LECTURE 4:

LIMITS AT INFINITY
AND CONTINUITY
MAT1051
BAU
Lecture 4 Objectives
◦ Evaluate limits at infinity.
◦ Find horizontal and slant asymptotes.
◦ Define continuity at a point.
◦ Examine the continuity of a function.
◦ Apply the Intermediate Value Theorem.
 Infinite Limits vs. Limits at Infinity
◦ In the previous lecture we explored infinite limits and vertical asymptotes. More
precisely, we investigated when function values increase or decrease without bound
near a point.
◦ In this lecture, we are concerned with the end behavior of a function. That is, we let 𝑥
become arbitrarily large (positive or negative) and investigate the behavior of 𝑦.
◦ To motivate the definition of limits at infinity, consider the function
𝑥! − 1
𝑓 𝑥 = ! .
𝑥 +1
◦ What is the behavior of 𝑓 𝑥 as 𝑥 becomes large?
◦ From the table on the right, we deduce that as 𝑥 grows larger and larger, 𝑓(𝑥) gets
closer and closer to 1.
◦ Our conclusion is also confirmed by the graph on the right, and we write,
𝑥! − 1
lim = 1.
"→$ 𝑥 ! + 1
Limits at Infinity
Definition
◦ Let 𝑓 be a function defined on some interval 𝑎, ∞ . Then
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿
.→0
means that the values of 𝑓 𝑥 can be made arbitrarily close to 𝐿 by taking 𝑥
sufficiently large.
◦ Let 𝑓 be a function defined on some interval −∞, 𝑎 . Then
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿
.→10
means that the values of 𝑓 𝑥 can be made arbitrarily close to 𝐿 by
taking 𝑥 sufficiently large negative.
◦ In either cases, the line 𝑦 = 𝐿 is a horizontal asymptote.
 Geometric Interpretations of Infinite Limits

lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿
"→$

Remarks:
• ±∞ is not a number, it is once more an expression to indicate that we are
investigating the end behavior of a function.
• Unlike vertical asymptotes, the graph of a function might intersect the
horizontal asymptote.
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿
"→%$
 Example 1
−
◦ Find the horizontal asymptotes of 𝑦 = tan!" 𝑥.
◦ Solution
' '
◦ Recall tan%& 𝑥 is the inverse of 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 on the interval − , .
! ! 𝑦 = tan 𝑥
◦ The graph of tan%& 𝑥 is a reflection of the graph of 𝑦 = tan 𝑥 about the line 𝑦 = 𝑥.
'
◦ Thus, the vertical asymptotes 𝑥 = ± of tan 𝑥 become horizontal asymptotes of 𝑦 = tan%& 𝑥 .
!

= =
lim tan1< 𝑥 = >
and lim tan1< 𝑥 = − >
.→0 .→10

𝑦 = tan!" 𝑥
 Example 2
◦ Evaluate the following limit
10
lim 2+ & .
#→!% 𝑥
◦ Solution:
◦ We are interested in investigating the behavior of the function as 𝑥 becomes large and negative.
◦ Using the limit laws, we write
10 10
lim 2 + & = lim 2 + lim .
#→!% 𝑥 #→!% #→!% 𝑥 &
"'
◦ As 𝑥 becomes large and negative, 𝑥 & becomes large and positive. This, in turn, makes ! tend to 0.
#
◦ To convince yourselves, experiment with large negative values of 𝑥:
10 10 10
& = 0.1, & = 0.001, & = 1×10!"" , …
−10 −100 −1000000
Example 2 Continued
◦ Based on the argument above and limit laws,
10 10
lim 2 + & = lim 2 + lim = 2 + 0 = 2.
#→!% 𝑥 #→!% #→!% 𝑥 &
"'
◦ Therefore, the graph of 𝑦 = 2 + has a horizontal asymptote at 𝑦 = 2.
#!
 Example 3
◦ Evaluate the following limit
sin 𝑥
lim 5 + .
#→% 𝑥
◦ Solution:
◦ Again using the limit laws, we can investigate each term separately,
sin 𝑥 sin 𝑥
lim 5 + = lim 5 + lim .
"→$ 𝑥 "→$ "→$ 𝑥
()* "
◦ To evaluate lim , observe that
"→$ "
−1 ≤ sin 𝑥 ≤ 1 .
◦ Therefore, for 𝑥 > 0, we have
1 sin 𝑥 1
−≤ ≤ .
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
◦ As 𝑥 → ∞, 𝑥 → ∞, thus by the Squeeze Theorem,
−1 1
lim = 0 = lim
"→$ 𝑥 "→$ 𝑥
 Example 4
◦ Find the infinite limits, limits at infinity, and asymptotes of the function 𝑓 whose graph is
shown.
◦ Solution:
◦ To find the infinite limits, we need to figure out where
do the values of 𝑓(𝑥) become large.
◦ This happens when 𝑥 approaches −1 and 2.
◦ More precisely
◦ lim 𝑓 𝑥 = ∞,
"→%& Therefore,
◦ lim!𝑓( 𝑥) = ∞ 𝑥 = −1 and 𝑥 = 2 are both vertical
"→!
◦ lim"𝑓( 𝑥) = −∞ asymptotes.
"→!
 Example 4 Continued
◦ To evaluate the limits at infinity, we need to investigate the behavior of 𝑓 as 𝑥 becomes large.
◦ Thus,
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 2 .
!→# !→$#
◦ In conclusion, 𝑦 = 4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 2 are both
horizontal asymptotes.
 Infinite Limits at Infinity
Definition

