₹ 14850
JEE 2024
Full- Syllabus Revision with Students will get Vedantu’s
258 Interactive Tatva Textbook PDFs
Sessions/year
Improve Your Conceptual
Access till JEE/NEET 2024
Understanding with 258
Assignments/year
Pricing 20,000/- 16,500/- 14,850/-
Please find the V-Quiz DPP
link in the description box
Chemical Bond
● The attractive force which holds together the constituent
particles (atoms,ions or molecules) in a chemical species
is known as chemical bond.
Causes of Chemical Bonding
● Tendency to acquire minimum energy
Causes of Chemical Bonding
● Tendency to acquire noble gas configuration
H2 molecule [1s2]
Types of Chemical Bonding
Lewis Octet Rule
● Every atom has a tendency to complete its octet in outer
most shell.
● H has the tendency to complete its duplet.
● To acquire inert gas configuration atoms loose or gain
electron or share electrons.
Lewis dot structures
● The Lewis dot structures provide a picture of
bonding in molecules and ions in terms of the
shared pairs of electrons and the octet rule.
Steps to write Lewis dot structures
(i) The total number of electrons are obtained by adding the
valence electrons of combining atoms.
(ii) It is important to know Elemental symbols and it’s valence
electrons.
(iii) For Anions, we need to add one electron for each negative
charge.
Steps to write Lewis dot structures
(iv) For cations, we need to subtract one electron for each
positive charge. (v) After then the central atom is decided.
(vi) Depending on the number of electrons (2,4,6) shared single,
double & triple bonds are formed.
Steps to write Lewis dot structures
Lewis dot structures
Examples:
Formal Charge
● In case of polyatomic ions, the net charge is possessed by the ion as
a whole and not by a particular atom.
● It is, however, feasible to assign a formal charge on each atom.
Formal Charge
Example: Ozone molecule (O3)
Formal Charge
The formal Charge on :
Formal Charge
Hence, we represent O3 along with the formal charges as follows :
Limitations of Octet Rule
● Incomplete octet molecules :- or (electron deficient molecules)
Compound in which octet is not complete in outer most orbit of
central atom.
Example - Halides of IIIA groups, BF3, AlCl3, BCl3 etc.
Boron has only 6 electrons
Limitations of Octet Rule
● Expansion of octet or (electron efficient molecules)
Compound in which central atom has more than 8e- in
outermost orbits.
Example - In PCl5, SF6 and IF7 the central atom P, S and I contain
10, 12, and 14 electrons respectively.
10 electrons around P atom
Limitations of Octet Rule
● Odd electron molecules :-
Central atom have an unpaired electron or odd no (7e-, 11e- etc)
of electrons in their outermost shell.
e.g. NO, NO2, ClO2 etc
Others Limitations of Octet Rule
👉Formation of noble gas compounds.
Ex: XeF2 , XeOF2
👉Doesn’t discuss shapes of molecules.
👉Doesn’t discuss stability of molecules.
The octet rule is not obeyed in :
A CO2
B BCl3
C PCl5
D (B) and (C) both
The octet rule is not obeyed in :
A CO2
B BCl3
C PCl5
D (B) and (C) both
Solution:
In BCl3 and PCl5, B and P contain 6 and 10 electrons
respectively in their valence shell. Therefore they
violate octet rule.
Postulates of VSEPR Theory
● The shape of a molecule depends upon the number of valence shell
e- pairs (bonded or unbonded) around the central atom.
● Pairs of e- in the valence shell repel one another since their e - clouds
are negatively charged.
● These pairs of e- tend to occupy such positions in space that
minimise repulsion and thus maximise distance between them.
Postulates of VSEPR
● The valence shell is taken as a sphere with the e- pairs localising on
the spherical surface at maximum distance from one another.
