Topic: MODELS OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

Topic Objectives:

By the end of this topic students should be able to:

i. Explain the term models of curriculum development

ii. Distinguish the types of models of curriculum
iii. Discuss the various models of curriculum development, giving their
strengths and weaknesses
iv. Give reasons why the knowledge of models of curriculum is
significant to a teacher
This topic focuses on models of curriculum development. Models of curriculum
development provide guidelines on how the curriculum development process can be
effectively undertaken. It is therefore necessary that curriculum developers are
conversant with various models of curriculum development and attempt to use them.
This will help them select or even develop a model that is most suitable, practicable
(feasible) and applicable for the community and education system with which they are
working.

What is a model?

It is a format designed to meet unique needs, contexts and/or purposes. They are
patterns that serve as guidelines to action. Models are used to represent events and
event interactions in a highly compact and illustrative manner. Models of curriculum
thus provide guidelines on how the curriculum development processes should be
undertaken well. They are concerned about curriculum elements.

There are a number of models of curriculum proposed by different curriculum scholars.

The source of this model of curriculum emanates from:

a) Methods of approach
b) Scholars point of view
c) Community needs and composition
d) Influence by other scholars
e) The nature of particular educational systems.

These models may differ yet bear great similarities, some are simple while others are
complex, and some models may be refinements or revisions of already existing models.

There are two broad categories of curriculum models namely:

i. Technical scientific models which include Ralph Tyler’s model(1949), Hilda

Taba’s model(1962), Hunkins decision-making model (1980) and Oliver’s
model(1992)
ii. Non-technical-Non scientific models which include Glatthorn’s Naturalistic
model(1987),Walkers Deliberation model(2003) and Hunkin’s conversational
model(1995)
 A. Technical-Scientific models of Curriculum Development

This is a way of thinking, a way of planning curricula to maximize the students learning
and allow them to increase their output. This approach requires educators to use a
rational approach to accomplish their tasks and outline systematically those procedures
that will facilitate the creation of curricula. These models utilize a means-end paradigm
which postulates that the more rigorous the means, the more likely the desired ends will
be attained. Advocates of this approach indicate that such a systematically designed
programme can be evaluated. Let us look at the following models that fall under
technical-scientific models of curriculum development.

1. Ralph Tyler’s Model (1949)

This model places emphasis on planning phases. According to this model, there are four
fundamental questions that should be answered by those involved in the development of
curriculum planning. These are:

1. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?

2. What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain this
purposes?
3. How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?
4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?

These four questions should be answered systematically. This is why the four questions
are defined during the major steps of curriculum development process such which
include:

a) Stating educational objectives

b) Selection of learning experiences
c) Organization of learning experiences
d) Evaluation

Tyler’s model places a lot of emphasis on stating the educational objectives compared to
the other objectives. This is why this model is also referred to as the objectives model.
Under this model, curriculum planners should find the general objectives by collecting
data from three sources thus:

a) The learners
b) The society and
c) Suggestions from subject specialists

It is the duty of the curriculum planners to analyze the needs, interest and abilities of
the learners for whom the curriculum is prepared. The suggestions of subject specialists
are important because to master a subject, one must understand its underlying
structure.

After identifying the general objectives, curriculum planners should critically

interrogate and filter them through two screens:

a) Philosophical screens and

 b) Psychological screens

The general objectives that successfully pass through these two screens become specific
instructional objectives. It is after obtaining the specific instructional objectives that
curriculum planners should proceed to the other steps (2 nd, 3rd and 4th) in the
curriculum development. Tyler’s model has a deductive approach i.e. it moves from
general (analyzed needs) to specific objectives.

Figure summarizing Tyler’s model of curriculum development

Sources of objectives

The learner The society Suggestions from subject

experts

General objectives

Refining of the general objectives

Screens/filters of the objectives

Philosophical screens Psychological screens

Specific instructional objective

Step I Stating educational objective

Step II Selection of learning experience

Step III Organization of learning experience

Step IV Evaluation

Conceptualization of Tyler’s method of curriculum development

Criticisms against Tyler’s model

i. Tyler’s model has been criticized as being too linear, that is it proceeds from
cause to effect and that it ignores formative evaluation.
ii. In addition, the model does not effectively show the relationships amongst the
elements suggested.

2. Hilda Taba’s Model (1962)

This is an improvement on Tyler’s model in which she conceptualized four major

elements of curriculum namely:

i. Objectives
ii. Content
iii. Learning experiences and
iv. Evaluation

Taba identifies five key stages of developing a school curriculum thus:

i. Design of experimental teaching and learning units by teachers

ii. Testing of the experimental units
iii. Revising and consolidating the experimental units
iv. Development of integrated design/framework of a whole curriculum
v. Installation and dissemination of new units

The first stage involves the development of curriculum materials by teachers. This is
where it is different from Tyler’s model because Taba believed that those who
implement the curriculum (the teachers) should participate in developing it. Taba
believed that those affected by a decision must be involved in the decision-making
 process. She advocates for grassroots approach as opposed to top-down approach
advocated by Tyler.