◦ If 𝑓(𝑥) becomes arbitrarily large in magnitude as 𝑥 becomes arbitrarily large in

magnitude, then we have an infinite limit at infinity.
◦ More specifically, we write
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = ∞
.→0
◦ Similarly, we can define the following limits
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = −∞, lim 𝑓 𝑥 = ∞, and lim 𝑓 𝑥 = −∞ .
.→0 .→10 .→10
 Infinite Limits at Infinity
◦ Consider 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 E , when 𝑛 is a positive integer.
When 𝑛 is even
◦ When 𝑛 is even, lim 𝑥E = ∞. lim 𝑥 & = ∞
.→±0 #→%

◦ When 𝑛 is odd, lim 𝑥 E = ∞, and lim 𝑥 E = −∞.

.→0 .→10
When 𝑛 is even
lim 𝑥 & = ∞
When 𝑛 is odd #→!%
lim 𝑥 & = ∞
#→%

When 𝑛 is odd
lim 𝑥 & = −∞
#→!%
 Infinite Limits at Infinity
"
◦ When 𝑛 is a positive integer, how does the reciprocal of power functions 𝑓 𝑥 = behave as 𝑥 → ±∞?
#"
" "
lim = lim 𝑥 !( = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 lim = lim 𝑥 !( = 0.
#→% #" #→% #→!% #" #→!%
◦ How about the behavior of a polynomial 𝑝 𝑥 = 𝑎( 𝑥 ( + 𝑎(!" 𝑥 (!" + ⋯ +
𝑎" 𝑥 + 𝑎' as 𝑥 → ±∞?
lim 𝑎( 𝑥 ( + 𝑎(!" 𝑥 (!" + ⋯ + 𝑎" 𝑥 + 𝑎' = ±∞,
#→%
depending on the degree of the polynomial and the sign of the leading coefficient 𝑎( .
◦ Why is the latter limit true?
◦ Rewriting the polynomial 𝑝 as 0 0 0
(
𝑎(!" 𝑎(!& 𝑎'
𝑝 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑎( + + & + ⋯+ ( ,
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
We observe that all the terms vanish as 𝑥 → ±∞ except for the first term.
◦ Thus, 𝑝 𝑥 ≈ 𝑎( 𝑥 ( as 𝑥 → ±∞.
Example 5
◦ Evaluate the limits as 𝑥 → ±∞ of the following function
𝑝 𝑥 = 3𝑥 F − 6𝑥 > + 𝑥 − 10.
◦ Solution:
◦ The limit at infinity of a polynomial is determined by the behavior of the leading
coefficient.
lim 3𝑥 % − 6𝑥 & + 𝑥 − 10 = lim 3𝑥 % = ∞.
!→# !→#
◦ Since the degree of the polynomial is 4 (even), we get
lim 3𝑥 % − 6𝑥 & + 𝑥 − 10 = lim 3𝑥 % = ∞.
!→$# !→$#
Example 6
◦ Evaluate the limits as 𝑥 → ±∞ of the following function
𝑝 𝑥 = −3𝑥 G − 5𝑥 > + 2𝑥 − 15.
◦ Solution:
◦ The limit at infinity of a polynomial is determined by the behavior of the leading
coefficient. ∞
lim −3𝑥 ' − 5𝑥 & + 2𝑥 − 15 = lim −3𝑥 ' = −∞.
!→# !→#
◦ Since the degree of the polynomial is 3 (odd), we get −∞
lim −3𝑥 ' − 5𝑥 & + 2𝑥 − 15 = lim −3𝑥 ' = ∞.
!→$# !→$#
 Example 7: End Behavior of Rational
Functions
◦ Determine the end behavior of the following rational function,
3𝑥 + 2
𝑓 𝑥 = 5 .
𝑥 −1
◦ Solution:
