African Journal of Biotechnology Vol. 8 (25), pp.

7271-7282, 29 December, 2009

Available online at http://www.academicjournals.org/AJB
ISSN 1684–5315 © 2009 Academic Journals

Full Length Research Paper

Exotic multifaceted medicinal plants of drugs and

pharmaceutical industries
Donatus Ebere Okwu* and Nnamdi Fred Uchenna
Department of Chemistry, Michael Okpara University of Agricultural Umudike, P.M.B. 7267, Umuahia, Abia State,
Nigeria.
Accepted 14 December, 2009

Cassia alata Linn, Nauclea latifolia, Clerodendron splendens and Bryophyllum pinnatum are some of
the Nigerian exotic medicinal plants. These plants not only acts as ornamental but also exhibit antiviral,
antifungal, antimalarial, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory functions. They are sources of drugs and are
used in herbal medicine to treat measles, malaria, asthma, eczema, cough, hepatitis, ringworm, ulcer
and scabies. These plants are continuously screened and evaluated for their pharmacological
properties. Bioactive compounds comprising flavanoids, alkaloids, steroids, terpenoids and saponins
have been isolated and characterized from the plants and are responsible for their biological activity.
The importance of these bioactive compounds available in these plants are discussed with respect to
their role in herbal medicine in Nigeria.

Key words: Medicinal plants, antiviral, antifungal, antimalarial, antibacterial, antioxidants, immunomodulators.

INTRODUCTION

There has been a tremendous pressure on medicinal 2001; Nunez-Selles, 2005; Okwu and Ezenagu, 2008).
plants for their extensive utilization as sources of raw The development of resistance to most of the available
materials for the pharmaceutical industries. Demands for antimicrobial agents and the high costs of treatment con-
medicinal plants are rapidly increasing not only in sequent upon this resistance has necessitated a search
developing countries like Nigeria, Ghana and India, but for new, safe, efficient and effective ways for the mana-
also in the developed ones. Medicinal plants have gement of infections (El-Mahmood and Doughari, 2008).
various effects on living systems; some are sedatives, Many drugs and chemotherapeutic agents have been
analgesic, antipyretics, cardio-protective, anti-inflammatory, developed from plants. Extracts of higher plants have
antioxidants, antispasmodics and immuno-modulatory served as good sources of antibiotics against various
functions (Okwu and Ezenagu, 2008). bacterial and fungal pathogens (Falodun et al., 2006).
The research for novel compounds effective against Plant based antimicrobial compounds have great thera-
plasmodium strains resistant to widely used synthetic peutic potential as they can serve the purpose without
drugs, coronary arteriosclerosis, cardio-vascular, neuro- any side effects as associated with synthetic drugs (El-
logical, endocrine, respiratory, immune, ischemia, gastric Mahmood and Doughari, 2008).
disorder, tumor progression and carcinogenesis has led Plants therefore form the major resort for the treatment
to increased interest in new and existing information of diseases and sicknesses by traditional healers in many
about the remedies of these diseases from natural societies. Among these plants include Bryophylum pinna-
sources (Wright and Phillipson, 1990; Phillipson and tum, Cassia alata Linn, Clerodendron splendens and
Wright, 1991; Angerhofer et al., 1992; Adesegun and Coker, Nauclea latifolia. These plants seemed worthy of an in-
depth review because of their wide utilization in herbal
medicine for disease treatment in Nigeria.
*Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected].

Abbreviations: OCS, Oxidative chemical species; HBV, Cassia alata Linn

hepatitis B virus; HCV, hepatitis C virus; HIV, human
immunodeficiency virus. C. alata Linn (Leguminosae) is an ornamental shrub or
7272 Afr. J. Biotechnol.

