Introduction to Computer System

A computer is an electronic device that can be programmed to accept data (input), process it and generate
result (output). A computer along with additional hardware and software together is called a computer
system. A computer system primarily comprises a central processing unit (CPU), memory, input/output devices
and storage devices. All these components function together as a single unit to deliver the desired output. A
computer system comes in various forms and sizes. It can vary from a high-end server to personal desktop,
laptop, tablet computer, or a smartphone. Figure shows the block diagram of a computer system. The directed
lines represent the flow of data and signal between the components.

Figure: Components of a computer system

Central Processing Unit (CPU) It is the electronic circuitry of a computer that carries out the actual processing
and usually referred as the brain of the computer. It is commonly called processor also. Physically, a CPU can be
placed on one or more microchips called integrated circuits (IC). The ICs comprise semiconductor materials. The
CPU is given instructions and data through programs. The CPU then fetches the program and data from the
memory and performs arithmetic and logic operations as per the given instructions and stores the result back to
memory. While processing, the CPU stores the data as well as instructions in its local memory called registers.
Registers are part of the CPU chip and they are limited in size and number. Different registers are used for
storing data, instructions or intermediate results. Other than the registers, the CPU has two main components
— Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and Control Unit (CU). ALU performs all the arithmetic and logic operations that
need to be done as per the instruction in a program. CU controls sequential instruction execution, interprets
instructions and guides data flow through the computer’s memory, ALU and input or output devices. CPU is
also popularly known as microprocessor.
Input Devices The devices through which control signals are sent to a computer are termed as input devices.
These devices convert the input data into a digital form that is acceptable by the computer system. Some
examples of input devices include keyboard, mouse, scanner, touch screen, etc.Specially designed braille
keyboards are also available to help the visually impaired for entering data into a computer. Besides, we can
now enter data through voice, for example, we can use Google voice search to search the web where we can
input the search string through our voice. Data entered through input device is temporarily stored in the main
memory (also called RAM) of the computer system. For permanent storage and future use, the data as well as
instructions are stored permanently in additional storage locations called secondary memory.
Output Devices The device that receives data from a computer system for display, physical production, etc., is
called output device. It converts digital information into human understandable form. For example, monitor,
projector, headphone, speaker, printer, etc. A braille display monitor is useful for a visually challenged person
to understand the textual output generated by computers. A printer is the most commonly used device to get
output in physical (hardcopy) form. Three types of commonly used printers are inkjet, laser jet and dot matrix.
Now-a-days, there is a new type of printer called 3D-printer, which is used to build physical replica of a digital
3D design. These printers are being used in manufacturing industries to create prototypes of products. Their
usage is also being explored in the medical field, particularly for developing body organs.
Evolution of Computer From the simple calculator to a modern day powerful data processor, computing devices
have evolved in a relatively short span of time. The evolution of computing devices in shown through a timeline
in Figure

1642
Pascaline 1945 1970
Blaize Pascal invented a EDVAC/ENIAC Integrated
mechanical calculator known John Von Neumann Circuit
as Pascal calculator or 1890 introduced the
An Integrated Circuit
Pascaline to do addition and Tabulating Machine concept of stored
(IC) is a silicon chip
subtraction of two numbers Herman Hollerith designed a program computer
which contains entire
directly and multiplication and tabulating machine for which was capable
electronic circuit on a
division through repeated summarizing the data stored of storing data as
very small area. The
addition and subtraction. on the punched card. It is well as program in
size of computer
considered to be the first the memory. The
drastically reduced
step towards programming. EDVAC and then
because of ICs
the ENIAC

500 BC 1833 1937 1947

Abacus Analytic Engine Turing Machine Transistor
Computing is Charles Babbage invented The Turing machine Vacuum tubes were
attributed to the analytical engine, a concept was a general replaced by transistors
invention of ABACUS mechanical computing purpose programmable developed at Bell Labs,
almost 3000 years device for inputting, machine that was capable using semiconductor
ago. It was a processing, storing and of solving any problem by materials
mechanical device displaying the output, executing the program
capable of doing which is considered to stored on the punched
simple arithmetic form the basis of modern cards. Turing Machine was
calculations only. computers. invented by Alan Turing in
1936.

Figure : Timeline showing key inventions in computing technology

The Von Neumann architecture is shown in Figure. It consists of a Central Processing Unit (CPU) for processing
arithmetic and logical instructions, a memory to store data and programs, input and output devices and
communication channels to send or receive the output data. Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer
(ENIAC) is the first binary programmable computer based on Von Neumann architecture. During the 1970s, Large
Scale Integration (LSI) of electronic circuits allowed integration of complete CPU on a single chip, called
microprocessor.
Moore’s Law predicted exponential growth
in the number of transistors that could be
assembled in a single microchip. In 1980s,
the processing power of computers
increased exponentially by integrating
around 3 million components on a small-sized chip termed as Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI). Further
advancement in technology has made it feasible to fabricate high density of transistors and other components
(approx 106 components) on a single IC called Super Large Scale Integration (SLSI) . IBM introduced its first
personal computer (PC) for the home user in 1981 and Apple introduced Macintosh machines in 1984. The
popularity of the PC surged by the introduction of Graphical User Interface (GUI) based operating systems by
Microsoft and others in place of computers with only command line interface, like UNIX or DOS. Around
1990s, the growth of World Wide Web (WWW) further accelerated mass usage of computers and thereafter
 computers have become an indispensable part of everyday life. Further, with the introduction of laptops,
personal computing was made portable to a great extent. This was followed by smartphones, tablets and other
personal digital assistants. These devices have leveraged the technological advancements in processor
miniaturization, faster memory, high speed data and connectivity mechanisms. The next wave of computing
devices includes the wearable gadgets, such as smart watch, lenses, headbands, headphones, etc. Further, smart
appliances are becoming a part of the Internet of Things (IoT), by leveraging the power of Artificial Intelligence
(AI).
Computer Memory
A computer system needs memory to store the data and instructions for processing. Whenever we talk about
the ‘memory’ of a computer system, we usually talk about the main or primary memory. The secondary
memory (also called storage device) is used to store data, instructions and results permanently for future use.
Units of Memory A computer system uses binary numbers to store and process data. The binary digits 0 and 1,
which are the basic units of memory, are called bits. Further, these bits are grouped together to form words.
A 4-bit word is called a Nibble. Examples of nibble are 1001, 1010, 0010, etc. A two nibble word, i.e., 8-bit
word is called a byte, for example, 01000110, 01111100, 10000001, etc. Like any other standard unit, bytes are
grouped together to make bigger chunks or units of memory. Table 1.1 shows different measurement units for
digital data stored in storage devices.
Measurement units for digital data
Unit Description Unit Description
KB (Kilobyte) 1 KB = 1024 Bytes PB (Petabyte) 1 PB = 1024 TB
MB (Megabyte) 1 MB = 1024 KB EB (Exabyte) 1 EB = 1024 PB
GB (Gigabyte) 1 GB = 1024 MB ZB (Zettabyte) 1 ZB = 1024 EB
TB (Terabyte) 1 TB = 1024 GB YB (Yottabyte) 1 YB = 1024 ZB

Bits, Nibbles, and Bytes

Binary values are often grouped into a common length of 1’s and 0’s, this number of digits is called the length of a
number. Common bit-lengths of binary numbers include bits, nibbles, and bytes.
Each 1 or 0 in a binary number is called a bit. From there, a group of 4 bits is called a nibble, and 8-bits makes
a byte.
Bytes are a pretty common buzzword when working in binary. Processors are all built to work with a set length of
bits, which is usually this length is a multiple of a byte: 8, 16, 32, 64, etc.
Length Name Example
1 Bit 0
4 Nibble 1011
8 Byte 10110101
Word is another length buzzword that gets thrown out from time-to-time. Word is much less yummy sounding and much
more ambiguous. The length of a word is usually dependent on the architecture of a processor. It could be 16-bits, 32,
64, or even more. A byte is eight bits, a word is 2 bytes (16 bits), a doubleword is 4 bytes (32 bits), and a
quadword is 8 bytes (64 bits).
***What is a word in 64 bit?
Data structures containing such different sized words refer to them as WORD (16 bits/2 bytes), DWORD (32 bits/4
bytes) and QWORD (64 bits/8 bytes) respectively.