Treated as
● Multiple Bond Single electron pair
Two or three electron Treated as
Single super pair
pairs
Geometry in which the central atom has no lp of e-
Geometry in which the central atom has no lp of e-
Geometry in which the central atom has no lp of e-
VSEPR Theory
No of Bond No of lone Actual shape of
Geometry of molecules
pairs pairs molecule
2 0 Linear
1800
A
Example
AB2
B A B Cl Be Cl
Linear
F
VSEPR Theory
No of Bond No of lone Actual shape of
Geometry of molecules
pairs pairs molecule
3 0 Trigonal planar
1200
A
AB3 F
B
A B
B
B Trigona F F
l
planar
VSEPR Theory
No of Bond No of lone Actual shape of
Geometry of molecules
pairs pairs molecule
4 0 Tetrahedral
Example
B
AB4 109.5o
A B Tetrahedra
B l
B
VSEPR Theory
No of Bond No of lone Actual shape of
Geometry of molecules
pairs pairs molecule
5 0 Trigonal
bipyramidal
AB5 B
90o
B
B A Trigonal
B bipyramidal
120o
VSEPR Theory
No of Bond No of lone Actual shape of
Geometry of molecules
pairs pairs molecule
6 0 Octahedral
Example
AB6
B
90o
B
B Octahedral
A
B
B
90o
B
VSEPR Theory
No of Bond No of lone Actual shape of
Geometry of molecules
pairs pairs molecule
7 0 Pentagonal
bipyramidal
Geometry in which the central atom has no lp of e-
Geometry in which the central atom has no lp of e-
Geometry in which the central atom has no lp of e-
VSEPR Theory
No of Bond No of lone Actual shape of
Geometry of molecules
pairs pairs molecule
6 1 Distorted
octahedral
VSEPR Theory
No of Bond No of lone Actual shape of
Geometry of molecules
pairs pairs molecule
2 1 V-shaped (bent)
VSEPR Theory
No of Bond No of lone Actual shape of
Geometry of molecules
pairs pairs molecule
3 1 Trigonal
pyramidal
VSEPR Theory
No of Bond No of lone Actual shape of
Geometry of molecules
pairs pairs molecule
2 2 V-shaped (bent)
VSEPR Theory
No of Bond No of lone Actual shape of
Geometry of molecules
pairs pairs molecule
4 1 See-saw
VSEPR Theory
No of Bond No of lone Actual shape of
Geometry of molecules
pairs pairs molecule
3 2 T-shaped
VSEPR Theory
No of Bond No of lone Actual shape of
Geometry of molecules
pairs pairs molecule
2 3 linear
VSEPR Theory
No of Bond No of lone Actual shape of
Geometry of molecules
pairs pairs molecule
5 1 Square pyramidal
VSEPR Theory
No of Bond No of lone Actual shape of
Geometry of molecules
pairs pairs molecule
4 2 Square planar
Valence Bond Theory
👉 To form a covalent bond overlapping occurs
between half filled valence shell orbitals of the two atoms
👉 Resulting bond acquires a pair of electrons with
opposite spins to get stability
👉 Orbitals come closer to each other from the direction
in which there is maximum overlapping
👉 So covalent bond has directional character.
👉 Extent of overlapping ∝ strength of chemical bond.
Valence Bond Theory
👉 Extent of overlapping depend on two factors.
❏ Nature of orbitals
p, d and f are directional orbitals ⟶ more overlapping
s-orbitals ⟶ non directional - less overlapping
❏ Nature of overlapping
Co-axial overlapping - extent of overlapping more
Collateral overlapping - extent of overlapping les
Order of strength of Co-axial overlapping -
p-p>s-p>s-s
Overlapping of Atomic Orbitals
When two atoms come close to each other, there is
overlapping of atomic orbitals
Positive overlap Zero overlap
Negative overlap
Positive or in phase overlapping
● When the phase of two interacting orbital is same
Negative or out phase overlapping
● When the phase of two interacting orbital is opposite
Zero Overlapping
● When the orientation of two interacting atomic orbital is
such that there is no overlapping of the orbital
Type of Overlap & Bond
Sigma bonds
📖 Sigma Bond
Formed by end to end overlap (head-on) of bonding orbitals
along the Internuclear axis
Also called head on overlap or axial overlap
Valence Bond Theory
s-s overlapping
Example:
s-p overlapping
Example:
p-p overlapping
Example:
pi bonds
This type of covalent bond is formed by the side wise (or
lateral) overlapping of half filled atomic orbitals of bonding
atoms.