tree growing up to 12 m high (Figure 1a). It is found main- leaf cutting). It is an introduced ornamental plant that is
ly in the tropics around grassland in towns and villages now growing as a weed around plantation crops (Okwu
throughout West Africa. The plant has very important and Josiah, 2006; Okwu, 2007). B. pinnatum is used in
applications in folkloric medicine (Rai, 1987; El-Mahmood ethnomedicine for the treatment of earache, burns,
and Doughari, 2008). Decoction of the leaves and roots abscesses, ulcer, insect bites, whitlow, diarrhea and
are used extensively to treat diarrhea, dysentery and cithiasis (Agoha, 1974; Ofokensi et al., 2005; Okwu and
other gastrointestinal problems (El-Mahood and Doughari, Josiah, 2006; Okwu, 2007). In Southeastern Nigeria, this
2008). The macerated juices of the young fresh leaves herb is used to facilitate the dropping of the placenta of
are used to treat eye infections and parasitic skin disea- new born babies (Okwu and Josiah, 2006). The lightly
ses (El-Mahood and Doughari, 2008). The decoction of roasted leaves are used externally for skin fungus and
the stem bark and roots are used to treat urinary tract inflammations and the leaf infusion is an internal remedy
infections, bronchitis and asthma (El-Mahood and for fevers (Egereonu and Mokwe, 2005).
Doughari, 2008). Ethnomedically, B. pinnatum is used to induce vomiting
In Nigeria, the root, stem bark and leaves are used by of blood, cut umbilical cord in a new born baby, expel
practitioners of herbal medicines to treat burns, skin and worms, cure acute and chronic bronchitis, pneumonia
wound infections, diarrhea, gastrointestinal and upper and other forms of respiratory tract infections (Mudi and
respiratory tract infections (El-Mahood and Doughari, Ibrahim, 2008). The plant is considered a sedative,
2008). It have been reported (Benjamin and Lamikaura, wound-healer, diuretic, anti-inflammatory and cough sup-
1981) that the leaves and roots of C. alata can be used pressant (Egereonu and Mokwe, 2005; Okwu and Josiah,
as a remedy for boils, wound, eye, urinary and gastro- 2006). It is used for all sorts of respiratory conditions
intestinal tract infections, diarrhea and scarlet fever. such as asthma, cough and bronchitis. It is employed for
Recent publications have credited the use of C. alata the treatment of kidney stones, gastric ulcers and oede-
successfully in the treatment of hemorrhoids, consti- ma of the leg (Nassis, 1992). The leaf juice is mixed with
pation, inguinal hernia, intestinal parasitesis, blennor- coconut oil and then rubbed on the forehead for head-
rhagia, syphilis and diabetes (Makinde et al., 2007). The ache. It is heated and applied to boils and skin ulcers.
leaf extract exhibited various antifungal activities (Reezal Many of the traditional uses of Bryophyllum can be
et al., 2002). The traditional usage varies greatly in diffe- explained by the clinical research conducted on the plant.
rent countries. The leaves are shown to be the choice for Several biological activities have not only been immuno-
treatment rather than the flowers, barks and seeds suppressive effects (Rossi - Bergemann et al., 1994),
(Lindley, 1981). In the tropics, infusion of the roots is hepa-toprotective activity (Yadav and Dixit, 2003),
used to treat rheumatism, inflammation and as laxative. acetylcholinesterase inhibition (Barbose-Filho et al.,
The pounded fresh leaves are applied or rubbed on skin 2006), but it also protects against progressive infection
infections. They are used to treat itching, eczemas, craw- with Leishmania amazonrnsis (Da-Silva et al., 1999). The
craw and ringworm (Esimone et al., 2008). plant is widely used against rheumatism and inflamma-
The leaves are also boiled and drunk by women to tory process and therefore, showed protection against
hasten delivery (Esimone et al., 2008). C. alata is very oedema, boils and hemorrhage (Almeida et al., 2006).
effective and efficient to treat ringworm, as antihelminthic,
for uterus disorders, bites of poisonous snakes, laxative
actions and as tonics (Reezal et al., 2002). The juice of Clerodendron splendens (A. Cheval)
the fresh leaves are universally recognized by the local
healers as a remedy for parasitic skin diseases and is C. splendens belongs to the family of verbenaceae. It is a
used in the treatment of many eruptive and particular skin climbing evergreen bush plant with attractive red flowers
conditions by simply rubbing the crushed leaves either (Figure 1c) produced during the dry seasons of the year
alone or mixed with lime juice or an oil on the skin (Starr et al., 2003). It is made up of small trees, shrubs
(Oliver-Bever, 1986). and herbs commonly used in the tropics as ornamental
plant (Brickell and Zuk, 1997). This is because of the
bright red coloured flowers it produces. The leaves and
Bryophyllum pinnatum (Kalach of Pinnata Lamarck) barks are used in traditional medicine to treat diseases,
infections and inflammations of the urinary tracts
B. pinnatum (Crassulaceae) is an erect, succulent, peren- (Shrivastava and Patel, 2007). The roots and leaves
nial shrub that grows about 1.5 m tall (Figure 1b) and decoction of C. splendens are used in Nigeria to treat
reproduces via seeds and also vegetatively from leaf tumors, skin disorders, ulcers, abdominal pains and in-
bulbils (Okwu and Josiah 2006; Okwu, 2007). It has tall flammation (Okwu and Iroabuchi, 2008). Traditional
hollow stems, freshly dark green leaves that are distinc- healers in South Eastern Nigeria have reported on the
tively scalloped and trimmed in red and bell-like pendu- use of C. splendens in the treatment of fibroid (Okwu and
lous flowers (Egereonu and Mokwe, 2005). B. pinnatum Iroabuchi, 2008). The plant is used to treat gonorrhea
can easily be propagated vegetatively (through stems or and syphilis (Okwu and Iroabuchi, 2008). It has also been
 Okwu and Uchenna 7273