***The memory is divided into large number of small parts called cells. Each location or cell has a unique
address, which varies from zero to memory size minus one.
***if the computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has how many locations?
ANS: 64 * 1024 = 65536 memory locations.
The address of these locations varies from 0 to 65535.
Memory is primarily of three types –
 Cache Memory
 Primary Memory/Main Memory
 Secondary Memory
Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up the CPU. It acts as a buffer
between the CPU and the main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data and program which are most
frequently used by the CPU. The parts of data and programs are transferred from the disk to cache memory by
the operating system, from where the CPU can access them.
Advantages The advantages of cache memory are as follows −
 Cache memory is faster than main memory.
 It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
 It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
 It stores data for temporary use.
Disadvantages The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows –
 Cache memory has limited capacity.
 It is very expensive.
Primary Memory (Main Memory)
Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which the computer is currently working. It has a
limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched off. It is generally made up of semiconductor device.
These memories are not as fast as registers. The data and instruction required to be processed resides in the
main memory. It is divided into two subcategories RAM and ROM.
Characteristics of Main Memory
 These are semiconductor memories.
 It is known as the main memory.
 Usually volatile memory.
 Data is lost in case power is switched off.
 It is the working memory of the computer.
 Faster than secondary memories.
 A computer cannot run without the primary memory.
Secondary Memory
This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than the main memory.
These are used for storing data/information permanently. CPU directly does not access these memories,
instead they are accessed via input-output routines. The contents of secondary memories are first transferred
to the main memory, and then the CPU can access it. For example, disk, CD-ROM, DVD, etc.
Characteristics of Secondary Memory
 These are magnetic and optical memories.
 It is known as the backup memory.
 It is a non-volatile memory.
 Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
 It is used for storage of data in a computer.
 Computer may run without the secondary memory.
 Slower than primary memories.
Random Access Memory
RAM (Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data, program, and program
result. It is a read/write memory which stores data until the machine is working. As soon as the machine is
switched off, data is erased. Access time in RAM is independent of the address, that is, each storage location
inside the memory is as easy to reach as other locations and takes the same amount of time. Data in the RAM
can be accessed randomly but it is very expensive. RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch
off the computer or if there is a power failure. Hence, a backup Uninterruptible Power System (UPS) is often
used with computers. RAM is small, both in terms of its physical size and in the amount of data it can hold.
RAM is of two types –
 Static RAM (SRAM)
 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
1. Static Random Access Memory (SRAM) :
Data is stored in transistors and requires a constant power flow. Because of the continuous power, SRAM doesn’t
need to be refreshed to remember the data being stored. SRAM is called static as no change or action i.e.
refreshing is not needed to keep the data intact. It is used in cache memories.
Advantage: Low power consumption and faster access speeds.
Disadvantage: Less memory capacities and high costs of manufacturing.
2. Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM) :
Data is stored in capacitors. Capacitors that store data in DRAM gradually discharge energy, no energy means the
data has been lost. So, a periodic refresh of power is required in order to function. DRAM is called dynamic as
constant change or action i.e. refreshing is needed to keep the data intact. It is used to implement main memory.
Advantage: Low costs of manufacturing and greater memory capacities.
Disadvantage: Slow access speed and high power consumption.

Difference between SRAM and DRAM :

Static RAM (SRAM) Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
SRAM has lower access time, which is faster DRAM has a higher access time. It is slower than SRAM.
compared to DRAM.

SRAM needs a constant power supply, but it DRAM requires more power consumption as the
consumes less power. Information is stored in the capacitor.

SRAM offers low packaging density. DRAM offers a high packaging density.

L2 and L3 CPU cache units are some general The DRAM is mostly found as the main memory in
application of an SRAM. computers.
The storage capacity of DRAM is 1 GB to 16GB.
The storage capacity of SRAM is 1MB to 16MB.

DRAM has the characteristics of off-chip memory.

SRAM is in the form of on-chip memory.
The SRAM is widely used on the processor or lodged The DRAM is placed on the motherboard.
between the main memory and processor of your
computer.
SRAM is of a smaller size. DRAM is available in larger storage capacity.

This type of RAM works on the principle of changing This type of RAM works on holding the charges.
the direction of current through switches.
SRAM is costlier than DRAM. DRAM cost is lesser compared to SRAM.
Computer - Read Only Memory
ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only read but cannot write on it. This
type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in such memories during manufacture.
A ROM stores such instructions that are required to start a computer. This operation is referred to as
bootstrap. ROM chips are not only used in the computer but also in other electronic items like washing
machine and microwave oven.
The various types of ROMs and their characteristics
MROM (Masked ROM)
The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed set of data or instructions.
These kind of ROMs are known as masked ROMs, which are inexpensive.
PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)
PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys a blank PROM and enters
the desired contents using a PROM program. Inside the PROM chip, there are small fuses which are burnt
open during programming. It can be programmed only once and is not erasable.
EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)
EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of up to 40 minutes. Usually, an EPROM
eraser achieves this function. During programming, an electrical charge is trapped in an insulated gate region.
The charge is retained for more than 10 years because the charge has no leakage path. For erasing this charge,
ultra-violet light is passed through a quartz crystal window (lid). This exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates
the charge. During normal use, the quartz lid is sealed with a sticker.
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)
EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed about ten thousand
times. Both erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 ms (millisecond). In EEPROM, any location can be
selectively erased and programmed. EEPROMs can be erased one byte at a time, rather than erasing the entire
chip. Hence, the process of reprogramming is flexible but slow.
FLASH ROM
It is an updated version of EEPROM. In EEPROM, it is not possible to alter many memory locations at the same
time. However, Flash memory provides this advantage over the EEPROM by enabling this feature of altering
many locations simultaneously. It was invented by Toshiba and got its name from it capability of deleting a
block of data in a flash.
Computer - Types
Computers can be broadly classified by their speed and computing power.

S.No. Type Specifications

PC (Personal It is a single user computer system having moderately powerful microprocessor.

1
Computer)

It is also a single user computer system, similar to personal computer however

2 Workstation
has a more powerful microprocessor.

It is a multi-user computer system, capable of supporting hundreds of users

3 Mini Computer
simultaneously.

It is a multi-user computer system, capable of supporting hundreds of users

4 Main Frame
simultaneously. Software technology is different from minicomputer.

It is an extremely fast computer, which can execute hundreds of millions of

5 Supercomputer
instructions per second.

PC (Personal Computer)
A PC can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an individual user. PCs are based on the
microprocessor technology that enables manufacturers to put an entire CPU on one chip. Businesses use personal
computers for word processing, accounting, desktop publishing, and for running spreadsheet and database
management applications. At home, the most popular use for personal computers is playing games and surfing the
Internet.
Although personal computers are designed as single-user systems, these systems are normally linked together to
form a network. In terms of power, now-a-days high-end models of the Macintosh and PC offer the same computing
power and graphics capability as low-end workstations by Sun Microsystems, Hewlett-Packard, and Dell.
Workstation
Workstation is a computer used for engineering applications (CAD/CAM), desktop publishing, software development,
and other such types of applications which require a moderate amount of computing power and relatively high
quality graphics capabilities.
Workstations generally come with a large, high-resolution graphics screen, large amount of RAM, inbuilt network
support, and a graphical user interface. Most workstations also have mass storage device such as a disk drive, but
a special type of workstation, called diskless workstation, comes without a disk drive.
Common operating systems for workstations are UNIX and Windows NT. Like PC, workstations are also single-user
computers like PC but are typically linked together to form a local-area network, although they can also be used as
stand-alone systems.
Minicomputer
It is a midsize multi-processing system capable of supporting up to 250 users simultaneously.
Mainframe
Mainframe is very large in size and is an expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds or even thousands
of users simultaneously. Mainframe executes many programs concurrently and supports many simultaneous
execution of programs.
***The first computer in Bangladesh (while East Pakistan) was installed at the ATOMIC ENERGY CENTER, Dhaka of
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission in 1964. It was an IBM Mainframe Computer of 1620 series. The main use of
the machine was resolving complicated mathematical calculations in different research works.
***After independence computerization process in this country got a new spurt. In this manner BANGLADESH
BUREAU OF STATISTICS played an important role. Big computers like IBM 370, IBM 9100 and IBM 4341 etc were
installed in this organization in phases since 1972. The development of computerization process in this
organization still continues and different powerful computers and other ultra-modern IT equipment of subsequent
generations have since been installed there. In September 1979 an IBM 370 and an IBM 4331 Mainframe
Computer were introduced at the BANGLADESH UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY (BUET) and BUET Computer
Centre was also established.