The strength of bonds formed by 2s - 2s, 2p - 2p and 2p- 2s overlap
has the order:
A s-s>p-p>p-s
B s-s>p-s>p-p
C p-p>p-s>s-s
D p-p>s-s>p-s
The strength of bonds formed by 2s - 2s, 2p - 2p and 2p- 2s overlap
has the order:
A s-s>p-p>p-s
B s-s>p-s>p-p
C p-p>p-s>s-s
D p-p>s-s>p-s
Solution:
Extent of overlapping decreases in the order
p-p>p-s>s-s
Which of the following overlaps is incorrect [assuming z-axis to be
the internuclear axis] ?
A ‘a’ & ‘b’
B ‘b’ & ‘d’
C only ‘d’
D None of these
Which of the following overlaps is incorrect [assuming z-axis to be
the internuclear axis] ?
A ‘a’ & ‘b’
B ‘b’ & ‘d’
C only ‘d’
D None of these
Solution:
Hybridisation
● Intermixing of atomic orbitals and formation of new
orbital, these orbitals are known as hybrid orbital
and this concept is known as hybridisation.
Hybridisation
Hybridisation
The correct order of increasing s-character (in percentage) in
the hybrid orbitals of following molecules/ions is
(I) CO32- (II)XeF4 (III)I3- (IV) NCl3 (V)BeCl2
A II < III < IV < I < V
B II < IV < III < V < I
C III < II < I < V < IV
D II < IV < III < I < V
The correct order of increasing s-character (in percentage) in
the hybrid orbitals of following molecules/ions is
(I) CO32- (II)XeF4 (III)I3- (IV) NCl3 (V)BeCl2
A II < III < IV < I < V
B II < IV < III < V < I
C III < II < I < V < IV
D II < IV < III < I < V
Solution :
CO3-2⟶ sp2 % s character = 33.3%
XeF4 ⟶ sp3d2 16.6%
I3- ⟶ sp3d 20%
NCl3 ⟶ sp3 25%
BeCl2⟶ sp 50%
The correct statement about ICl5 and ICl4- is
A ICl5 is square pyramidal and ICl4- is tetrahedral
B ICl5 is square pyramidal and ICl4- is square planar
C Both are isostructural
D ICl5 is trigonal bipyramidal and ICl4- is tetrahedral
The correct statement about ICl5 and ICl4- is
A ICl5 is square pyramidal and ICl4- is tetrahedral
B ICl5 is square pyramidal and ICl4- is square planar
C Both are isostructural
D ICl5 is trigonal bipyramidal and ICl4- is tetrahedral
Solution :
Specify the coordination geometry around and hybridisation
of N and B atoms in a 1 : 1 complex of BF3 and NH3.
A N : tetrahedral, sp3 ; B: tetrahedral, sp3
B N : pyramidal, sp3; B: pyramidal, sp3
C N: pyramidal, sp3; B: planar, sp2
D N: pyramidal, sp3; B: tetrahedral, sp3
Specify the coordination geometry around and hybridisation
of N and B atoms in a 1 : 1 complex of BF3 and NH3.
A N : tetrahedral, sp3 ; B: tetrahedral, sp3
B N : pyramidal, sp3; B: pyramidal, sp3
C N: pyramidal, sp3; B: planar, sp2
D N: pyramidal, sp3; B: tetrahedral, sp3
Solution :
The hybridisation of atomic orbitals of central atom “Xe” in XeO4,
XeO2F2 and XeOF4 respectively.
A sp3, sp3d2, sp3d2
B sp3d, sp3d, sp3d2
C sp3, sp3d2, sp3d
D sp3, sp3d, sp3d2
The hybridisation of atomic orbitals of central atom “Xe” in XeO4,
XeO2F2 and XeOF4 respectively.
A sp3, sp3d2, sp3d2
B sp3d, sp3d, sp3d2
C sp3, sp3d2, sp3d
D sp3, sp3d, sp3d2
Solution:
Molecular orbital Theory
Postulates of MOT
☛ The electrons in molecules are present in various molecular
orbital as the electron of atom are present in various atomic
orbital.
☛ The atomic orbitals of comparable energies and proper
symmetry combine to form molecular orbital.
☛ An electron in an atomic orbital is influenced by one nucleus,
but in molecular orbital it is influenced by two or more nuclei.
Postulates of MOT
☛ The number of molecular orbital formed is equal to the
number of combining atomic orbitals. When two atomic
orbitals combine, two molecular orbitals are formed. One
is known as bonding molecular orbital while the other is
called antibonding molecular orbital.