#
◦ We know the behavior of both the numerator and denominator as they are both polynomials. However, # is not 𝟏, it is
called an indeterminate form. Thus, extra work is needed to investigate the end behavior of 𝑓.
◦ Step 1: Factor out the highest degree in the numerator and denominator,
2
3𝑥 + 2 𝑥 3+
lim & = lim 𝑥
$→# 𝑥 − 1 $→# & 1
𝑥 1− &
𝑥
'
◦ Step 2: Evaluate the limit of all terms in the form ' 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 → ∞,
$
2
3𝑥 + 2 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 = lim 3𝑥 .
lim & = lim
$→# 𝑥 − 1 $→# & 1 $→# 𝑥 &
𝑥 1−
𝑥
◦ Step 3: Simplify the expression
2
3𝑥 + 2 𝑥 3+
lim = lim 𝑥 = lim 3𝑥 = lim 3 .
#→% 𝑥 & − 1 #→% & 1 #→% 𝑥 & #→% 𝑥
𝑥 1− &
𝑥
◦ Step 4: Evaluate the limit
2
3𝑥 + 2 𝑥 3+ 3𝑥 3
lim = lim 𝑥 = lim & = lim = 0 .
#→% 𝑥 & − 1 #→% & 1 #→% 𝑥 #→% 𝑥
𝑥 1− &
𝑥
)#*&
◦ Similarly, lim ! = 0. Therefore, the graph of 𝑓 has a horizontal asymptote 𝑦 = 0.
#→!% # !"
 Example 8: End Behavior of Rational
Functions
◦ Determine the end behavior of the following rational function,
40𝑥 + + 2𝑥 & + 1
𝑓 𝑥 = .
5𝑥 + + 8𝑥 & − 1
◦ Step 1: Factor out the highest degree in the numerator and denominator,
+ & 𝑥 + 40 + 2 + 1
40𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 1 𝑥& 𝑥+
lim = lim
#→% 5𝑥 + + 8𝑥 & − 1 #→% + 8 1
𝑥 5+ &− +
𝑥 𝑥
,
◦ Step 2: Evaluate the limit of all terms in the form " 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 → ∞,
#
+ & 𝑥 + 40 + 2 + 1
40𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 1 𝑥 & 𝑥 + 40𝑥 +
lim = lim = lim .
#→% 5𝑥 + + 8𝑥 & − 1 #→% + 8 1 #→% 5𝑥 +
𝑥 5+ &− +
𝑥 𝑥
◦ Step 3: Simplify the expression and evaluate the limit.
2 1
40𝑥 F + 2𝑥 >
+1 𝑥 F 40 + > + F 40𝑥 F
lim = lim 𝑥 𝑥 = lim = 8.
F >
.→0 5𝑥 + 8𝑥 − 1 .→0 F 8 1 .→0 5𝑥 F
𝑥 5+ >− F
𝑥 𝑥
FH. 6 I>. 7 I<
◦ Similarly, lim = 8.
.→10 J. 6 IK. 7 1<
◦ Therefore, the graph of 𝑓 has a horizontal asymptote 𝑦 = 8.
 Example 9: End Behavior of Rational
Functions
◦ Determine the end behavior of the following rational function,
𝑥 ) − 2𝑥 + 1
𝑓 𝑥 = .
3𝑥 + 4
◦ Step 1: Factor out the highest degree in the numerator and denominator,
) 𝑥 ) 1− 2 + 1
𝑥 − 2𝑥 + 1 𝑥 & 𝑥 )
lim = lim
#→% 3𝑥 + 4 #→% 4
𝑥 3+
𝑥
,
◦ Step 2: Evaluate the limit of all terms in the form " 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 → ∞,
#
) 𝑥 ) 1− 2 + 1
𝑥 − 2𝑥 + 1 𝑥 & 𝑥 ) 𝑥)
lim = lim = lim .
#→% 3𝑥 + 4 #→% 4 #→% 3𝑥
𝑥 3+
𝑥
◦ Step 3: Simplify the expression and evaluate the limit.
) 𝑥 ) 1− 2 + 1
𝑥 − 2𝑥 + 1 𝑥 & 𝑥 ) 𝑥) 𝑥&
lim = lim = lim = lim = ∞.
#→% 3𝑥 + 4 #→% 4 #→% 3𝑥 #→% 3
𝑥 3+
𝑥