Supercomputer
Supercomputers are one of the fastest computers currently available. Supercomputers are very expensive and are
employed for specialized applications that require immense amount of mathematical calculations (number
crunching).For example, weather forecasting, scientific simulations, (animated) graphics, fluid dynamic calculations,
nuclear energy research, electronic design, and analysis of geological data (e.g. in petrochemical prospecting ).
Computer – Components
All types of computers follow the same basic logical structure and perform the following five basic
operations for converting raw input data into information useful to their users.
All types of computers follow the same basic logical structure and perform the following five basic
operations for converting raw input data into information useful to their users.

S.No. Operation Description

The process of entering data and instructions into the computer system.
1 Take Input

Saving data and instructions so that they are available for processing as
2 Store Data and when required.

Performing arithmetic, and logical operations on data in order to convert

3 Processing Data them into useful information.

The process of producing useful information or results for the user, such
4 Output Information as a printed report or visual display.

Directs the manner and sequence in which all of the above operations
5 Control the workflow are performed.
Input Unit
This unit contains devices with the help of which we enter data into the computer. This unit creates a link between
the user and the computer. The input devices translate the information into a form understandable by the computer.
some of the important input devices which are used in a computer − Keyboard , Mouse, Joy S ck, Light pen , Track
Ball , Scanner , Graphic Tablet, Microphone ,Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR) ,Optical Character Reader(OCR) , Bar
Code Reader, Optical Mark Reader(OMR).
CPU (Central Processing Unit)
CPU is considered as the brain of the computer. CPU performs all types of data processing operations. It stores data,
intermediate results, and instructions (program). It controls the operation of all parts of the computer.
CPU itself has the following three components −
 ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
 Memory Unit
 Control Unit
Memory or Storage Unit
This unit can store instructions, data, and intermediate results. This unit supplies information to other units of the
computer when needed. It is also known as internal storage unit or the main memory or the primary storage or
Random Access Memory (RAM).
Its size affects speed, power, and capability. Primary memory and secondary memory are two types of memories in
the computer. Functions of the memory unit are −
 It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.
 It stores intermediate results of processing.
 It stores the final results of processing before these results are released to an output device.
 All inputs and outputs are transmitted through the main memory.
Control Unit
This unit controls the operations of all parts of the computer but does not carry out any actual data processing
operations.
Functions of this unit are −
 It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other units of a computer.
 It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
 It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the operation of the computer.
 It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of data or results from storage.
 It does not process or store data.
ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
This unit consists of two subsections namely,
 Arithmetic Section
 Logic Section
Arithmetic Section
Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division. All complex operations are done by making repetitive use of the above operations.
Logic Section
Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing, selecting, matching, and merging of
data.
Output Unit
The output unit consists of devices with the help of which we get the information from the computer. This unit is a
link between the computer and the users. Output devices translate the computer's output into a form understandable
by the users.
SHORT NOTE ON SOME INPUT DEVICES
Keyboard
Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps to input data to the computer. The
layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter, although there are some additional keys provided
for performing additional functions. Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards
with 104 keys or 108 keys are also available for Windows and Internet.
Function Keys The twelve function keys are present on the keyboard which are arranged in a row at the top of
the keyboard. Each function key has a unique meaning and is used for some specific purpose.

Control keys ->These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes four directional arrow keys. Control
keys also include Home, End, Insert, Delete, Page Up, Page Down, Control(Ctrl), Alternate(Alt), Escape(Esc).

Control keys-> These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes four directional arrow keys. Control
keys also include Home, End, Insert, Delete, Page Up, Page Down, Control(Ctrl), Alternate(Alt), Escape(Esc).

Mouse
Mouse is the most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device having a small palm size
box with a round ball at its base, which senses the movement of the mouse and sends corresponding signals
to the CPU when the mouse buttons are pressed. Generally, it has two buttons called the left and the right
button and a wheel is present between the buttons. A mouse can be used to control the position of the cursor
on the screen, but it cannot be used to enter text into the computer.

Joystick
Joystick is also a pointing device, which is used to move the cursor position on a monitor screen. It is a stick
having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower spherical ball moves in a socket. The joystick
can be moved in all four directions. The function of the joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used
in Computer Aided Designing (CAD) and playing computer games.
Light Pen
Light pen is a pointing device similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed menu item or draw pictures on
the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical system placed in a small tube. When the tip of a
light pen is moved over the monitor screen and the pen button is pressed, its photocell sensing element
detects the screen location and sends the corresponding signal to the CPU.
Scanner
Scanner is an input device, which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when some information is
available on paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disk of the computer for further manipulation.
Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into a digital form that can be stored on
the disk. These images can be edited before they are printed.
Digitizer
Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into digital form. Digitizer can convert a signal
from the television or camera into a series of numbers that could be stored in a computer. They can be used
by the computer to create a picture of whatever the camera had been pointed at.Digitizer is also known as
Tablet or Graphics Tablet as it converts graphics and pictorial data into binary inputs. A graphic tablet as
digitizer is used for fine works of drawing and image manipulation applications.
Microphone
Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in a digital form. The microphone is used for
various applications such as adding sound to a multimedia presentation or for mixing music.
Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)
MICR input device is generally used in banks as there are large number of cheques to be processed every day.
The bank's code number and cheque number are printed on the cheques with a special type of ink that
contains particles of magnetic material that are machine readable. This reading process is called Magnetic Ink
Character Recognition (MICR). The main advantages of MICR is that it is fast and less error prone.
Optical Character Reader (OCR)
OCR is an input device used to read a printed text. OCR scans the text optically, character by character,
converts them into a machine readable code, and stores the text on the system memory.
Bar Code Readers
Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in the form of light and dark lines). Bar
coded data is generally used in labelling goods, numbering the books, etc. It may be a handheld scanner or
may be embedded in a stationary scanner. Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image, converts it into an
alphanumeric value, which is then fed to the computer that the bar code reader is connected to.
Optical Mark Reader (OMR)
OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made by pen or pencil. It is used
where one out of a few alternatives is to be selected and marked.It is specially used for checking the answer
sheets of examinations having multiple choice questions.
Computer - Output Devices
Output devices used in a computer.
 Monitors
 Graphic Plotter
 Printer
Monitors
Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main output device of a computer. It forms
images from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular form. The sharpness of the image
depends upon the number of pixels. There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.
 Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)
 Flat-Panel Display
Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor
The CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels. The smaller the pixels, the better the image
clarity or resolution. It takes more than one illuminated pixel to form a whole character, such as the letter ‘e’ in
the word help. A finite number of characters can be displayed on a screen at once. The screen can be divided
into a series of character boxes - fixed location on the screen where a standard character can be placed. Most
screens are capable of displaying 80 characters of data horizontally and 25 lines vertically.
There are some disadvantages of CRT −  Large in Size  High power consumption.
Flat-Panel Display Monitor
The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight and power
requirement in comparison to the CRT. You can hang them on walls or wear them on your wrists. Current uses of
flat-panel displays include calculators, video games, monitors, laptop computer, and graphics display.
The flat-panel display is divided into two categories −
 Emissive Displays − Emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy into light. For example,
plasma panel and LED (Light-Emitting Diodes).
 Non-Emissive Displays − Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert sunlight or light from some
other source into graphics patterns. For example, LCD (Liquid-Crystal Device).
How CRT Monitors Work ?