Postulates of MOT
☛ The bonding molecular orbital has lower energy and
hence greater stability than the corresponding
antibonding molecular orbital.
☛ Just as the electron probability distribution around a
nucleus in an atom is given by an atomic orbital, the
electron probability distribution around a group of nuclei
in a molecule is given by a molecular orbital.
Postulates of MOT
☛ The molecular orbitals like atomic orbitals are filled
in accordance with the Aufbau principle, obeying the
Pauli’s exclusion principle and the Hund’s
Linear Combination of Atomic Orbitals (LCAO)
Bonding molecular orbital (BMO) Antibonding molecular orbital (ABMO)
Bonding MO is the result of the linear ABMO is result of linear combination of
combination of AO when their wave AO when their wave function are
function are added - subtracted -
𝝍b = 𝝍A+ 𝝍B 𝝍a = 𝝍A – 𝝍B
It does not have node. It always have a node between two
nuclei bonded atom.
Charge density increases between Charge density decreases in between
two nuclei resulting in attraction two nuclei, leads to repulsion between
between two atoms two atoms.
Energy of BMO is less, hence stable. Energy of ABMO is high, hence unstable.
Energy level diagram for molecular orbitals
Two 1s atomic orbitals combine to form two molecular orbitals :
Bonding MO: Antibonding MO: σ*1s
σ1s
2s and 2p atomic orbitals give rise to the following eight
molecular orbitals:
Bonding MO: Antibonding MO:
σ2s σ2pz σ2px σ2py σ∗ 2s
σ∗ 2pz π∗ 2px π∗ 2py
Molecular orbital Theory
For B2, C2, N2 the increasing order of energies of various
Molecular orbital is:
σ1s < σ* 1s < σ2s< σ* 2s < (π2px= π2py ) < σ2pz < (π*2px=π* 2py ) < σ* 2pz
Molecular orbital Theory
The increasing order of energies of various molecular orbitals for O 2
and F2 is :
σ1s < σ* 1s < σ2s< σ* 2s< σ2pz < (π2px= π2py ) < (π*2px=π* 2py ) < σ* 2pz
Molecular orbital theory {Less than 14 electron}
Molecular orbital theory {More than 14 electron}
What information can be obtained from the MOT Theory
❏ Bond Order
❏ Stability of Molecules ❏ Nature of Bond
❏ Bond Length
❏ Magnetic Nature
Bond order
Nb= number of electrons in bonding orbitals
Na= number of electrons in antibonding orbitals
Nature of the bond
If Bond Order = 1, Single Covalent
Bond
e.g. H2, F2 Molecule
If Bond Order = 2,
Double Covalent Bond
e.g. O2 Molecule
If Bond Order = 3, Triple Covalent
Bond
e.g. N2 Molecule
Stability of Molecules
● Stability of the molecule, on the whole, depends on
these factors:
● These are :
a. If Nb > Na , the molecule is stable.
b. If Nb < Na, the molecule is unstable.
Bond Length
Bond length is inversely proportional to bond order
☛ More is the bond order, lesser is the bond length
Correct order of bond energy of C–O bond is :
A CO32– > CO2 > CO
B CO2 > CO > CO32–
C CO > CO2 > CO32–
D None of these.
Correct order of bond energy of C–O bond is :
A CO32– > CO2 > CO
B CO2 > CO > CO32–
C CO > CO2 > CO32–
D None of these.
Solution:
Assuming that Hund’s rule is violated, the bond order and
magnetic nature of the diatomic molecule B2 is
A 1 and diamagnetic
B 0 and diamagnetic
C 1 and paramagnetic
D 0 and paramagnetic
Assuming that Hund’s rule is violated, the bond order and
magnetic nature of the diatomic molecule B2 is
A 1 and diamagnetic
B 0 and diamagnetic
C 1 and paramagnetic
D 0 and paramagnetic
Solution :
Magnetic Nature
☛ If all the molecular orbitals in a molecule are doubly
occupied the substance is DIAMAGNETIC.
☛ If one or more molecular orbitals are singly occupied, the
substance is PARAMAGNETIC.