Taba proposes seven steps through which teachers would undertake in this first stage:

i. Diagnosis of needs-the teacher as a curriculum designer starts the process by

identifying the needs of the learners for whom the curriculum is planned.
ii. Formulation of objectives-This follows after the teacher identifies the learner
needs that require attention. This helps in specifying the objectives to be
achieved.
iii. Selection of content-The objectives selected suggest the subject matter or
content of the curriculum. The content should be in agreement with the
objectives, be valid and significant.
iv. Organization of content-The teacher should organize the selected content
based on some sequence such as maturity of learners, their academic
achievement and their interests.
v. Selection of learning experiences-Subject matter selected should be
presented to learners who should equally engage in the content. It is advisable
that the teacher should select instructional methods and learning activities that
will involve learners with the content.
vi. Organization of learning experiences-Learning experiences should be
sequenced and organized just as content is done. The sequence of learning
experiences is determined by content and the elements to be taught.
vii. Evaluation and means of evaluation. The curriculum planners should
determine what objectives have been attained. Procedures for evaluation need to
be considered by the learners and teachers.

Taba’s model is inductive i.e. from specific to general where the point of departure is the
design of material, which then leads to generalization

Strengths and weaknesses of Taba’s Model

This approach is credited for the grassroots approach (vitu kwa ground ni different)
that advocate for teacher involvement in the curriculum development process. It is
however criticized for assuming that teachers have the necessary expertise and that
schools have the required resources.

3. HUNKIN’S DECISION-MAKING MODEL (1980)

Hunkins model has seven major stages thus:

i. Curriculum conceptualization and legitimization- This is about

recommendation of decision regarding the curriculum development process. This
stage calls for the participant’s engagement regarding deliberation on the nature of
curriculum and its educational and social-political value. It is also about the search
for an understanding of the nature and power of the curriculum. The views on the
curriculum and its purposes should be legitimized. The most important question
here is: why is what is to be included in a curriculum a legitimate activity and what
do we base our decisions on? Such engagements and deliberations will result into
 understanding the nature of curriculum, the assumptions and reasons (rationales)
that support the suggested and recommended actions.

ii. Curriculum diagnosis-This involves two major tasks. Firstly, translating needs
into causes and secondly, generating goals and objectives from the needs. The goals
and objectives generated from the needs not only serve as guidelines and the
statements of expected learning outcomes but also frameworks for determining
content (which forms the next stage in this model).

iii. Content selection-This is about the substance of the curriculum. It is about what
that is to be taught and the what that learner will learn. Content comprise facts,
concepts, principles, theories, ideas, skills, generalizations and procedures learners
use to apply their knowledge and skills and how to communicate what they know to
others.

iv. Experience selection-This stage mainly deals with teaching/instruction. It is

about how the content is to be delivered to learners or experience need by them. The
guiding questions here include;
a) What teaching methods will be employed?
b) What learning activities will be designed to make learning
effective and enjoyable?
c) How will the content of the curriculum be experienced so that the
goals and objectives selected for the school program and attained?

v. Implementation-Hunkins gives two stages under implementation.

a) Initial piloting of the curriculum to work out any minor problems
in the programme and
b) Final diffusion/roll out of the tested programme.

To ensure proper implementation, management systems needs to be set up by which the

new programme is introduced to the staff to develop a commitment to and comfort with
the new programme.

vi. Evaluation- This is conducted throughout the life of the curriculum with the aim of
getting information that informs decisions to be made so as to continue, modify or
discontinue the programme

vii. Maintenance- This is about the management of the implemented curriculum to

guarantee its effectiveness. It comprises the following:

a) Orientation of staff implementing the new programme

b) Ensuring that budgets are adequate to supply the necessary
materials/resources
c) Supervisors who are available to assist teachers or offer expert advice

Lack of curriculum maintenance may cause teachers to personalise the programmes to an

extend that it fails to reflect the original curriculum and more so disappear into daily
routine of the classroom.
This model at all stages contains feedback which refers back to the previous stages. This
feedback allows for adjustments (if any), decision-making or modification. This feedback
not only makes this model unique but also makes it a system’s view of decision-making.
This implies that there is dynamism in this model, that is, subject to change.

This model is also pegged on the notion (understanding) of contextualizing the process of
curriculum making.