The operation of a CRT monitor is very simple. A cathode-ray tube consists of one or more electron guns,
possibly internal electrostatic deflection plates, and a phosphor target. CRT has three electron beams – one
for each (Red, Green, and Blue) is clearly shown in the figure. The electron beam produces a tiny, bright visible
spot when it strikes the phosphor-coated screen. In every monitor device, the entire front area of the tube is
scanned repetitively and systematically in a fixed pattern called a raster. An image (raster) is displayed by
scanning the electron beam across the screen. The phosphor’s targets are beginning to fade after a short time,
the image needs to be refreshed continuously. Thus CRT produces the three color images which are primary
colors. Here we used a 50 Hz rate to eliminate the flicker by refreshing the screen.
How LCD Monitors Work ?
Liquid crystal display technology works by blocking light. Specifically, an LCD is made of two pieces of polarized
glass (also called substrate) that contain a liquid crystal material between them. A backlight creates light that
passes through the first substrate. At the same time, electrical currents cause the liquid crystal molecules to
align to allow varying levels of light to pass through to the second substrate and create the colors and images
that you see.

Active and Passive Matrix Displays

Most LCD displays use active matrix technology. A thin film transistor (TFT) arranges tiny transistors and
capacitors in a matrix on the glass of the display. To address a particular pixel, the proper row is switched on,
and then a charge is sent down the correct column. Since all of the other rows that the column intersects are
turned off, only the capacitor at the designated pixel receives a charge. The capacitor is able to hold the charge
until the next refresh cycle.
The other type of LCD technology is passive matrix. This type of LCD display uses a grid of conductive metal to
charge each pixel. Although they are less expensive to produce, passive matrix monitors are rarely used today
due to the technology's slow response time and imprecise voltage control compared to active matrix technology.
How LED Monitors Work ?

.
Fig : A Representational Image of a LED Monitor
LED monitors use light emitting diodes that acts as a performance booster in the monitors. Basically LED
monitors are the LCD monitors with a LED backlight to power up the LCD panel. It means that LEDs are placed behind
or around the LCD panel to enhance the luminosity and video definition of the monitor screen.
As we have seen in the above section of LCD monitors, they use a cold cathode light as backlight. In the LED monitors
all the concepts are same except this backlight, which is replaced by LEDs.
There are three different types of LED monitors available based on the manner how the diodes are arranges in the
monitor. These are – Direct LEDs, Edge LEDs and RGB LEDs. Both Edge and Direct LED display monitors use white
diodes that are used to illuminate the LCD panel to produce the improved picture quality.

How Plasma Monitors Work ?

Plasma technology is another technology used in display devices. The basic idea behind the plasma technology is
to illuminate tiny colored fluorescent lights to create image pixels. Each pixel is made of three such fluorescent lights
– red, green and blue lights. To create a wide range of colors, intensity of these lights is varied accordingly.The heart
of plasma displays is plasma which is basically a gas (generally Xenon and Neon) made up of free flowing electrons
and ions. When the electrical current flows through the plasma, negatively charged particles move towards the
positively charged area of the plasma and vice versa. This makes collisions which resultantly excite the gas atoms in
the plasma and then release the energy as photons of light.

Fig: A Diagram Showing Working of the Plasma Technology

There are millions of tiny cells filled with the gas like xenon and neon. They are positioned between two plates of
glass known as front plate glass and rear plate glass. Two transparent electrodes covered by an insulating dielectric
material and a magnesium oxide protective layer are also sandwiched between the glass plates on both sides of
the cells on the entire screen.
When the CPU sends the signals to the Plasma monitor, the corresponding electrodes are charged which ionizes
the gas in the intersecting cells by passing an electric current. Due to the collisions between the gas ions they
release energy in the form of the photons of light which illuminate the respective cells. This process occurs
thousands of times in a small fraction of second making the display faster. The released ultraviolet photons strike
the phosphor material coated on the inner wall of the cell and hence phosphor electrons jump to the higher energy
level. When the electron falls back to its normal state, it releases the energy as a visible light photon. Every pixel
on the screen is made of three different colored phosphors – red, green and blue.
How OLED Monitors work?
OLED, short for Organic Light Emitting Diode is the latest technology for display devices. As the name suggests
there are some organic material (containing carbon, like wood, plastic or polymers.) that is used to convert the
electric current into light. Since the LEDs are capable of producing different colored light, they are directly used
to produce the correct color and there is no need of a backlight which saves power and space. With fast response
time, wide viewing angles, outstanding contrast levels and perfect brightness, OLED displays are surely better
than the existing other display technologies.

Fig: A Diagram Illustrating Structure and Working of a OLED Display

The heart of the OLED display is a stack of thin organic layers which is sandwiched between two conductors – a
transparent anode and a metallic cathode, which in turn are sandwiched between two glass plates known as seal
and substrate. The organic layer consists of a hole-injection layer, a hole-transport layer, an emissive layer and an
electron-transport layer. When an appropriate voltage is applied, an electric current flows from cathode to anode
through the organic layers. The cathode give electrons to the emissive layer of organic molecules while the anode
takes equivalent electrons from the conducting layer of organic molecules. At the boundary of emissive and
conductive layers, electrons and the holes are gathered. Here electrons are recombined with the holes by releasing
energy in the form of photon of light. Hence the organic layer emits the light to produce the display. The color of
the light depends on the type of organic molecules while the brightness depends on the amount of the current
applied. By maximizing the recombination process in the emissive layer the output light can be improved in OLED
devices. Thus the emissive layer is slightly doped with highly fluorescent molecules to enhance the electro-
luminescent efficiency and control of color.
HOW SCANNERS WORK?
Scanners operate by shining light at the object or document being digitized and directing the reflected light
(usually through a series of mirrors and lenses) onto a photosensitive element. In most scanners, the sensing
medium is an electronic, light-sensing integrated circuit known as a charged coupled device (CCD). Light-
sensitive photo sites arrayed along the CCD convert levels of brightness into electronic signals that are then
processed into a digital image.
CCD is by far the most common light-sensing technology used in modern scanners. Two other technologies,
CIS (Contact Image Sensor), and PMT (photomultiplier tube) are found in the low and high ends of the scanner
market, respectively. CIS is a newer technology that allows scanners to be smaller and lighter, but sacrifices
dynamic range, depth-of-field, and resolution. PMT-based drum scanners produce very high-quality images,
but have limited application in library and archives scanning.

Another sensing technology, CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor), appears primarily in low-
end, hand-held digital cameras where its low cost, low power consumption and easier component integration
permits smaller, less expensive designs. Traditionally, high-end and professional digital cameras employ CCD
sensors, despite their expense and the complexity of their design, because they exhibit much superior noise
characteristics. Although some innovative designs that render low-noise CMOS-based images are emerging,
CCD still dominates the high end of the market.
EXPLANATION OF HOW SCANNERS WORKS/ IS USED:

1. The image to be scanned is placed on top of the scanner’s glass plate.

2. The computer sends instructions to the logic board about how far the motor is to run and how fast.
3. The logic board instructions place the scanning unit into an appropriate position to begin scanning.
4. The scanning unit moves across the image to be scanned at a speed designated by the logic board instruction.
5. As the scanning unit moves across the image, a light source shines on the image.
6. The light strikes the image, reflects, and is then reflected by a series of mirrors to the scanner lens.
7. The light passes through the scanner lens and reaches the CCD sensors.
8. CCD sensors measure the amount of light reflected through the image and converts the light to an analog
voltage.
9. The analog voltage is changed to digital values by an ADC – analog to digital converter.
10. The digital signals from the CCDs are sent to the logic board and transmitted back to the computer.

The information is stored in the computer as an electronic file made up of pixels. The group of pixels is changed into
a picture by the TWAIN scanning software.

A Flow Chart of How a Scanner Works

TYPES OF PRINTERS
 The operating speed of the printer is usually calculated as PPM (pages per minute). Additionally, the printer's
resolution is measured in DPI (dots per inch). The higher the PPM and DPI, the better the printer performance
and print quality.
Impact Printers
Impact printers are printers that typically use a specific type of hammer with which the print heads are attached.
When the print command is given, the hammer pushes the print heads onto the ink ribbon. Print heads have
different characters, and therefore, they help the ink ribbon to draw the corresponding character on the paper
that is placed near the ink ribbon. Most impact printers are incompatible with printing images or graphics.
Besides, they use electromechanical components that make a lot of noise and work relatively slowly compared
to modern printers, making these printers almost obsolete nowadays. However, they cost less and are therefore
considered the best for bulk printing. That means, these printers use a single stroke of a hammer or print head at
a time. That's why character printers are slow and cannot print the entire line at once.
Impact printers are mainly categorized into the following two types:
• Character Printers
• Line Printers
Character printers are further categorized into the following two types:
Dot Matrix Printers:
Dot matrix printers, also known as pin printers, are the most popular type of
impact printer. These printers have a matrix of pins on their print heads to
create characters or graphics. Dot-matrix printers usually have 9 to 24 pins in
the print head. Thus, they typically print a character using multiple dots
created with pins. The more pins in a dot matrix printer, the faster the
performance and the better the print quality. Carbon (ink ribbon) is positioned
in such a way that it lies between pins and the paper. When the print head reaches the correct position, the pins
strike individually on the ribbon, which then produces a print on the paper. In dot matrix printers, the print
mechanism moves both directions (left to right and right to left) throughout the print line. To make a color print,
ribbon soaked in black ink can be replaced with colored stripes. Dot-matrix printers are cheap and usually print
100–600 characters per second.

