wave constraints on the structure and tectonic history of the Gamburtsev
tectonic history in Enderby Land. We would like to express our special Subglacial Mountains, East Antarctica. J. Geophys. Res. 118, 2138–2153.
appreciation to the participants of the Russian and Japanese seismic sur- Hiroi, Y., Shiraishi, K., Motoyoshi, Y., 1991. Late Proterozoic paired metamorphic
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Mizuho Plateau and PCM–PEL profiles. The authors express their sincere logical Evolution of Antarctica, pp. 83–87.
appreciation to Prof. Lawrence A. Lawver of the University of Texas, for Ikami, A., Ito, K., 1986. Crustal structure in the Mizuho Plateau, East Antarctica, by a two-
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also like to express sincere appreciation to the two anonymous referees, between Syowa and Mizuho Stations, East Antarctica. Mem. Natl. Inst. Polar Res. Ser.
Profs. Z. Zhang of China Academy of Sciences, M. Santosh of China C Earth Sci. 15, 19–28.
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