Figure 1. Pictures of some medicinal plants. a) Cassia alata; b) Bryophyllum

pinnatum; c) Clerondendron splendens; d) Nauclea latifolia.

used to treat malaria in Nigeria due to the presence of the tree that is widely distributed in both savannah and
bitter principle (Okwu and Iroabuchi, 2008). tropical forests of West Africa. In Nigerian local medicine,
Roots and leaf extracts of C. splendens have been the fruit is sometimes dried and used in the treatment of
used for the treatment of rheumatism, asthma and other piles and dysentery (Oliver-Bever, 1986). The fruits act
inflammatory diseases (Shrivastava and Patel, 2007). as an emetic when eaten in excess. Different parts of N.
The plant is used to treat cough, scrofulous infection, latifolia are used for different medicinal purposes in
buboes problems, venereal infections, skin diseases and different parts of Africa. One of the major medicinal uses
as a vermifuge, febrifuge and also to treat beriberi disea- is in the treatment of measles by the Ibo race of Nigeria
se (Shrivastava and Patel, 2007; OKwu and Iroabuchi, (Morah, 1994). The drug is prepared by roasting the suc-
2008). culent ripe fruits of N. latifolia in a pot over a hot firewood
flame until the whole fruit is charred. Special care is
normally taken to avoid over-roasting which usually
Nauclea latifolia Smith results in loss of activity (Morah, 1994).
The powdered drug which looks like charcoal is dispen-
N. latifolia Smith (Rubiaceae) is a shrub or small sprea- sed by the practitioner who usually conceals the origin of
ding tree that is widely distributed in both savannah and the drug from the patients. The drug is normally taken
tropical forests of West Africa (Figure 1d). It is a versatile orally and also applied externally on the skin as a thick
African medicinal plant growing in different parts of paste in palm oil. It is normally used for the therapeutic
Nigeria (Morah, 1994). It is a shrub or small spreading purposes. It is also successfully employed for prophylactic
7274 Afr. J. Biotechnol.