4. OLIVER’S MODEL (1992)

Earlier on in 1966 Oliver suggested a curriculum development model with six

stages:

i. Statement of philosophy
ii. Statement of goals
iii. Statement of objectives
iv. Design of plan
v. Implementation and
vi. Evaluation

He later (1992) revised his model and suggested 17 steps of curriculum

development thus:

i. Specify the general needs of the learners

ii. Specify the needs of the society
iii. Write/formulate a mission statement of the school’s philosophy and goals
iv. Specify the needs of the learners in the school
v. Specify the needs of the local community
vi. Specify the needs of the subject
vii. Specify the curriculum goals of the society
viii. Specify the curriculum objectives of the school.
ix. Organize and implement the curriculum
x. Specify instructional goals
xi. Specify instructional objectives
xii. Select instructional strategies
xiii. Select evaluation strategies
xiv. Implement strategies
xv. Finalize the selection of evaluation strategies
xvi. Evaluate instruction and make adjustments
 xvii. Evaluate the curriculum and make adjustments

This model is credited for its comprehensiveness

Note:

Steps i-1v and vi-ix are planning phases

Steps v is planning and operation phase

Steps x-xii form operational phases

B. NON-TECHNICAL/NONSCIENTIFIC

Curricularists of this view do not discredit those in the technical scientific camp
though they differ on some issues. Below are the differences of the two
approaches.

Technical-Scientific approach Non-technical/Non-scientific approach

1. The process of a curriculum has a high 1. They emphasize subjective, personal,

degree of objectivity, universality and logic. aesthetic, heuristic and transactional
approach to curriculum development
2. Curriculum development process process.
assumes that reality can be defined and
represented in symbolic form. 2. They do not stress the output of
production but instead the learner
3. The aim of education can be made especially through activity oriented
known, can be stated precisely and can be approaches to instruction.
spoken of in a linear manner.
3. Proponents of this approach believe that
4. It displays modernism by way of not all ends of education (aim/goals) can be
advocating for rationality, objectivity and known or do they need to be known in all
certainty. circumstances.

5. This approach interprets the world as a 4. They maintain that curriculum evolves
complex system or machine that can be rather than being planned.
observed and manipulated.
5. They regard themselves as post
 modernists in the sense that they view the
world not as a machine but a living
organism which cannot be seen by
individuals from the outside but can be
seen by those who are ultimately
uninvolved through participation.

6. To them, curriculum cannot be

separated from the people who are involved
in the process or from those who will
experience the curriculum-one cannot
decontextualize the process i.e. divorce the
process from the context/environment.

Nontechnical/Non-scientific models include:

a) Allan Glatthorn’s Naturalistic Model (1987)

b) Delker Walker’s Deliberation Model (2003) and
c) Ornstein Hunkin’s Conversational Approach(1995)

A look at each of this will suffice

1. Glatthorn’s Naturalistic Model(1987)

This model contains eight steps.

i. Assess the alternatives- Curricularists should commence the process

by systematically examining alternatives to the current curriculum.
There should be adequate time to critique and ventilate the current
practice.
ii. Stake out a territory-This is where individuals redefine the course
parameters, the learning audience and learning activities. Come to the
end of this, there should be a tentative course of action or list for which
the case is designed, whether it will be elective or core, its basic
information and knowledge and how it relates to existing courses in
school or education system.
iii. Develop a constituency-This step handles the humanness of
curriculum development to its inherently political character. Those
developing the programme should take cognizance of their own personal
convictions and biases before they go far in the development process. The
developers will need to appreciate the fact that there are those people in
the system who oppose the new programme because of their personal
and professional beliefs. Therefore to proceed in programme
development, participating experts must convince others to join forces.
They should communicate with various groups and convince them of the
soundness of the programme being created.
iv. Build the knowledge base-Upon getting necessary support among the
colleagues and significant others, it is time to create knowledge base
required for programme creation (content/subject matter). It also
includes gathering information on the learners’, teachers’ skills and
receptivity to the suggested programme, community willingness to
support the innovation and what research information might lend
confidence to the new programme.
v. Block in the units-Developers here determine the nature and number of
the units, components or parts, bearing in mind the general objectives
for the unit as well as how unit topics might be sequenced. More
emphasis is placed on what students are to learn from engaging with
these units. Sequence is defined for all learners to follow taking into
consideration learners interests, learning styles and other differences
characteristic of this approach.
vi. Plan quality learning experiences-Here developers engage in
designing particular sets of learning experiences that will address the
general objectives. Here emphasis is placed on learning experiences and
not on subject matter and this distinguishes the approach and qualifies
it as non-technical. This is a learner-centered focus that is still non-
technical. The planning of learning experience suggests that there are
no clear-cut technical boundaries of what will transpire in the
curriculum topic. Developers are creating possible option that will
address many curriculum objectives and that will produce numerous
different outcomes.
vii. Develop the course examination. There is more emphasis on different
means of assessment. Both the teacher and the learner participate in
determining the means of documenting whether learning has occurred
and the quality of such learning through learner portfolios, biographies
and Continuous Assessment Tests(CATs)
viii. Develop the learning scenarios-This last step is about the process of
creating learning scenarios as opposed to the standard curriculum guide.
These scenarios comprise a detailed statement of the topic, or unit
objectives. A suggested number of lessons and a recommended list of
learning experiences with suggestions on how to personalize them in the
classroom. The scenarios also contain material necessary to support the
learning experiences.

