GERMINATION

STRUCTURE OF A SEED

• The outer covering of a seed is called seed-coat which is a protective covering and is
known as testa

• The inner layer below the testa is called tegmen

• Seeds contain a small opening called micropyle through which water enters into the
seed

• Inside, seeds contain embryo which consists of cotyledons, radicle and plumule

• Epicotyl - The upper portion of the axis of the seedling above the cotyledons

• Hypocotyl - The portion of seedling between the cotyledons and the radicle

Seed Germination

Germination is the process by which the seed embryo begins growth. Seeds contain everything
necessary for the growth and development of a new plant. The three primary parts of a seed
are the embryo, the endosperm, and the seed coat. The embryo is the young, multicellular
organism before it emerges from the seed. The endosperm is a source of stored food,
consisting primarily of starches. The seed coat consists of one or more protective layers that
encase the seed.

The Process of Seed Germination:

The activation of metabolic machinery of seed embryo is the first and foremost step to
initiate the seed germination process Thus, seed germination is the process of reactivation of
the metabolic activity of the seed embryo, resulting in the emergence of radical (root) and
plumule (shoot), thus leading to the production of a seedling or a young plant.

 Stages of seed germination:

The process of seed germination involves several consecutive but overlapping events like

i. absorption of water,
ii. initiation of cell enlargement and division,
iii. increased enzymatic activity,
iv. food translocation to growing embryo, Fig 1: Different stages of
v. increase in respiration and assimilation, seedling
vi. increase in cell division and enlargement and development
vii. differentiation of cells into tissue and organs of a seedling.

The sequence of these events is not specific and one event may overlap
the other.However, the entire process of germination can be divided into following different
stages:
1) Activation or awakening stage:

a) Water absorption: Early seed germination begins with the imbibition of water by the seed.
Water is absorbed by the process of imbibition and osmosis by the dry seeds, which softens
the seed coat and other coverings and causes hydration of the protoplasm. After imbibition of
water, the seed swells and seed coverings rupture, which helps protoplasm in resuming
metabolic activity with the activation of enzymes. During hydration phase, the seed coat acts
as a limiting factor and its rupture increase water uptake. Water enters the seed through
micropyler pore and hilum. In general, water absorption is very rapid initially but it slows down
slowly and steadily.
b) Synthesis and activation of enzymes: After hydration, enzyme activity begins very quickly.
Activation of enzymes is partly from reactivation of stored enzymes and partly by the synthesis
of the enzymes during germination initiation process. The hydrolytic enzymes convert complex
food material into simpler forms, which can be readily translocated and absorbed by the
embryo. The oxidative enzymes are involved in respiration and releasing the energy for cell
division and growth.
c) Cell elongation: Hydration, and synthesis and activation of enzymes help in the elongation
of cells, which results in the emergence of radicle. Emergence of radicle is the first visible
symptom of germination, which results from the elongation of cells rather than from the cell
division. It is observed that under fabvourable conditions, the emergence of radicle may take
place within a few hours as in non-dormant seeds or a few days after seed sowing. The
emergence of radicle is considered as the end of stage 1 i.e. activation or awakening stage.
2. Translocation stage:

Food materials like fats, carbohydrates or proteins are stored in the endosperm or in
the cotyledons. These compounds are converted into simpler forms and are translocated to
the growing points of the embryo. The process of conversion of different speces differs with
the type of food material reserved in the seed. For example, fat and oils are converted
enzymatically to first to fatty acids and then to sugars. Storage proteins are first converted to
amino acids and then to nitrogen, which are essential to growing seedlings. Starch present in
many seeds as an energy source, is converted to simple sugars. All these conversions are
regulated by metabolic activity of specific enzymes in a proper sequence.
3. Seedling growth stage:

In this stage, the development of the seedling plant takes place from continued cell
division in different growing points of the embryo, which is subsequently followed by the
expansion of the seedling structures.
The cell division is growing point and subsequent cell elongations are two independent
processes taking place in a seedling. As the germination proceeds, the structure of seedling
soon becomes evident.