Daisy Wheel Printers: Daisy wheel printers are impact printers used primarily to
achieve the quality found with typewriters. Because these printers have a
mechanism that looks like a daisy (a flower), they are named daisy wheel
printers. More specifically, these printers have a When the print command is
given, the printer rotates the disk with all its associated characters. As soon as
the desired character arrives at the correct print location, the hammer hits the
disc and the corresponding character hits the ink ribbon to produce a character
on a paper. Besides, daisy wheel printers are not compatible with printing images
or graphics. These printers typically have a speed of about 25–55 characters per
second.
Line Printers
Line printers, also called bar printers, are defined as impact printers that usually print an entire line at a time.
This means that these printers use multiple strokes of a hammer with different print heads at once.
Line printers are further categorized into the following types
Drum Printers: The drum printer consists of a rotating cylindrical drum with a
circular band of characters on its surface. In particular, the surface is divided
into tracks equal to the size of the supported printing paper. Tracks have
characters set on them. Additionally, the drum printer has a separate hammer
for each set of characters. When the print command is given, the drum rotates
and when the desired character reaches under the hammer, the hammer
 quickly strikes the ink ribbon against the paper to print the corresponding character. The paper is placed in such
a way that it lies between the hammer and the ribbon of ink. The character is embossed on paper due to the
hammer pressure.

Chain Printers: The chain printer consists of a revolving

chain with characters set on its surface. These printers
typically have a character set of 48, 64, or 96 characters.
The chain is connected using gears in such a way that it
can rotate horizontally. Like drum printers, chain printers
also have several hammers; the total number of hammers
is exactly equal to the number of print positions. When
the print command is given, the chain rotates with its
respective characters. As soon as the desired character
reaches the correct print position, the hammer strikes the ink ribbon against the paper and the corresponding
character on the chain. In this way, the ink ribbon creates the impression of the corresponding character on
paper. Chain printers are not compatible with printing graphics. However, they can print 300 - 500 lines of
characters per minute. Like other impact printers, chain printers also make a lot of noise.
Band Printers: Band printers, also known as belt printers, are almost
identical to chain printers. But instead of using a chain, band printers
use a steel band with a relatively small number of hammers. Fonts,
such as characters and time marks, are etched on the surface of a steel
band. The hammers are located on a pump, which travel to the
precisely correct positions around the page while printing. When these
hammers reach the correct position, they strike the ribbon, The
hammers are located on a pump, which travel to the precisely correct
positions around the page while printing. When these hammers reach
the correct position, they strike the ribbon. The font styles/ sizes can be
changed in these printers by changing the band. Band printers are
considered superior to drum printers in terms of price and performance.

Non-Impact Printers
Non-impact printers have no hammer to hit the print heads on the ink ribbon. These types of printers do not
even use ink ribbon to produce prints. Instead, non-impact printers use various technologies such as laser,
electrostatic, xerographic, chemical, or inkjet. Unlike impact printers, internal machinery components of non-
impact printers typically do not make any direct contact with the paper. Non-impact printers use efficient
mechanisms to produce full-page prints at once. This is why non-impact printers are sometimes called page
printers.
Non-Impact printers are mainly categorized into the following types:
Inkjet Printers
Inkjet printers are non-impact printers that are widely used by home users and small businesses. These printers
make prints by spraying a pattern of ink droplets on the paper with the help of a nozzle or jet. A nozzle has small
holes to eject small droplets of ink. Inkjet printers use a special type of ink that usually contains iron material. As
the ink exits the nozzle, the ink droplets are electrically charged after passing through a valve. The direction of
the droplets is controlled using electrically charged horizontal and vertical .Inkjet printers store ink in cartridges.
These printers can also produce color prints. For colored inkjet printers, individual cartridges are assembled into
printers that can store different colors. Generally, most inkjet printers use four primary colors, such as black,
yellow, cyan, and magenta. Thus, color prints are produced by mixing these four colors.
Laser Printers
Laser printers are non-impact printers, typically using laser or non-impact photocopier technology to produce
the dots needed to print text or images on paper. When the print command is given, the laser beam produces a
text or image structure on a selenium-coated drum by controlling the electric charges. Once the drum is fully
charged, it is rolled into a toner (dry ink powder) and the charged image particles pick up the toner. After that,
the toner is printed on paper using some heat and pressure. Once printed, additional amounts of toner are
collected as well as electric charges are removed from the drum. Laser printers can produce extremely high-
resolution prints. This can vary from 300 dpi to 1200 dpi depending on system capacity and memory availability.
The higher the DPI, the higher the memory usage and the better the quality. The use of high voltages in these
printers causes some carbon emissions. They are still in widespread use in large offices or companies due to their
efficient performance compared to other printers.
Thermal Printers
Once the first character is printed, the print head moves to the starting position of the second character and
repeats the same process again. The heating elements are switched off in a very short period of time when they
are not in use. Thermal printers are also known as electrothermal printers, thermal transfer printers, or thermal
wax-transfer printers. In a thermal printer, the heating element is heated using an electric current. Besides, each
character is printed by joining a matrix of dots formed by hot pins. To print characters, the print once the first
character is printed, the print head moves to the starting position of the second character and repeats the same
process again. The heating elements are switched off in a very short period of time when they are not in use.
Thermal printers are also known as electrothermal printers, thermal transfer printers, or thermal wax-transfer
printer.
Plotter
Plotters are the type of large format printers that allow us to print relatively large graphics. Due to this, these
printers are quite expensive and require more space than other printers. Unlike regular printers, the plotter can
also print vector graphics on cardboard, film, fabric, and other synthetic surfaces. A plotter usually derives a
vector design from a computer's graphic card and interprets it for printing. Instead of ink or toner like other
printers, the plotter typically uses a pencil, colored pen, marker, and other writing tools to draw a continuous
line between different points to create the entire design.
Software and its Types
System Software
System software is software that directly operates the computer hardware and provides the basic functionality to
the users as well as to the other software to operate smoothly. Or in other words, system software basically
controls a computer’s internal functioning and also controls hardware devices such as monitors, printers, and
storage devices, etc. It is like an interface between hardware and user applications, it helps them to communicate
with each other because hardware understands machine language(i.e. 1 or 0) whereas user applications are work
in human-readable languages like English, Hindi, German, etc. so system software converts the human-readable
language into machine language and vice versa.
Features of system software:
Let us discuss some of the features of System Software:
1. System Software is closer to the computer system.
2. System Software is written in a low-level language in general.
3. System software is difficult to design and understand.
4. System software is fast in speed(working speed).
5. System software is less interactive for the users in comparison to application software.
Types of system software:
It has two subtypes which are:
1. Operating System: It is the main program of a computer system. When the computer system ON it is the first
software that loads into the computer’s memory. Basically, it manages all the resources such as memory, CPU,
printer, hard disk, etc., and provides an interface to the user, which helps the user to interact with the
computer system. It also provides various services to other computer software. Examples of operating systems
are Linux, Apple macOS, Microsoft Windows, etc.
2. Language Processor: As we know that system software converts the human-readable language into a machine
language and vice versa. So, the conversion is done by the language processor. It converts programs written in
high-level programming languages like Java, C, C++, Python, etc(known as source code), into sets of
instructions that are easily readable by machines(known as object code or machine code).
3. Device Driver: A device driver is a program or software that controls a device and helps that device to perform
its functions. Every device like a printer, mouse, modem, etc. needs a driver to connect with the computer
system eternally. So, when you connect a new device with your computer system, first you need to install the
driver of that device so that your operating system knows how to control or manage that device.