purposes during measles epidemics (Morah, 1994). The demonstrated significant anti-inflammatory activity
local inhabitants believe that it is more potent than the because of direct inhibition of several initial processes of
drugs employed in orthodox medicine against measles inflammation, for example it inhibits both the production
(Morah, 1994). of histamine and other allergic/inflammatory mediators
N. latifolia stem bark and leaf extract is used as a tonic (Del-Rio et al., 1997; Roger, 2002). Quercetin may have
for fever medicine and in the treatment of dysentery, positive effects in combating or helping to prevent cancer,
diarrhea and malaria (Ntrejumokwu and Kolawole, 1990). prostatitis, heart diseases cataracts, allergies/ inflam-
The leaves are used as an ingredient in the preparation mations and respiratory diseases such as bronchitis and
of fever “teas”. They are also used as part of the pot herb asthma (Yano et al., 1999). Rutin is also known as
used in steam treatment for malaria. Decoctions from the rutoside or quercetin -3- rutinoside. In humans, rutin
2+
stem bark are used in rural communities, for the treat- attaches to Fe ion and it prevents it form binding to
ment of stomach pains, fever and diarrhea (Ntiejumokwu hydrogen peroxide and creating a highly reactive free
and Kolawole, 1990). Phytochemical studies revealed radical that may damage cells. It is also an antioxidant
that the stem bark contains alkaloids and tannins which and therefore plays a vital role in inhibiting some cancer
are noted for their anti-inflammatory property and as a cells. Furthermore, rutin strengthens the capillaries and
remedy for leucorrhoea (Ntiejumokwu and Kolawole, can reduce the symptoms of hemophilia. It also helps to
1990). prevent oedema of the legs (Roger, 2002). The penta-
In Southern Nigeria, the stem is used as a chew sticks cyclic trterpenoids - and - amyrin [4] and [5] respec-
and the presence of bioactive compounds comprised of tively were isolated from the leaves of B. pinnatum
saponins, tannins, flavonoids and alkaloids. These phyto (Gaind and Gupta, 1977). Furthermore, - and - amyrin
constituents are responsible for the effectiveness of the acetate [6] and [7], respectively, have also been isolated
chewing sticks. Chewing sticks when used without tooth- from the leaves of B. pinnatum. Triterpenoids bryophenol
paste are very efficient, effective and reliable in cleaning [8] and bryophollon [9] were also isolated. Other phyto-
the teeth of many people in Southern Nigeria. The teeth chemicals important in the pharmacology characteristics
of the users of chewing sticks are usually strong, clean, of B. pinnatum include phytosterols and steroidal sapo-
fresh and devoid of dental plagues and carries (Okwu nins. The steroidal saponins may be responsible for toxi-
and Ekeke, 2003). A decoction of the root bark is recom- city of B. pinnatum. Steroids such as bryophyllol [10] and
mended as a mouth wash for swollen gums and a decoc- bryophyllol acetate [11] were isolated from B. pinnatum.
tion of the leaves makes an efficacious gargle for swollen Also, isolated include 5 - cholesten - 24 - ethyl - 3 - 25 -
gums and ulceration of the mouth (Ntijumokwu and diol [12] and the acetate [13]. The hydrocarbons were
Kolewole, 1990). also isolated. They include 18 -oleanane [14] and
aromatic hydrocarbons comprising decenylphenanthrene
[15] and undecenylphananthrene [16]. Another class of
PHYTOCHEMISTRY REVIEWED constituents are the terpenes, terpenoids such as -
taraxasterol [17] and bryophollenone [18]. C. splendens
C. alata, N. latifolia, C. splendens and B. pinnatum like has been extensively subjected to chemical investi-
other higher plants have complex phytochemical profile gations and a number of chemical constituents; viz
(Figure 2). The predominant phytochemical compounds steroids, terpenoids, flavonoids, volatile constituents,
include alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, saponins and phe- cyanogenic glycoside and phenolic compounds were
nolic compounds (Table 1). Efforts have been devoted isolated. Research reports denote that the major classes
and directed by many researches in the isolation and of chemical constituents present in C. splendens are
characterization of the biological active principle in the steroids such as - sitosterol [19], - campesterol [20],
plants. Alkaloids are the most potent therapeutic com- colebrin [21] and clerosterol [22] (Yang et al., 2000;
pounds of natural origin (Devkota et al., 2008). They are Kanchanapoom et al., 2001; Yang et al., 2002; Gao et al.,
an important class of secondary metabolites that occur in 2003; Pandy et al., 2003; Kanchanapoom et al., 2005;
plants and also in certain higher animals and marine Lee et al., 2006; Shrivastava and Patel, 2007).
invertebrates (Devkota et al., 2008). Flavonoids are present in C. splendens and may be
B. pinnatum has been reported to contain a wide range responsible for some of the biological activities of the
of bioactive compounds. The flavanoid glycoside rutin [1] plant. Hispudilin [23], apigenin [24], acacetin - 7 - 0 -
and quercetin [2] were isolated from B. pinnatum methyl glucuronate [25] were reported to be isolated from
(Stewart, 1972). These researchers also isolated quer- the leaf extract of C. splenden (Shrivastava and Patel,
cetins -3 diarabinosible [2] and kaemferol -3- glycoside 2007). Recently, Okwu and Iroabuchi (2008) isolated an
[3]. These flavonoids have strong inherent ability to antioxidant flavonone diglycoside, apigenin - 7 - 0 - - D
modify the body’s reaction to allergens, viruses and - glucuronopyranoside [26] from the ethanolic leaf extract
carcinogens (Okwu, 2008). of C. splenden. The bioactive compound [26] is a bitter
They show anti-allergic, anti-inflammatory, anti-micro- principle. C. splendens has been used to treat malaria in
bial and anticancer activity (Okwu, 2005). Quercetin has Nigeria due to the presence of the bitter principle. How-
 Okwu and Uchenna 7275

OH

HO O
OH

O
HO O
OH
H O OH
OH
OH
O O
HO HO H 2C
CH 3 H HO O
HO O
H OH OH H
H H H H HO
O O
OH O OH
HO H H OH
O O
HO O
OH
OH
[1] [2] [3]
OH

Me
Me Me
Me
H
H

Me Me Me
Me Me Me
O
H Me
H Me
OR
OR
Me Me
Me Me
OH
[4] R = H [5] R = H
[7] R = Ac [6] R = Ac
[8]

O
COOH OH

OR
H
OAc

[9] [10] R = H
[11] R =Ac

OH

OR

[12] R = H
[13] R =Ac [14]

[15] [16]
7276 Afr. J. Biotechnol.