. 8 1>.I<
◦ Similarly, lim =∞
.→10 G.IF
◦ Therefore, the graph of 𝑓 does not have a horizontal asymptote.
Example 10: End Behavior of Rational
Functions (Slant Asymptotes)
!" #+,"%!
◦ Consider the graph of 𝑓 𝑥 = (shown on the left).
"+&
◦ As 𝑥 → ∞, 𝑓 𝑥 → ∞, and as 𝑥 → −∞, 𝑓 𝑥 → −∞, and hence no
horizontal asymptote.
◦ However, one observes that the graph of the function approaches
a line (with finite and nonzero slope) as 𝑥 → ±∞.
◦ This line is called a slant asymptote.
◦ To find the slant asymptote, use long division as follows,
&#! *-#!& - Approaches 0 as
𝑓 𝑥 = = 2𝑥 + 4 − 𝑥→∞
#*" #*"
-
◦ As 𝑥 → ∞, the term → 0, and the function 𝑓(𝑥)
2𝑥 ( + 6𝑥 − 2 #*"
𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥+1 behaves like the line 𝑙 𝑥 = 2𝑥 + 4.
 Summary of End Behavior and Asymptotes
of Rational Functions
. #
◦ Suppose 𝑓 𝑥 = is a rational function, where
/ #
𝑝 𝑥 = 𝑎0 𝑥 0 + 𝑎0!" 𝑥 0!" + ⋯ + 𝑎& 𝑥 & + 𝑎" 𝑥 + 𝑎' , and
𝑞 𝑥 = 𝑏( 𝑥 ( + 𝑏(!" 𝑥 (!" + ⋯ + 𝑏& 𝑥 & + 𝑏" 𝑥 + 𝑏' ,
with 𝑎0 ≠ 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏( ≠ 0.
◦ If 𝑚 < 𝑛, then lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑦 = 0 is a horizontal asymptote of 𝑓.
#→%
,( ,(
◦ If 𝑚 = 𝑛, then lim 𝑓 𝑥 = and 𝑦 = is a horizontal asymptote of 𝑓.
#→% 1" 1"

◦ If 𝑚 > 𝑛, then lim 𝑓 𝑥 = ∞ or − ∞ and 𝑓 has no horizontal asymptote.