Application Software
Software that performs special functions or provides functions that are much more than the basic operation of
the computer is known as application software. Or in other words, application software is designed to perform a
specific task for end-users. It is a product or a program that is designed only to fulfill end-users’ requirements. It
includes word processors, spreadsheets, database management, inventory, payroll programs, etc.
Features of application software:
Let us discuss some of the features of Application Software:
1. An important feature of application software is it performs more specialized tasks like word processing,
spreadsheets, email, etc.
2. Mostly, the size of the software is big, so it requires more storage space.
3. Application software is more interactive for the users, so it is easy to use and design.
4. The application software is easy to design and understand.
5. Application software is written in a high-level language in general.
Types of application software:
There are different types of application software and those are:
1. General Purpose Software: This type of application software is used for a variety of tasks and it is not limited
to performing a specific task only. For example, MS-Word, MS-Excel, PowerPoint, etc.
2. Customized Software: This type of application software is used or designed to perform specific tasks or
functions or designed for specific organizations. For example, railway reservation system, airline reservation
system, invoice management system, etc.
3. Utility Software: This type of application software is used to support the computer infrastructure. It is
designed to analyze, configure, optimize and maintains the system, and take care of its requirements as well.
For example, antivirus, disk fragmentary, memory tester, disk repair, disk cleaners, registry cleaners, disk
space analyzer, etc.

Language Processors
Compilers, interpreters, translate programs written in high-level languages into machine code that a computer
understands. And assemblers translate programs written in low-level or assembly language into machine code. In
the compilation process, there are several stages. To help programmers write error-free code, tools are available.
Assembly language is machine-dependent, yet mnemonics used to represent instructions in it are not directly
understandable by machine and high-Level language is machine-independent. A computer understands
instructions in machine code, i.e. in the form of 0s and 1s. It is a tedious task to write a computer program directly
in machine code. The programs are written mostly in high-level languages like Java, C++, Python etc. and are
called source code. These source code cannot be executed directly by the computer and must be converted into
machine language to be executed. Hence, a special translator system software is used to translate the program
written in a high-level language into machine code is called Language Processor and the program after translated
into machine code (object program/object code).
The language processors can be any of the following three types:
1. Compiler :
The language processor that reads the complete source program written in high-level language as a whole in one
go and translates it into an equivalent program in machine language is called a Compiler. Example: C, C++, C#,
Java. In a compiler, the source code is translated to object code successfully if it is free of errors. The compiler
specifies the errors at the end of the compilation with line numbers when there are any errors in the source code.
The errors must be removed before the compiler can successfully recompile the source code again

2. Assembler :
The Assembler is used to translate the program written in Assembly language into machine code. The source
program is an input of an assembler that contains assembly language instructions. The output generated by the
assembler is the object code or machine code understandable by the computer. Assembler is basically the 1st
interface that is able to communicate humans with the machine. We need an Assembler to fill the gap between
human and machine so that they can communicate with each other. code written in assembly language is some
sort of mnemonics(instructions) like ADD, MUL, MUX, SUB, DIV, MOV and so on. and the assembler is basically
able to convert these mnemonics in Binary code. Here, these mnemonics also depend upon the architecture of
the machine.
For example, the architecture of intel 8085 and intel 8086 are different.

3. Interpreter :
The translation of a single statement of the source program into machine code is done by a language processor
and executes immediately before moving on to the next line is called an interpreter. If there is an error in the
statement, the interpreter terminates its translating process at that statement and displays an error message. The
interpreter moves on to the next line for execution only after the removal of the error. An Interpreter directly
executes instructions written in a programming or scripting language without previously converting them to an
object code or machine code.
Example: Perl, Python and Matlab.
How does a C program executes?
Whenever a C program file is compiled and executed, the compiler generates some files with the same name as
that of the C program file but with different extensions. So, what are these files and how are they created?
Below image shows the compilation process with the files created at each step of the compilation process:

Every file that contains a C program must be saved with ‘.c’ extension. This is necessary for the compiler to
understand that this is a C program file. Suppose a program file is named, first.c. The file first.c is called the source
file which keeps the code of the program. Now, when we compile the file, the C compiler looks for errors. If the C
compiler reports no error, then it stores the file as a .obj file of the same name, called the object file. So, here it
will create the first.obj. This .obj file is not executable. The process is continued by the Linker which finally gives a
.exe file which is executable.
Linker: First of all, let us know that library functions are not a part of any C program but of the C software. Thus,
the compiler doesn’t know the operation of any function, whether it be printf or scanf. The definitions of these
functions are stored in their respective library which the compiler should be able to link. This is what the Linker
does. So, when we write #include, it includes stdio.h library which gives access to Standard Input and Output. The
linker links the object files to the library functions and the program becomes a .exe file. Here, first.exe will be
created which is in an executable format.
Loader: Whenever we give the command to execute a particular program, the loader comes into work. The loader
will load the .exe file in RAM and inform the CPU with the starting point of the address where this program is
loaded.

CPU Registers

Instruction Register: It holds the current instructions to be executed by the

CPU.
Program Counter: It contains the address of the next instructions to be
executed by the CPU.
Accumulator: It stores the information related to calculations.
The loader informs Program Counter about the first instruction and
initiates the execution. Then onwards, Program Counter handles the task.
Difference between Linker and Loader
Linker Loader
Linker generates the executable module of a Loader loads the executable module to the main
source program. memory for execution.
Linker takes the object code generated by an Loader takes executable module generated by a
assembler, as input. linker as input.
Linker combines all the object modules of a source Loader allocates the addresses to an executable
code to generate an executable module. module in main memory for execution.
Linker combines all the object modules of a source The types of Loader are Absolute loading,
code to generate an executable module. Relocatable loading and Dynamic Run-time loading.
How is a java program executed?
JAVA is a compiled and interpreted language and not only just the interpreted language. Lets see step by step
execution of its program.
1. Suppose we write a java program and save it as “hello.java” in a folder somewhere on a hard disk.
2. The name of the java compiler is “javac”. For its compilation we have to write “javac hello.java” on the
command line.
3. At this stage the high level code gets converted to the machine level code. Java converts it into a .class file
as “hello.class” . This code is also known as a byte code because every instruction in this file is of 1 Byte.
4. This byte code can also be taken away on any other platform like Mac, Linux or Windows. It only takes a
JVM of respective OS for its execution. Hence, JAVA is known as a first platform independent and
architecturally neutral language.
5. Now, for its execution, interpreter is used. It is named as a “java” itself. For its interpretation, “java
hello.java” should be used on the command line. It internally invokes class loader which is responsible for
loading the ‘hello.class’ file from hard disk to JVM’s address space.
6. Here there comes a ‘Byte code verifier’ which verifies the code to avoid run time failures. After successful
verification, JVM executes the byte by byte code with the help of OS.
Thus the whole java program gets executed by JVM and OS. While JVM acts as a mini OS for the java program and it
concerns OS only when the instructions are not in its scope.

Number systems
Number systems are the technique to represent numbers in the computer system architecture, every value that
you are saving or getting into/from computer memory has a defined number system. Computer architecture
supports following number systems.
 Binary number system
 Octal number system
 Decimal number system
 Hexadecimal (hex) number system

BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM

A Binary number system has only two digits that are 0 and 1. Every number (value) represents with 0 and 1 in
this number system. The base of binary number system is 2, because it has only two digits.
OCTAL NUMBER SYSTEM
Octal number system has only eight (8) digits from 0 to 7. Every number (value) represents with 0,1,2,3,4,5,6 and
7 in this number system. The base of octal number system is 8, because it has only 8 digits
DECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM
Decimal number system has only ten (10) digits from 0 to 9. Every number (value) represents with 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,
7,8 and 9 in this number system. The base of decimal number system is 10, because it has only 10 digits
HEXADECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM
A Hexadecimal number system has sixteen (16) alphanumeric values from 0 to 9 and A to F. Every number
(value) represents with 0,1,2,3,4,5,6, 7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E and F in this number system. The base of hexadecimal
number system is 16, because it has 16 alphanumeric values. Here A is 10, B is 11, C is 12, D is 14, E is 15 and F is
16.
CONVERSIONS
DECIMAL TO BINARY
Decimal Number System to Other Base To convert Number system from Decimal Number System to Any Other
Base is quite easy; you have to follow just two steps: A) Divide the Number (Decimal Number) by the base of
target base system (in which you want to convert the number: Binary (2), octal (8) and Hexadecimal (16)). B)
Write the remainder from step 1 as a Least Signification Bit (LSB) to Step last as a Most Significant Bit (MSB)

DECIMAL TO OCTAL
DECIMAL TO HEXADECIMAL

BINARY TO OTHER
A) Multiply the digit with 2(with place value exponent). Eventually add all the multiplication becomes the Decimal
number.
BINARY TO DECIMAL
BINARY TO OCTAL

An easy way to convert from binary to octal is to group binary digits into sets of three, starting with the least
significant (rightmost) digits.