O O O

OH
OH OH
[17] [18]
CH3

H3 C CH 3
H 3C CH 3
CH 3
CH 3 CH3
CH 3
CH 3 H
CH 3
H H
H H
OH
OH
[19]
[20]

CH3

H 3C CH3 H 3C

CH 3 CH 3

CH 3 CH3 CH3
CH3

OH H H3 C [22]
COOH [21]

OH
OH

OH O
OH O

OH 3C

OH O
OH O

[23] [24]

OH
OCH 3
CH 2OCH3

O O
H H O OH

OCH 3 OH
OH H H

OH O
H O
OR O
CH 3OCH 2
[26]
O
HO CH 3

OH O H
OH H
H
[25] R = Glu acid
H OH

O
O C OH
OH

OCH3 OH O
H3C
OH O CH 3
OH H 3C
H 3C OH

OH O
OH O [28] R= H
[27] [29] R = CH3 [30]
 Okwu and Uchenna 7277

OH
O OH

OH
OH O O
H
OH OH
CHO
O
O O H
OH
CH 2 CH2
OH O OH OH O CH3
OH O H
O O OH

[32] [33]
[31]

OH

O
O O H
H
CHO
CHO
O O Me
H
O CH 3
O CH 3 H
H
[34] [35]

OH

OH

OH
OH
OH

[36]

Figure 2. Phytochemicals present in Cassia alata Linn, Nauclea latifolia, Cleredendron

splendens and Bryophyllum pinnatum.

ever, acid hydrolysis removes the glycoside and produce of C. alata (Chopra et al., 1980) reported the isolation of
’ ’ ’
compound [27], identified as 3 , 5 , 7 trihydroxy - 4 chrysanthemic acid [28] and chrysanthemic acid esters
methoxy flavonone, a non bitter yellow compound with [29]. Chrysanthemic acid is a monocyclic terpene con-
antioxidant activity (Okwu and Morah, 2007; Okwu and taining three member rings. Its esters are also found in
Iroabuchi, 2008). Antioxidant compounds are responsible the flower heads of pyrethrum, (Chrysanthemum
for scavenging free radicals which are produced during cineraricefolium) and are naturally occurring insecticides.
normal metabolism or during adverse conditions that can Rahaman et al. (2006) isolated tetrahydroxyflavonone
be harmful to biological systems and thus leading to the known as luteoline [30] from the leaves of C. alata. In
death of an organism. In present life styles where stress another study, alatinone [31], an anthraquinone was iso-
conditions are common leading to excess production of lated (Hemlata et al., 1993) from the leaves of C. alata.
free radicals, these natural products will prove a support Hiroyeshi et al. (2001) also isolated Kaempferol 3 -
to our biological system to sustain and balance meta- gentio-biolocide (Kaempferol 3 - 0 - - D glycopyranosyl 1,
bolism. These findings supported the use of C. splendens 6, - D glucopyranoside) [32].
in phytomedicine as antioxidant and anti-inflammatory N. latifolia contains diverse phytochemicals such as
agent. Earlier investigation on the bioactive constituents alkaloids, flavonoids, steroids and glycosides. Earlier
7278 Afr. J. Biotechnol.

Table 1. Phytochemical composition of some medicinal plants expressed as mg/100 g dry weights.

Medicinal plants Family Part Screened Alkaloids Flavonoids Tannins Phenols Saponins References
Clerondendron splendens Verbenaceae Leaf 5.40 ± 0.03 0.70 ± 0.04 3.60 ± 0.02 0.08 ± 0.01 2.10 ± 0.01 Iroabuchi 2008
Bryophyllum pinnatum Kalachoe Creassulaceae Leaf 1.48 ± 0.02 1.72 ± 0.11 0.51 ± 0.20 0.06 ± 0.11 1.74 ± 0.20 Okwu and Josiah 2006
Cassia alata Linn Leguminosae Seed 3.24 ± 0.01 0.50 ± 0.10 2.46 ± 0.10 0.95 ± 0.10 6.44 ± 0.01 Nnamdi 2008
Nauclea latifolia smith Rubiaceae Seed 0.59 ± 0.10 0.56 ± 0.22 0.06 ± 0.11 0.05 ± 0.20 1.34 ± 0.10 Udu 2008
Nauclea latifolia smith Rubiaceae Leaves 4.32 ± 0.20 0.36 ± 0.10 0.01 ± 0.20 0.02 ± 0.11 0.98 ± 0.11 Udu 2008
Nauclea latifolia smith Rubiaceae Fruit 0.28 ± 0.10 0.81 ± 0.10 0.01 ± 0.11 0.02 ± 0.20 0.42 ± 0.10 Udu 2008