#→±%
◦ If 𝑚 = 𝑛 + 1, then lim 𝑓 𝑥 = ∞ or − ∞ and 𝑦 has no horizontal asymptote, but 𝑓 has a slant
#→±%
asymptote.
◦ If 𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞 have no common factor, then 𝑓 has a vertical asymptote at the zeros of 𝑞.
 Example 11: End Behavior of an Algebraic
Function
◦ Determine the end behavior of 𝑓 𝑥 = .
()! - $'! . *+
&,! / *! 0 *&
◦ Solution:
◦ To evaluate the limit as 𝑥 → ∞, we will proceed in a similar way as we did to investigate the end behavior of rational
functions. However, we must pay closer attention to the fact that the denominator is a polynomial under a square root.
◦ Note then, that the highest power in the denominator is 𝑥 ) = 𝑥 * .
◦ For 𝑥 > 0,
3 8
10𝑥 ) − 3𝑥 & +8 𝑥 ) 10 − +
𝑥 𝑥)
lim = lim
#→% 25𝑥 - + 𝑥+ +2 #→% 1 2
𝑥- 25 + & + -
𝑥 𝑥
0 0
3 8
𝑥 G 10 − +
𝑥 𝑥G <H. 8
= lim = lim 8
N>
.→0 1 2 .→0 >J .
𝑥G 25 + > + M
𝑥 𝑥
0 0
◦ As 𝑥 → −∞, 𝑥 ) is negative, so we consider 𝑥 - = −𝑥 ) *
3 8
10𝑥 ) − 3𝑥 & +8 𝑥 ) 10 − +
𝑥 𝑥)
lim = lim
#→!% 25𝑥 - + 𝑥+ +2 #→!% 1 2
𝑥- 25 + & + -
𝑥 𝑥

3 8
𝑥 G 10 − + G
𝑥 𝑥 <H. 8
*Recall that
= lim = lim 8
N1>
.→10 1 2 .→0 1 >J .
𝑥, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 0 −𝑥 G 25 + > + M
𝑥! = 𝑥 =O
−𝑥, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 0 𝑥 𝑥
Therefore,
, 1 𝑥1, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 0
𝑥 = 𝑥 =S 1
−𝑥 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 0
 <H. 8 1G. 7 IK
◦ Thus, 𝑓 𝑥 = has two asymptotes 𝑦 = 2 and 𝑦 = −2.
>J. ? I. 6 I>
End Behavior of Transcendental Functions
lim 𝑒 " = ∞ lim ln 𝑥 = ∞
"→$ "→$
lim 𝑒 " = 0 lim ln 𝑥 = −∞
"→%$ "→2!
End Behavior of
Transcendental
Functions

The cosine oscillates between

− 1 and 1 as 𝑥 → ∞. Therefore,
lim cos 𝑥 does not exist.
"→±$
Continuity:
“Drawing without lifting your pencil”

◦ We now direct our attention to investigating the “niceness” of a function. In other words, we try to
understand the distinction between functions whose graphs contain holes or jumps and those who
do not.
◦ To do so, we talk about the continuity and discontinuity of functions.
◦ To give you an idea, consider the following real-life examples in which both cases are depicted:
◦ If 𝑇 = 𝑓(𝑡) represents the temperature changes throughout the day, then the temperature
gradually increases or decreases rather than making sudden jumps. Then the graph of the
temperature contains no holes or jumps. We say, in this scenario, that the temperature function
with respect to time of the day, 𝑡, is continuous.
◦ When appliances are turned on or off, the voltage changes abruptly, creating a discontinuity.
◦ A continuous function can model the growth of a population without abrupt jumps, while
discontinuities may represent sudden immigration or emigration events.
 Continuity at a point
Definition:
A function 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑎 if
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑎 . If 𝑓 is not continuous at 𝑎,
"→4
then 𝑎 is a point of discontinuity.

The definition, in other words, provides us with a

strategy to determine whether a function 𝑓 is
continuous at 𝑎.
1. 𝑓(𝑎) is defined (𝑎 is in the domain of 𝑓).
2. lim 𝑓 𝑥 exists.
"→4
3. lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑎 (the value of 𝑓 equals the
"→4
limit of 𝑓 at 𝑎).
 Example 12
◦ Use the graph of 𝑓 to determine the values of 𝑥 at which 𝑓 has a
discontinuity.
◦ Solution:
◦ The function 𝑓 has apparent discontinuities at 𝑥 = −4, 2, and 4.