Hydrogen Bonding
It is an electrostatic attractive force between covalently bonded
H atom of one molecule and an electronegative atom (F, O, N)
Hydrogen Bonding
Hydrogen Bonding
Hydrogen Bonding
Hydrogen Bonding
Condition for Hydrogen
Bonding
Hydrogen Should be Atomic size of
Bonded with high electronegative
electronegative element should be
element like, F, O, N small
Hydrogen Bonding
Types of Hydrogen Bonding
Intermolecular Intramolecular
Intermolecular Hydrogen bond
H–bond formation between two or more molecules of either the
same or different compounds known as Intermolecular H–bonding.
Intramolecular Hydrogen bond
❖ It takes place within the molecule.
❖ H–bonded with EN elements of a functional group, form H–
bond with another EN element present on nearest position on
the same molecule.
❖ This type of H–bond is mostly occurred in organic
compounds.
Hydrogen Bonding
Effect of hydrogen bond
Boiling point and Melting Point:
● Due to Intermolecular Hydrogen bonding, Melting
Point & Boiling Point of compounds increases.
Boiling point and Melting Point:
Effect of hydrogen bond
Solubility :
Few organic compounds (Non-polar) are soluble in water
(Polar solvent) due to Hydrogen bonding.
● The organic compounds like alkane, alkenes, alkynes
are insoluble in water due to absence of H-bonding
whereas alcohols, organic acids, amines are soluble in
water due to H-bonding.
Effect of hydrogen bond
Viscosity:
● Hydrogen bond associates molecules together, so
viscosity increases
Effect of hydrogen bond
Strength of acid:
The formation of intramolecular H-bonding in the conjugate
base of an acid gives extra stability to conjugate base and
hence acid strength increases.
Amongst H2O, H2S, H2Se and H2Te, the one with the highest
boiling point is
A H2O because of hydrogen bonding
B H2Te because of higher molecular weight
C H2S because of hydrogen bonding
D H2Se because of lower molecular weight
Amongst H2O, H2S, H2Se and H2Te, the one with the highest
boiling point is
A H2O because of hydrogen bonding
B H2Te because of higher molecular weight
C H2S because of hydrogen bonding
D H2Se because of lower molecular weight
Solution :
Due to the presence of Hydrogen bonding in water , it has highest boiling
point.
Dipole moment
Dipole moment
● Polarity of any polar covalent bond or molecule is
measured in terms of dipole moment.
● Dipole moment is represented by the crossed arrow
( ) put on lewis structure of the molecule.
On positive end On negative end
Dipole moment
Dipole moment
● In the diatomic molecule μ depends upon difference of
electronegativity
μ ∝ EN
Order of μ : H–F > H–Cl > H–Br > H–I
μ = 0 for H–H, F–F, Cl–Cl, Br–Br, O–O
Dipole moment
For polyatomic molecules μ depends on the vector sum of
dipole moments of all the covalent bonds.
μ of a molecule is the vector sum of the μ of various bonds
Application of Dipole moment
● To determine polarity and geometry of molecule -
● To calculate % ionic character :-
● To distinguish cis form or trans form
Dipole moment
● For PCl5 and SF6, etc. μ = 0 due to their regular
geometry.
PCl5 SF6
Dipole moment
● Benzene, naphthalene, biphenyl have μ = 0 due to
planar structure.
Benzene Naphthalene Biphenyl
Arrange the following compounds in order of increasing dipole
moment, toluene (I), m-dichlorobenzene (II), o-
dichlorobenzene (III), p-dichlorobenzene (IV)
A I < IV < II < III
B IV< I < II < III
C IV< I < III < II
D IV< II < I < III
Arrange the following compounds in order of increasing dipole
moment, toluene (I), m-dichlorobenzene (II), o-
dichlorobenzene (III), p-dichlorobenzene (IV)
A I < IV < II < III
B IV< I < II < III
C IV< I < III < II
D IV< II < I < III
Solution :
p-dichlorobenzene is non-polar
The F—X—F bond angle is the smallest in (X is the central atom)
A CF4
B NF3
C OF2
D XeF5-
The F—X—F bond angle is the smallest in (X is the central atom)
A CF4
B NF3
C OF2
D XeF5-
Back Bonding
“Coordinate bond formed between e- rich atom (donor) and
neighbouring e- deficient atom or atom having vacant
orbital (acceptor) of a molecular species.”