workers on the plant isolated a series of alkaloids antiviral, antifungal, antibacterial properties but hepatocellular carcinoma) (Bellow, 2001). N. lati-
from it. Naucleafoline, nauclechine and naufoline also protects and regenerates liver cells, viral liver folia, B. pinnatum and C. splendens have been
were isolated from the leaves (Hotellier et al., damage and toxic liver damage. extensively used in herbal medicine as antiviral
1979, 1981). Other alkaloids isolated from the agent for liver treatment. They protect and
plant include naucletine, nauclefine, naucledidinal regenerate liver cells, viral liver damage and toxic
and epinaucleidinal, augustine, card-ambine and PHARMACOLOGICAL/BIOLOGICAL STUDIES liver damage. N. latifolia fruits have broad
3 dihydrocadambine (Hotellier et al., 1975, spectrum activity against measles. The occur-
1979, 1980, 1981). These alkaloids may be res- C. alata, C. splendens, N. latifolia and B. pinna- rence of naucleidal and epinaucleidal in the anti-
ponsible for the antiplasmodial activity of the tum have been extensively used in herbal viral preparation against measles is of interest.
plant. medicine not only for their oxytoxic, analgesic,
Naucleidal [33] and epinaucleidal [34] have anti-inflammatory antimicrobial properties but also
been isolated from an antiviral preparation pro- provide relief in the treatment of human gastro- Antifungal drug
duced by roasting Nauclea latifolia fruits (Morah, intestinal, hypermobility and pepetic ulceration
1994). Interest in naucleidal increased when the (Shrivastava and Patel, 2007; Okwu and Fungal related diseases are difficult to eradicate
natural broad spectrum antiviral agent elenolic Iroabuchi, 2008). especially in immunosuppressive situations (Irobi
acid [35] which has the same stereochemistry with and Daramola, 1994; Adekunle, 2001). Crude
epinaucleidal [34] was reported (Mackellar et al. methanol extracts from the leaves of C. alata
1973). The occurrence of naucleidal [33] and Antiviral agents showed inhibition on fungi pathogens
epinaucleidal [34] in the antiviral preparation (Phongpaichit et al., 2004). The hyphal growth of
against measles is also of interest. The practice of Some of the greatest human health risks are Microsporum gypseum, Trichophyton rubrum and
boiling or heating many herbal medicines in Africa caused by viral diseases such as human immuno- Penicillium marneffei were inhibited by methanol
by the practitioners is probably to effect detoxi- deficiency virus (HIV), hepatitis B virus (HBV) and leaf extracts of C. alata in a concentration depen-
fication and/or to con-vert certain components into hepatitis C virus (HCV), ebola, measles, influenza, dent manner. T. rubrun and M. gypseun were
more active forms (Morah, 1994). Almeida et al. dengue fever and yellow fever (Butler, 2008). completely inhibited by the extract at a concen-
(2006) has isolated a rare vinylic O- glycosylated Hepatitis is the inflammation of the liver cells tration of 10 mg/ml and P. mar-neffed at a con-
terpenoid 1-Octen-3-0- -L-arabinopyra-nosyl-(1- (Bellow, 2001). It is characterized by elevated centration of 100 mg/ml. The C. alata extracts
6)- - glycopyranoside [36] from B. pinnatum. C. transaminase, jaundice and pain (Bellow, 2001). also affected M. gypseum conidial germination. At
alata, C. splendens, B. pinnatum and N. latifolia Viral hepatitis is a source of significant morbidity the concentration of 10 mg/ml C. alata extract
have been extensively used in herbal medicine and mortality world-wide. It is also the most com- inhibited conidial germination (Phongpaichit et al.,
not only for their anti-inflammatory, antimalarial, mon cause of chronic liver disease (cirrhosis and 2004). These findings confirm the traditional
 Okwu and Uchenna 7279