BINARY TO HEXADECIMAL

An equally easy way to convert from binary to hexadecimal is to group binary digits into sets of four, starting
with the least significant (rightmost) digits. Binary: 11100101 = 1110 0101

OCTAL TO OTHER
OCTAL TO BINARY
Converting from octal to binary is as easy as converting from binary to octal. Simply look up each octal digit to
obtain the equivalent group of three binary digits
OCTAL TO HEXADECIMAL
When converting from octal to hexadecimal, it is often easier to first convert the octal number into binary and
then from binary into hexadecimal. For example, to convert 345 octal into hex:

Drop any leading zeros or pad with leading zeros to get groups of four binary digits (bits): Binary 011100101 =
1110 0101

Therefore, through a two-step conversion process, octal 345 equals binary 011100101 equals hexadecimal E5.
OCTAL TO DECIMAL
The conversion can also be performed in the conventional mathematical way, by showing each digit place as an
increasing power of 8.
345 octal = (3 * 82 ) + (4 * 81 ) + (5 * 80 ) = (3 * 64) + (4 * 8) + (5 * 1) = 229 decimal.
Converting octal to decimal can be done with repeated division.
1. Start the decimal result at 0.
2. Remove the most significant octal digit (leftmost) and add it to the result.
3. If all octal digits have been removed, you’re done. Stop.
4. Otherwise, multiply the result by 8. 5. Go to step 2.

->(345)8 =(229)10
 HEXADECIMAL TO OTHER
HEXADECIMAL TO BINARY
Converting from hexadecimal to binary is as easy as converting from binary to hexadecimal. Simply look up each
hexadecimal digit to obtain the equivalent group of four binary digits.

Some Unique Computer Fundamental Question & Answer (2016-2021)

1. How can improve the performance of computer in memory? [Combined Bank, SO(IT) 2020]
ANS:
INCREASE VIRTUAL MEMORY
Virtual memory is the space your computer uses when it's short of RAM (Random Access Memory), which is the
memory used when running programs like Office Suites.
Resetting the virtual memory usage on your computer, also referred to as pagination, is great way speed up
computer.
STORING FILES ON THE MAIN DRIVE:
Do not store lots of data on the main drive, which is where you install your windows operating system. Storing
software like games, finance programs and other software on another drive of your computer is another way to
improve computer performance. The instructions on how to do this depends on the operating system so it is
best to check the help section of your computer's operating system.
RESETTING START UP MENU:
The speed with which your computer boots depends on the amount of programs that are set to be started
automatically at booting. Removing unnecessary and unwanted programs from the start up process can greatly
speed up computers at the start up level.
TURN OFF SYSTEM RESTORE:
Having the system restore option on takes a lot of space from the hard drive. Freeing up a lot of physical
memory by turning off system restore can significantly speed up computer and improve computer performance.
To access System Restore: click START, then click ACCESSORIES, click SYSTEM TOOLS, then click SYSTEM
RESTORE. Once there click edit settings and then turn off the system restore option.
CLEANING INTERNET CACHE AND COOKIES:
Temporary Internet files affect browser speed, as well as, computer speed in general. Regularly cleaning the
cache and cookies is a great way to improve computer performance and speed.

To clean the cache and cookies:

Just click Tools from your browser tool bar and click on Internet Options to delete and clear cache and cookies.
This should be done on a regular basis to speed up the computer and browser. Also, most browsers, like Firefox
and Internet Explorer allow you to set automatic options for cleaning the cache and cookies.
DEFRAGMENTING THE DISK
Regularly defragmenting the drive will significantly speed up computer. This tool is part a of Windows
accessories and can be accessed from the Start Menu then click Accessories then click System Tools.
Stop letting the computer make you crazy. The above are simple how to speed up computer tips and can
significantly improve computer performance and allow you to get on with computing.
 Optical disk data Read/Write operation [BPSC ANE 2020]
ANS:
An optical disk is any computer disk that uses optical storage techniques and technology to read and write
data. It is a computer storage disk that stores data digitally and uses laser beams (transmitted from a laser
head mounted on an optical disk drive) to read and write data.
Read data from an optical disk such as a CD-ROM or DVD-ROM.
An optical disk to store data in a binary format, and be able to read from it.On an optical disk, data is stored
along a track which consits of pits and lands (these are high and low points). When reading from an optical
disk, a laser is shone onto the surface and focussed onto a part of the track. Some of the light will be
reflected back from the disk and the amount of this is measured.Continuing along a pit or land causes most
of the light to be reflected, but transitioning between the two causes the light to be scattered (so a lower
intensity is measured reflecting back). The transition can be used to represent a 1 in binary, and continuing
along a pit or land can represent a 0.The disk rotates at a constant linear velocity, allowing all areas of the
surface to be accessed by the laser.
Writing onto an Optical Disc
The tiny marks made in the disc’s plastic layer correspond to the 0s and 1s present in binary computer code.
Computer files stored in this manner can be made up of several billion etchings or more, depending on the size of
the file. Because the bumps made in the plastic are so small, optical discs can still hold large volumes of data. In
order to accommodate the large file sizes, etchings are wound around the optical disc in a spiral shaped pattern. As
we can see in the picture below, each information spiral begins at the inner edge of the disc. By storing information
in this way, users can directly access the files they’re interested in, without having to open any others.

Data stored within optical discs is arranged in a spiral-shaped pattern, winding from the disc’s center to its edge. This
allows the data files stored on the disc to be accessed directly, without needing to open irrelevant files. Picture
courtesy of HowStuffWorks.com

The next layer surrounding the plastic layer is reflective aluminum. The major function of this layer is allowing a
laser’s light to reflect off of the disc’s surface and then back toward a detector. The data encoded in the plastic layer
is eventually read and interpreted as the disc reflects backs the laser beam. The detector, on the other hand, easily
distinguishes 0s and 1s as the disc reflects the light differently from etched and unetched parts of the surface. The
final outer polycarbonate layer’s function is to protect the data stored within the optical disc. This layer protects the
optical disc from common traumas that might damage its memory. Unfortunately, this layer is delicate and unable to
protect the disc from major scratches or prevent the disc’s ridges from wearing out over time.
 Write functions of the CPU in short. [BB IT 2020]
ANS:
The computer needs various important components to work properly and efficiently. One of the core parts is the
CPU (Central Processing Unit). CPU or Central Processing Unit is computer hardware that carries out a computer’s
instructions and controls all the arithmetical, logical, and input/output operations of a computer system.
In short, all the data processing operations within a computer are controlled by the CPU.

The main function of CPU in the computer is to store and process by performing all the mathematical and logical
calculations with the input data to provide the output data to the users, thereby working on the computer.
The function of CPU in 4 Steps:
1. The CPU receives the data when the computer inputs the data through input devices such as a keyboard or
mouse.
2. After this, the CPU process these input data by performing calculations and technical algorithm.
3. And then CPU provides the processed data through output devices such as on the monitor screen.
4. The CPU also stores the process data in the form of a cache for future use.

What are the building blocks of a digital computer? Describe each unit briefly with their functions.[38th BCS]
ANS:
Computers that we have now today are perfectly designed as digital or called digital computers. Because of
the digital computer our environment changes through digital computing. The most common purpose is data
processing. Government, Industries, and business use computers to preserve records, perform accounting
tasks, keep and track the records of inventory, and provide a widely diversity of other data processing
functions.