Filled p - orbital Vacant p - orbital
of fluorine of boron
In BF3 , back bonding is due to donation of an electron pair from filled
orbital of fluorine atom to vacant p-orbital of boron.
Back Bonding
Condition for Back Bonding
The acceptor atom must
The donor atom must have
have low energy empty
localized donatable electron
orbital which generally
pair.
are np or nd orbitals.
Effects of back bonding
● It always leads to increase in bond order between the
participating atoms.
● It always leads to increase in bond strength between
the participating atoms.
● It always leads to decrease in bond length between the
participating atoms.
Effects of back bonding
● It decreases the lewis acid character of the acceptor
atom.
● It decreases the lewis base character of the donor
atom.
In which of the following compound, observed bond angle is found
to be greater than expected, but due to back bonding mainly
A CH(SiH3)3
B N(CH3)3
C O(CH3)2
D O(SiH3)2
In which of the following compound, observed bond angle is found
to be greater than expected, but due to back bonding mainly
A CH(SiH3)3
B N(CH3)3
C O(CH3)2
D O(SiH3)2
Solution :
Due to 2pπ-3dπ back bonding observed bond angle in N(SiH3)3 and
O(SiH3)2 is higher than expected
Both have no back bonding but higher bond angle is due to steric
repulsions between methyl groups.
Electrovalent or Ionic Bonding
The electrostatic force of attraction developed between the
cation and anion is known as ionic bond.
Conditions for Electrovalent or Ionic Bonding
High Lattice energy
Low ionisation energy High electron affinity
of compound
of one atom of other atom
formed
Lattice Energy
“The amount of energy released when free ions combine
together to form one mole of a crystal is called lattice
energy”
Higher the lattice energy greater will be the ease of
formation of the ionic compound.
The crystal lattice of a sodium chloride molecule
Lattice Energy
r = r+ + r− (interionic distance)
r+ = radius of cation
r− = radius of anion
q1 = charge on cation
q2 = charge on anion
Hydration Energy
Whenever any compound is dissolved in a solvent or in
water then, different ions of the compound will get
separated and surrounded by solvent molecules. This
process is known as solvation or hydration.
Energy released in this process is known as solvation energy
or hydration energy.
Hydration Energy
Compounds will be soluble only if hydration energy is more
than the lattice energy.
where εr = dielectric constant
Solubility
Thermodynamics of solvation Process
● If Hydration Energy > Lattice Energy ⟶ Compound is soluble.
● If Hydration Energy < Lattice Energy⟶ Compound is insoluble.
● If Hydration Energy = Lattice Energy ⟶ Compound is sparingly
soluble.
Solubility ∝ 1
Lattice energy
Solubility
Case 1: solubility increases down the group because hydration
energy decreases gradually and Lattice energy decreases
rapidly.
Examples:
LiF < NaF < KF < RbF < CsF r a ≃ rc
LiOH < NaOH < KOH < RbOH < CsOH r a ≃ rc
BeO < MgO < CaO < SrO < BaO r a ≃ rc
BeS < MgS < CaS < SrS < BaS r a ≃ rc
Be(OH)2 < Mg(OH)2 < Ca(OH)2 < Sr(OH)2 < Ba(OH)2 ra ≃
rc
Note: The below theory applicable only when cation and anion
are formed on complete ionization of compound in aqueous
solution.
Solubility
Case 2: ra >> rc solubility decreases down the group,
hydration energy decreases rapidly.
Examples:
LiClO4 > NaClO4 > KClO4> RbClO4 > CsClO4 ra >> rc
CaC2O4 < SrC2O4 < BaC2O4 < BeC2O4 ra
>> rc
BeSO4 > MgSO4 > CaSO4 > SrSO4 > BaSO4 ra >> rc
LiI > NaI > KI > RbI > CsI
ra >> rc
LiBr > NaBr > KBr > RbBr > CsBr ra
>> rc
Special cases of solubility
Due to packing difference in Ionic Lattice.