therapeutic claims of C. alata to treat ringworm and skin stimulant activity when tested in female rats and rabbits
diseases. C. alata is an excellent candidate for treatment (Shrivastava and Patel, 2007). The ethanolic extracts of
of penicilliosis marneffed (Phongpaichit et al., 2004). C. splendens showed uterine contraction activity in
Antimicrobial activities against human pathogens have guinea pig (Okwu and Iroabuchi, 2009). The uterine
been carried out for C. alata, (Khan et al., 2001; contraction increases as the concentration of the plant
Villasenor et al., 2002; Somchit et al., 2003). Aqueous extract increases. C. splenden is used in herbal medicine
extract from leaves of C. alata and some of its to accelerate labour in South Eastern Nigeria (Okwu and
constituents; rhein, emodol, 4, 5 dihydroxy-1-hydroxyl Iroabuchi, 2009). However, if used during the first month
methylanthrone and 4, 5-dihydroxy-2- hydroxymethylan- of pregnancy, the plant could have abortifacient pro-
thraquinone had antifungal activity against some derma- perties. If the extracts from this C. splendens are admini-
tophytes and yeast (Fuzellier et al., 1982). C. alata leaf stered in high dose, it prepare the uterus and ensures
extract inhibited Candida albicans, Aspergillus fumigatus, that fatigue disappears, producing strong, regular con-
Aspergillus flavus, Mucor sp., Rhizopus sp and derma- traction to facilitate labour during the last month of
tophytes, Trichophyton mentagrophytes, T. rubrum and pregnancy (Okwu and Iroabuchi, 2009). B. pinnatum is
M. gypseun (Palanichamy and Nagarajah, 1990). traditionally used during child birth and may stimulate the
uterus (Egereonu and Mokwe, 2005). The plant should
Anti-bacterial activity not be used in pregnancy.

The leaf extract and juice of B. pinnatum have demon-

strated significant antibacterial activity towards Staphylo- Anti-inflammatory activities
coccus auerus, Esterichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, Pseudo-
monas aerguensa, Klebsiella pneunoniae and Salmonella Inflammation is a very complex pathophysiological pro-
typhi (Ofokansi et al., 2005). The crude extracts from C. cess involving a variety of biomolecules responsible for
alata inhibited the growth of E. coli, S. aureus, S. typhi, B. causing it such as leucocytes, macrophages, mast cells,
subtilis, Proteus mirabilis and Klebsiella pneumoniae (El- platelets and lymphocytes by releasing cicosanoids and
Mahmood and Doughari, 2008). The activity of the plant nitric oxide (Shrivastava and Patel, 2007). The ethanolic
extracts against both Gram positive and Gram negative leaf extract of C. splendens produced a marked anti-
bacteria is an indication of the presence of broad inflammatory activity. C. splendens leaf extracts reduced
spectrum antibiotic compounds in the plant. The herbal carrcgeenan-induced paw oedema in rats by 47.83%
soap formulated with C. alata demonstrated high potency inhibition. The anti-inflammatory effects of plants may be
against skin flora and indicates the potential of the plant due to the presence of bioactive compounds such as fla-
as in the production of antiseptic soaps for combating vonoids, saponins and phenolic compounds. This agreed
skin infections especially in the tropics (Esimone et al., with the findings of Somazundram and Sadique (1986)
2008). and Shrivastava and Patel (2007) that flavonoid glyco-
sides of C. splendens showed modulation in calcium tran-
sport in isolated inflamed rat liver and thereby showed
Anti-malarial activities reduction in inflammation. Flavonoids significantly inhibit
lysosomal enzyme secretion and arachidonic acid
The roots, leaves and stem bark extract of N. latifolia and release from membranes by inhibiting lipoxygenase,
C. alata showed antiplasmodial activity against Plasmo- cycloxygenase and physpolipase A2 (Del-Rio et al.,
dium vivax and Plasmodium falciparum C. splendens 1997). The inhibition of arachidonic acid release in the
has been used to treat malaria in Nigeria due to the pre- inflamed cells would provide less arachidonic substrate
sence of the bitter principle apigenin -7-0- -D glucurono- for the lipoxygenase and cycloxygenase path ways. This
pyranoside (Okwu and Iroabuchi, 2008). A series of however, leads to a lesser quantity of endoperoxides,
alkaloids comprising nauclerofoline, nauclechine, naufo- prostaglandins, prostacycline and thromboxane as well
line, naucleitine, nauclefine and naucleidinal also showed as hydroperoxyl hydroxycicosatrienoic acids and leuco-
antiplasmodial activity (Morah, 1999; Adesegun and trienes. Such an effect confirms the decrease in hista-
Coker, 2001). Furthermore, Cassia alata leaves, roots mine, which is known to act in the first stage of the
and stem bark extracts have anti-malarial action due to inflammatory process (Del-Rio et al., 1997). In a study
its flavonoids content. The plants act by redox perturb- with rats and guinea pigs the leaf juice from B. pinnatum
bation in the form of composition of substantial oxidant was able to protect against chemically induced anaphy-
stress during malarial infection (Adesegun and Coker, lactic reactions and death by selectively blocking
2001). These plants may be useful as a source of novel histamine receptors in the lungs (Egereonu and Mokwe,
anti-plasmodial drugs. 2005). B. pinnatum leaf extract has been used for gastric,
ulcer. The leaf extract protected mice from such ulcer
Oxytoxic activities inducers as stress, aspirin, ethanol and histamine (Pal,
1991; Egereonu and Mokwe, 2005). Its anti-inflammatory
Leaf extracts of C. splendens showed strong uterine effects have been attributed to be due to immunomodula-
7280 Afr. J. Biotechnol.