Point 𝒙 = 𝒂 𝒇(𝒂) lim 𝒇(𝒙) lim 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒇(𝒂) Conclusion

𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂
-4 3 DNE since NO Discontinuous
lim " 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝟑 ≠ lim ! 𝒇 𝒙 = −𝟐
𝒙→%𝟒 𝒙→%𝟒
2 −1 DNE since NO Discontinuous
lim" 𝒇 𝒙 = −𝟏 ≠ lim! 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝟓
𝒙→𝟐 𝒙→𝟐
4 undefined lim 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝟐 = lim! 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝟐 NO Discontinuous
𝒙→𝟒" 𝒙→𝟒
 Example 13
◦ Where is the following function discontinuous?
1" #+9%!
a) 𝑓 𝑥 = " #%!:
&
, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≠ 0
b) 𝑓 𝑥 = d" #
0, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 0

◦ Solution:
a) Notice that 𝑓 5 and 𝑓(−5) are not defined, so 𝑓 is discontinuous at 5 and −5.
b) We see that the possible problematic point for 𝑓 is 𝑥 = 0. We need to check all three conditions to
confirm our observation.
◦ 𝑓 0 =0
◦ 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 1/𝑥 ! does not exist.
"→2 "→2 Thus, the function is not continuous
at 𝑥 = 0 since the limit does not
exist as 𝑥 → 0
 Continuity Rules
Theorem
If 𝑓 and 𝑔 are continuous at 𝑎, then the following functions are also continuous at 𝑎. Assume 𝑐
is a constant and 𝑛 is an integer.
◦ 𝑓+𝑔
◦ 𝑓−𝑔
◦ 𝑐𝑓
◦ 𝑓𝑔
3
◦ , provided 𝑔 𝑎 ≠ 0
4
(
◦ 𝑓 𝑥

To convince you, let us prove the first result. If 𝑓 and 𝑔 are continuous at 𝑎, then lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑎) and
!→#
lim 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑔 𝑎 . Then, from Limit Laws, we have lim 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑔 𝑎 . Thus, 𝑓 + 𝑔 is continuous at 𝑎.
!→# !→#
 Continuity of Polynomial and Rational
Functions
The following theorem is a direct consequence of the continuity rules.
Theorem
• A polynomial function is continuous for all 𝑥.
• Any rational function is continuous wherever it is defined; that is, it is continuous on its domain.

. 8 I>. 7 1<
Example: The function 𝑓 𝑥 = .1>
is continuous on
its domain, which is 𝑥: 𝑥 ≠ 2 .
 What Else is Continuous?
◦ It turns out that most functions we have seen so far are continuous at every point in
their domains.
◦ Radical functions are continuous on their domain.
@ @
◦ This is clear from the Limit Law on root functions, lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎), where
.→i
𝑛 is a positive integer.
◦ The sine and cosine functions are continuous.
◦ Indeed, using the squeeze theorem, we can confirm that lim cos 𝑥 = 1, and
.→H
lim sin 𝑥 = 0, and hence the continuity of both at 𝑥 = 0. Furthermore, from the
.→H
graph of these two functions, we can deduce that both functions are continuous
everywhere.
 -./ !
◦ The tangent function, namely tan 𝑥 = is continuous on its domain. That is, it is
01- !
2
continuous for all real numbers except when cos 𝑥 = 0, i.e., when 𝑥 = + 𝑛𝜋,
&
where 𝑛 is an integer.
◦ The inverse of any continuous one-to-one function is also continuous. Recall that
the graph of 𝑓 $( is obtained by reflecting the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) about the line 𝑦 = 𝑥.
So if the graph of 𝑓 has no holes, or jumps, neither does the graph of 𝑓 $( .
◦ Thus, the inverse of all trigonometric functions are continuous.
◦ The exponential function 𝑎 ! is continuous (the graph has no holes or jumps).
◦ Consequently, 𝑦 = log 3 𝑥 is a continuous function.
 Example 14
jk .IlmkAB .
◦ Where is the function 𝑓 𝑥 = continuous?
. 7 1<
◦ Solution:
◦ 𝑦 = ln 𝑥 is continuous for 𝑥 > 0.
◦ 𝑦 = tan$( 𝑥 is continuous on ℝ.
◦ Thus, 𝑦 = ln 𝑥 + tan$( 𝑥 is continuous on 0, ∞ .
◦ The denominator, 𝑦 = 𝑥 & − 1, is a polynomial, so it is continuous everywhere.
◦ But one must be careful, 𝑦 = 𝑥 & − 1 is in the denominator, so we need to figure out when
the denominator is 0.
◦ Therefore, 𝑓 is continuous on the intervals (0,1) and 1, ∞ .
 Continuity of Composite Functions at a
Point
Theorem
If 𝑔 is continuous at 𝑎 and 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑔(𝑎), then the composite function 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 is
continuous at 𝑎.