Control Unit- this is the device or a part of

computer responsibly or performs such regulating
functions. A memory controller chip, for example,
is the controller to access the computer’s memory.
Therefore, it is the controlling unit of that
memory.
Arithmetic Logic Unit- this is the part or a circuitry of the Microprocessor chip for arithmetic operations,
proportional and related functions, and logical functions. The common term that the processor's ability of
the system of the computer is to fetch, decode, and execute the data.
Memory- this is a part of a computer or a card or modules that inserted into the motherboard’s slot. This is a
circuit that allows the information to be stored and retrieved. In other functions, it also refers to the disk
drives that stored permanently, the information or the data.
Input Devices- this refers to the devices of computers that externally connected to the System Unit that the
system of computer feeds or decode first the data before to display using the output devices of a computer.
Output Devices- this refers to the devices of computer that have an ability to display the information or can
produce a hardcopy of a document. The main output device of the computer, example is the monitor or the
display screen, that commonly called as Cathode Ray Tube (CRT), Liquid Crystal Display (CRT), and the new
LED or the light emitting diode that the fluorescent lamp inside the LCD panel was replaced by an LED light.
 Differentiate between system software and application software. [MM AP 2017]
ANS:
Basis System Software Application Software
System software consists of variety of programs Application software focuses on an application or
Definition
that support the operation of computer. problem to be solved.
System software are installed on the computer Application software are installed according to
Installation
when operating system is installed. user’s requirements.
Interaction In general, the user does not interact with system In general, the user interacts with application
with software because it works in the background. sofware.
System Software is written in a low-level Application Software is written in a high-level
Written In
language, i.e. assembly language. language like Java, C++, .net, VB, etc.
System software manages resources and helps to Application software perform specific task
Manages
run hardware and application software. according to their type.
System software can run independently. It Application software can’t run independently.
Dependency provides platform for running application They can’t run without the presence of
software. system software
System software will start running once you turn Application software will run only when required
your computer on. It will continue running to do so. You will start a word processor
Execution
until the time that you will turn off your when you need to open or prepare some
computer. documents.
Examples of system software are: Operating
System, Compiler, Assembler, Macro Some examples of application software are word
Examples
Processor, Loader or Linker, Debugger, Text processor, web browser, media player, etc.
Editor, DBMS.

Explain the functions of ALU and Control Unit of a computer. [MM AP 2017]
ANS:.

The characteristics of the CU or control unit are as follows:

- This part of the of the CPU is the one that is in charge of all the operations being carried out.

- It is responsible to direct the system to execute instructions.

- It helps in communication between the memory and the arithmetic logical unit.

- It also aids in the loading of data and instructions residing in the secondary memory to the main memory as
required.

The characteristics of the ALU are as follows:

- The ALU is responsible for performing all logical and arithmetic operations.

- Some of the arithmetic operations are as follows: addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.

- Some of the logical operations are as follows: comparison between numbers, letter and or special characters.

- The ALU is also responsible for the following conditions: Equal-to conditions, Less-than condition and greater
than condition.
 “Pentium processor has a superscalar architecture.” Explain the meaning of statement. [MM AP
2017]
ANS:
The Pentium has what is known as a “superscalar pipelined architecture.” Superscalar means that the CPU can
execute two (or more) instructions per cycle.
A more aggressive approach is to equip the processor with multiple processing units to handle several
instructions in parallel in each processing stage. With this arrangement, several instructions start execution in
the same clock cycle and the process is said to use multiple issue. Such processors are capable of achieving an
instruction execution throughput of more than one instruction per cycle. They are known as ‘Superscalar
Processors’.

In the above diagram, there is a processor with two execution units; one for integer and one for floating point
operations. The instruction fetch unit is capable of reading the instructions at a time and storing them in the
instruction queue. In each cycle, the dispatch unit retrieves and decodes up to two instructions from the front
of the queue. If there is one integer, one floating point instruction and no hazards, both the instructions are
dispatched in the same clock cycle.
Advantages of Superscalar Architecture :
 The compiler can avoid many hazards through judicious selection and ordering of instructions.
 The compiler should strive to interleave floating point and integer instructions. This would enable the dispatch
unit to keep both the integer and floating point units busy most of the time.
 In general, high performance is achieved if the compiler is able to arrange program instructions to take
maximum advantage of the available hardware units.
Disadvantages of Superscalar Architecture :
 In a Superscalar Processor, the detrimental effect on performance of various hazards becomes even more
pronounced.
 Due to this type of architecture, problem in scheduling can occur.

Explain how cache memory is used to increase the processing speed of computer. [MM AP 2017]

ANS: Cache is a small amount of memory which is part of the CPU which is physically closer to the CPU than RAM is.
The more cache there is, the more data can be stored closer to the CPU.

Cache memory is beneficial because:

 Cache memory holds frequently used instructions/data which the processor may require next and it is faster
access memory than RAM, since it is on the same chip as the processor.
 This reduces the need for frequent slower memory retrievals from main memory, which may otherwise keep
the CPU waiting.

-The more cache the CPU has, the less time the computer spends accessing slower main memory and as a result
programs may run faster.
Write down the necessary components of a USB bus with block diagram. [ICT Ministry AP 2017]
ANS:

What is computer bus? What is the unit of measurement of speed of computer bus? Describe about
various types of computer bus. (BKKB AP 2017]
ANS: The electrically conducting path along which data is transmitted inside any digital electronic device.
A Computer bus consists of a set of parallel conductors, which may be conventional wires, copper tracks on
a PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD, or microscopic aluminum trails on the surface of a silicon chip.

The speed at which buses conduct signals is measured in megahertz (Mhz). Typical PCs today run at speeds
between 20 and 65Mhz.
There are a variety of buses found inside the computer.
Data Bus: The data bus allows data to travel back and forth between the microprocessor (CPU)
and memory (RAM).
Address Bus: The address bus carries information about the location of data in memory.
Control Bus : The control bus carries the control signals that make sure everything is flowing smoothly from
place to place.
Expansion Bus: If your computer has expansion slots, there’s an expansion bus. Messages
and information pass between your computer and the add-in boards you plug in over the expansion bus.
 Differentiated between cache memory and virtual memory. [BKKB AP 2017]
ANS:
BASIS OF COMPARISON CACHE MEMORY VIRTUAL MEMORY
Cache memory is a small high-speed Virtual memory can be described as the
memory usually Static RAM (SRAM) amount of physical hard drive space used
Description
that contains the most recently to store additional memory that the RAM
accessed pieces of main memory. is unable to store.
It increases the capacity of the main memory
Function It increases the accessing speed of CPU. i.e increases the degree of
multiprogramming.

Management It is managed by the hardware. It is managed by the operating system (OS).

No mapping structures are required in a It requires mapping structures to map virtual

Mapping
cache memory. address to physical address.

It slows down the computer as it takes a lot of

Cache memory lessens the amount of
Advantage/Disadvantage energy and time to access data from the
time required to access data.
hard drive to be used.
Usually recently used data is one that is Usually programs with larger size than the
Execution Of Data/Program copied or captured in the cache main memory are executed in the virtual
memory. memory.
The size of cache memory is smaller (less) Virtual memory is usually larger in size than
Size
than that of virtual memory. cache memory.

Cache memory can be described as a Virtual memory it cannot be described as a

Memory Unit
memory unit. memory unit, it’s a technique.

Difference between Cache Memory and Register

Parameters Cache Memory Register

Definition Cache is the fastest and smallest component of The registers are fast storage elements present in a
memory in a computer system. very small amount in the computer processor.

Data Stored The recently used info/data of a computer gets The data that the computer’s CPU is currently
stored in the cache. processing gets stored in the registers.

Used by CPU The CPU utilises a cache for detecting the data that The CPU utilises registers for processing all the data
was stored previously. and info that is new.

Location We can locate the cache of a system on its The registers form a part of a computer device’s CPU.
motherboard or inside the CPU.

Data Processing It stores data in a processed form. It stores data in an unprocessed form.

CPU Memory The CPU of a system can access the cache memory When operating on registers, a CPU can operate on
Access much faster than that of the register memory. its contents at a rate of multiple operations in a
Speed single clock cycle.

Examples Database Query Cache, Dynamic Page Cache, etc., The loop is an example of the registers.
are a few examples of Cache memory.