tory and immune-suppressant effect (Rossi-Bergmann et 2008; Shrivastava and Patel, 2007). The main antioxidant
al., 1994). The compound 1-Octen-3- -L- arabinopyra- effect of these plants is as protective agent or prophy-
nosyl -(1-6) - - glucopyranoside isolated from B. lactics against the oxidative stress due to the high
pinnatum can play on important role on the immuno- content of polyphenols, sesquiterpenoids, flavonoids,
suppressive in vivo effect of the plant (Alimeida et al., apigenin and hispudilin. It has been suggested (Nunesz-
2000, 2006). These supported the use of the plant in the Selles, 2005) that the antioxidant activity of these plants
treatment of oedema, rheumatism, boil and hemorrhage might be due to their ability to scavenge oxidative chemi-
in phyto-medicine. cal species (OCS) associated with the initiation of the
lipid peroxidation. Organic and aqueous extracts of C.
splendens, C. alata, B. pinnatum and N. latifolia showed
Anti-oxidant activity significant inhibition of lipid peroxidation in vitro and in
vivo induced by FeSO4- ascorbic in rats (Egereonu and
Free radicals can have a noxious effect on cells and it is Mokwe, 2005; Shrivastava and Patel, 2007). This lends
believed that free radical damage is involved in the credence to the scientific support for the therapeutic use
etiology of several diseases (Naik et al., 2009). The of the plant leaves as claimed in traditional medicine
radicals are a by-product of various endogenous pro- (Morah, 1994; Egereonu and Mokwe, 2005; Shrivastava
cesses that can be stimulated by external factors such as and Patel, 2007; El-Mahmood and Mokwe, 2008). These
irradiation and xenobiotics (Halliwell and Gutheridge, plants have been variously reported as having antiallergic
1989; Naik et al., 2009). Free radical formation is asso- activity, anti-inflammatory, sedative, anti-bacterial and
ciated with the normal natural metabolism of aerobic fungicidal action. In present life styles where stress condi-
cells. The oxygen consumption inherent in cell growth tions are common, leading to excess production of free
leads to the generation of a series of free radicals of radicals, these natural products will prove a support to
oxygen, leading to oxidative stress (Del-Rio et al., 1997; our biological system to sustain and balance metabolism.
Okwu, 2007). The interaction of species with lipids
produces new radicals, hydroperoxides and different
radicals (Del-Rio et al., 1997). These groups of radicals CONCLUSION
(super oxides) may interact with biological systems in a
clearly cyctoxic manner (Del-Rio et al., 1997). These plants at the moment grow in the wild. It is very
Research has been conducted on the principle that free important to conserve these medicinal plants which at the
radicals can be blocked and/or scavenged (Del-Rio et al., moment grow in the wild. Existing traditional sacred
1997; Okwu, 2007). The different radicals responsible for grooves, herbal gardens and forest areas rich in medi-
cell oxidation process comprise the following: singlet cinal plants need to be studied to identify species that are
1 2-
oxygen ( O2), superoxide anion (O ), hydroxide radicals at the verge of extinction so that adequate measures may
. .
( OH) and peroxide radical (ROO ) (Del-Rio et al., 1997; be taken to conserve and multiply these plants. Multipli-
Okwu, 2007). The hydroxyl radical is the most cytotoxic cation techniques of the seeds should be encouraged
of all these radicals. Also polyunsaturated fatty acids through research. Information on the phytochemical
present in cell membranes are easily oxidized by both profiles of these exotic medicinal plants should be dis-
enzymatic and oxidative peroxidation through free radical seminated to pharmaceutical firms which have been
chain reaction (Okwu, 2007). Initiation of lipid peroxi- depending on the wild sources of medicinal plants for
dation can be induced by free radicals (super oxide, drug formulation. These plants offer wide-scope for
hydroxyl and singlet oxygen) produced in biological utilization as raw materials for pharmaceutical industries.
systems (Del-Rio et al., 1997). These electrically inert The pharmaceutical industries should undertake inno-
species have the ability to interaction and alter genetic vative research into the potential use of these plants for
materials. They exhibit cytotoxic, mutagenic and carcino- food and drug formulation.
genic actions. It has been reported (Del-Rio et al., 1997;
Okwu, 2007) that lipid peroxidation can be inhibited by
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