The previous results give further insight into the limit of a composite function.

Theorem
1. If 𝑔 is continuous at 𝑎 and 𝑓is continuous at g(𝑎), then
lim 𝑓 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓(lim 𝑔(𝑥)).
!→# !→#
2. If lim 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝐿 and 𝑓 is continuous at 𝐿, then
!→#

lim 𝑓 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓(lim 𝑔(𝑥)) .

!→# !→#
 Example 15
◦ Evaluate
1− 𝑥
lim arcsin .
.→< 1−𝑥
◦ Solution:
◦ Since arcsine is a continuous function, we can apply the previous result as follows:
<1 . <1 . <1 . <I .
lim arcsin = arcsin lim = arcsin lim @
.→< <1. .→< <1. .→< <1. <I .

1−𝑥 1 1 𝜋
arcsin lim = arcsin lim = arcsin = .
.→< (1 − 𝑥)(1 + 𝑥) .→< 1 + 𝑥 2 6
 Continuity from the Left and from the
Right
◦ Consider the following function 𝑓 𝑥 = 1 − 𝑥 & , whose graph is given. How can we determine the continuity of the function
at the endpoints, 𝑥 = −1, 1?
◦ Observe that we cannot talk about limits from the left of −1 neither from the right of 1. Thus, it is natural to define
continuity from the right and from the left using one-sided limits.

Definition
A function 𝑓 is continuous from the right at a point 𝒂 if
lim! 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑎) .
!→#
A function 𝑓 is continuous from the left at a point 𝒂 if
lim" 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑎) .
!→#
◦ Now, we are ready to answer the above
question.
◦ The function is continuous from the right
at 𝑥 = −1, since
lim + 1 − 𝑥 & = 0 = 𝑓 −1 .
#→!"
◦ The function is continuous from the left at
𝑥 = 1, since
lim, 1 − 𝑥 & = 0 = 𝑓 1 .
#→"
 Continuity on an Interval
Definition
A function 𝑓 is continuous on an interval if it is continuous at every point in
the interval.

Example: Show that the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 1 − 𝑥 $ is continuous on the interval −1,1 .

Solution:
• We have already checked that the function is defined at the endpoints of the interval. It remains to show that
𝑓 is continuous at every point 𝑎 if −1 < 𝑎 < 1.
• Using the Limit Laws, we have
lim 1 − 𝑥 $ = lim (1 − 𝑥 $ ) = 1 − 𝑎$ = 𝑓(𝑎)
!→# !→#

• Thus, 𝑓 𝑥 = 1 − 𝑥 $ is continuous on the interval −1,1 .

The Intermediate Value Theorem
The Intermediate Value Theorem (IVT)
Suppose that 𝑓 is continuous on the closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏] and let 𝑁 be any
number between 𝑓(𝑎) and 𝑓 𝑏 , where 𝑓 𝑎 ≠ 𝑓 𝑏 . Then there exists a
number 𝑐 in 𝑎, 𝑏 such that 𝑓 𝑐 = 𝑁.
 An Application of the IVT
◦ Show that there is a root of the equation
4𝑥 % − 6𝑥 $ + 3𝑥 − 2 = 0
between 1 and 2.

◦ Solution:
◦ Let 𝑓 𝑥 = 4𝑥 % − 6𝑥 $ + 3𝑥 − 2. We are looking for a solution of
the given equation, i.e., a number 𝑐 between 1 and 2 such that
𝑓 𝑐 = 0.
◦ Since 𝑓 is continuous on [1,2], and taking 𝑁 = 0, we have
𝑓 1 = −1 < 0
and
𝑓 2 = 12 > 0
◦ Thus, 𝑓 1 < 0 < 𝑓 2 . The IVT guarantees that there exists a 𝑐
between 1 and 2 such that 𝑓 𝑐 = 0 = 𝑁.
◦ Therefore, the equation 4𝑥 % − 6𝑥 $ + 3𝑥 − 2 = 0 has at least one
root 𝑐 in the interval 1,2 .