Two types of germination

1. Epigeal germination: Seed germination in dicots in which the cotyledons come above
the soil surface.
In this type, the hypocotyl elongates and
raises the cotyledons above the ground surface,
it is called as epigeous or epigeal germination.
This type of germination is very common
in beans, gourds, castor, tamarind and onion etc.
 2. Hypogeal germination: Seed germination in dicots in which the cotyledons remain
below the soil surface.

In this type, the epicotyl elongates and

the hypocotyl does not raise the cotyledons
above ground, which is called as hypogeous or
hypogeal germination.
This type of germination is common in
mango, custard apple, pea, gram, lotus and
maize etc.

Conditions necessary for germination

External factors

1. Water

• It helps by providing necessary hydration for the vital activities of protoplasm

• It provides dissolved oxygen for the growing embryo, softens the seed coats and
increases the seed permeability

• It also helps in the rupturing of seed and also converts the insoluble food into
soluble form for its translocation to the embryo
2. Oxygen

•It is an important and essential source of energy required for seed growth

•It is required by the germinating seed for the metabolism

•It is used as a part of aerobic respiration until it manages to grow green leaves of its
own
3. Temperature

• For a seed to germinate, it requires a moderate temperature of around 25-30°C

• Temperature affects the growth rate as well as the metabolism of the seed
 • Different seeds require different optimum temperatures

• There are some seeds which require special requirements either lower or higher
temperature between 5 to 40°C
4. Light

Many seeds refuse to germinate until sunlight falls on them. Such light sensitive seeds are
called photo blastic. Seeds of lettuce, tomato and tobacco are positively photo blastic and
germinate only after they have been exposed to light.On the other hand, the seeds of certain
plants are negatively photo blastic and their germination is inhibited by light.

Internal Factors

Seed Dormancy: This is a condition in which the seeds are prevented from germinating even
under favourable conditions

During seed dormancy:

• The seed coat, which is resistant to water and gases, restrict water uptake and
oxygen exchange.

• The seeds with undeveloped or immature embryo do not germinate

• Certain seeds contain plant growth regulators which inhibit seed germination

• Some seeds require more time for their germination

Factors causing dormancy of seeds

1. Seed coats impermeable to water
The seeds of certain plants especially those belonging to the family’s leguminaceae,
solanaceae, malvaceae, etc. have very hard seed coats which are impermeable to water. The
seeds remain dormant until the impermeable layer decay by the action of soil micro-
organisms.

2. Seeds coats impermeable to oxygen

In many plants such as cocklebur and many grasses, the seed dormancy is due to the
impermeability of the seed coat to oxygen. However, during the period of dormancy, the
seed coat gradually becomes more permeable to oxygen so that they may germinate.

3. Immaturity of the Embryo

 In certain orchids, the seed dormancy is due to the immaturity of the embryos which
fail to develop fully by the time the seeds are shed. In such cases, the seeds germinate only
after a period or rest during which the development of embryo inside the seed is completed.

4. Germination Inhibitors
In certain seeds, the dormancy of the seeds is due to the presence of certain
germination inhibitors like coumarin, ferulic acid, abscissic acid, etc. These may be present in
endosperm, embryo, testa or juice or pulp of fruit.

5. Chilling or low temperature requirement

In certain plants such as apple, rose, peach etc, the seeds remain dormant after harvest
in the autumn as they have a low temperature or chilling requirement for germination. In
nature, this requirement is fulfilled by the winter temperatures. In such case the seeds remain
dormant throughout the winter season and germinate only in the following spring.
Advantages of dormancy
1. In cold temperature zones, the dormancy of seeds helps the plants to tide over the
severe colds which may be injurious for their vegetative and reproductive growth.
2. In tropical regions, the dormancy of seeds resulting from their impermeable seed
coats ensures good chances of survival.
3. Dormancy of seeds in many cereals is of utmost importance to mankind. If these
seeds germinate immediately after harvest in the field, they will become useless to man
for consumption as food.