(a) BeF2 > BaF2 > SrF2 > CaF2 > MgF2(Experimentally)
(b) BeC2O4 > BaC2O4 > SrC2O4 > CaC2O4 (Experimentally)
(c) LiCl > NaCl > KCl < RbCl < CsCl (Experimentally)
Thermal stability of Ionic compounds
For binary compounds having smallest stoichiometric ratio, the thermal stability
order is decided by the inter-ionic distance. Larger the inter-ionic distance, lower
will be the lattice energy and lower the lattice energy, lower will be the thermal
stability. For example,
Thermal stability of Ionic compounds
For the ionic compounds having multiatomic anion, the efficient packing of the
larger size cation and the larger size anion leads to the formation of thermally
more stable compounds. Thus the thermal stability increases down the group for
the compounds having the same anion. For example,
Fajan’s Rule
👉 Each bond has mix character of covalent and Ionic.
👉 When two oppositely charged ions of unequal size
approach each other closely (during formation of an
electrovalent bond), the ion smaller in size attracts
outermost electrons of the other ion and repel its
nuclear charge.
cation anion cation anion
(a) No Polarisation (b) Polarised anion
Fajan’s Rule
👉 The ability of a cation to polarise the nearby anion is
called its polarising power.
👉 Tendency of an anion to get distorted or deformed or
polarised by the cation is called its polarisability.
👉 Due to polarisation, sharing of electrons occur
between two ions to some extent and the bond shows
some covalent character.
👉 The net result is distortion or polarisation of the bigger
ion. This distortion is usually done by the cation as its
size is smaller than the anion.
Factors affecting polarising power (cations)
Electronic
Charge on ions Size of the ions Configuration of
cation
Factors affecting polarising power (cations)
Charge on ions
Polarising power ∝ Zeff ∝ charge (Z+)
Polarising power ↑ ionic character ↓
Example: Li+ < Be+2 < Al+3
Factors affecting polarising power (cations)
Size of the ions
1
Polarising power ∝ size
Polarising power ↑ ionic character ↓
Example: (i) Li+ > Na+ > K+ > Rb+ > Cs+
(ii) Be+2 > Mg+2 > Ca+2
Factors affecting polarising power (cations)
Electronic Configuration of cation
Polarising power ∝ Pseudo inert gas configuration
(ns2np6nd10)
Example:
(Note: More polarising power if the cations have pseudo
noble gas configuration)
Factors affecting polarisation (Anions)
Charge of ion Size of the ion
Polarisation ∝ charge (Z−)
Polarisation ∝ size (r−)
Example:
Example:
(i) F− < O−2 < N−3
(i) F− < Cl− < Br− < I−
(ii) Cl− < S−2 < P−3
(ii) O−2 < S−2 < Se−2
(iii) NO2− < NO3−
(iii) N−3 < P−3
(iv) SO3−2 < SO4−2
Note: If the size and charge contradict each other than charge
dominates.
Write decreasing order of melting point in BaCl2, CaCl2, MgCl2 and
BeCl2
A BaCl2 > CaCl2 > MgCl2 > BeCl2
B BaCl2 < CaCl2 < MgCl2 < BeCl2
C BaCl2 > MgCl2 > CaCl2 > BeCl2
D
BaCl2 < CaCl2 < BeCl2< MgCl2
Write decreasing order of melting point in BaCl2, CaCl2, MgCl2 and
BeCl2
A BaCl2 > CaCl2 > MgCl2 > BeCl2
B BaCl2 < CaCl2 < MgCl2 < BeCl2
C BaCl2 > MgCl2 > CaCl2 > BeCl2
D
BaCl2 < CaCl2 < BeCl2< MgCl2
Solution:
● BaCl2 < CaCl2 < MgCl2 < BeCl2
Increasing order of covalent character
● BaCl2 > CaCl2 > MgCl2 > BeCl2
decreasing order of melting point
● Reason: smaller is the cation, more is the covalent character so BeCl2
is more covalent. Melting point of covalent compound is less than
electrovalent compound.
₹,14850
JEE 2024
Full- Syllabus Revision with Students will get Vedantu’s
258 Interactive Tatva Textbook PDFs
Sessions/year
Improve Your Conceptual
Access till JEE/NEET 2024
Understanding with 258
Assignments/year
Pricing 20,000/- 16,500/- 14,850/-
You can contact me
Beastchemist
Beastchemist
@BEASTCHEMIST
Mohit Ryan Sir
Join Vedantu JEE
Telegram
channel NOW!
Assignments
Notes
Daily Update
https://vdnt.in/JEEVedantu