2. DELKER WALKERS DELIBERATION MODEL (2003)

This model represents a means of reasoning about the practical problems of

what to include in the curriculum representation. Walker was interested in
what people actually do in developing curricula. This model is non-technical
because it does not accept a linearity of action of simply following steps (1, 2,
and 3---).

Deliberation model accepts the fact that reality exists in circles (circularity of
reality) which allows people to consider the interrelatedness of decisions and
actions. It enables individuals to realize that means and ends affect each other
constantly modifying the very reality about which one is deliberating.

This model is non-technical because of the rejection of linearity, of precise

cause-effect, means-ends thinking. This model is appropriate in the sense that
it is the most appropriate way of dealing with uncertain practical problems that
are evident in curriculum development process. This model draws on systems
thinking, feedback and adjustments.

Curriculum development through deliberation occurs with cultural context.

The deliberations must be sensitive to social structures, recognize individuals’,
political agenda, address psychological states of all engaged parties. Through
this way, deliberation will yield the right actions (enabling appropriate
curriculum to be accomplished.
There are suggested steps to consider under this model though they are not
linear series of actions or decision points. Each stage is processed bearing in
mind the context of the stage and the mutual interaction among all other
stages in the deliberation process. There is no agreement on the exact number
of stages. There are other advocates of this model who suggest four stages (Reid
1992) while others suggest six stages (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998).Below is a
brief look at the six stages:

i. Public sharing-A group of people should come together to make the

curricula, not to share but to persuade. There must be sharing prior to
arguing for what the curriculum ought to be. At this stage, the group
makes it clear the assumptions relating the nature and purpose of
curriculum. Perceived needs are presented, possible content and
potential pedagogies are introduced. Individuals identify information that
they think has potential pedagogies are introduced. Individuals identify
information that they think has potential relevance to the task of
creating a curriculum. People are encouraged to communicate their
beliefs regarding the nature of content. Some questions are addressed
such as;
a. What is a learner?
b. What are optimal learning environments?
c. What are teachers’ functions?

Theories are made known dreams disclosed, concerns are introduced and any
hidden agenda are exposed therein.

ii. Highlighting agreements and disagreements-In this step, individuals

identify agreements and common interests, beliefs and understanding
regarding the nature of school and the curriculum. What they think they
should be taught and the approach to instruction that is most valuable
to the roles of the learner and teacher.
iii. Explaining position. Here the complexity of the process of curriculum
creation is explained and all those involved are searching for and
organizing data and make clear various positions. This forms the
practical aspect of creating curricula. Questions that may arise here
include:
a. Why do I think this is a problem?
 b. What data supports a proclaimed shortcoming as in fact real?
c. Why is a particular group of learners failing and do they really need
this type of curricula solution?
iv. Highlighting changes in position. This is a progress from the activity
of explaining positions. Some positions maybe changed owing to the new
data that may arise as people listen to their colleagues ere are open-
minded to give and take on issues-No fixed minds/positions. This
actually reinforces the group’s team work and this sets the stage for
negotiating points of agreements.
v. Negotiating points of agreements. This is the stage that engages
participants in searching for solutions. The participants are seeking
conclusions on about what the curriculum should be, what topics to
include, what instructional approaches will be employed and what
educational goals will be fulfilled. The ultimate objective is persuasion
and deliberation remains rhetorical. There is a strong believe that the
power of arguments, soundness and reliability of data will facilitate
making proper choices regarding the circular solutions to educational
needs.
vi. Adopting a decision-In this final step, individuals achieve a consensus
as to the nature and purpose of curriculum by identifying specific
curricular topics, pedagogy, educational material, school environment,
ways of implementation and ways of assisting value or assessment. The
group determines what ought to be done to address educational needs
that have been identified in earlier phases of deliberation. The final looks
of the curriculum depends mainly on the social political and
philosophical composition of the deliberation team.

3. Ornstein Hunkin’s conversation model (1995)

Hunkin considers the curriculum as a product or plan and sees
curriculum development as a rational series of steps to be followed
somewhat independent of context. Advocates of non-technical often view
curriculum more as drama or conversation. Below are phrases of
conversational approach.
i. Free association-Curriculum developers gather to let their minds
wander over whatever the information they have at a hand. They
 indulge on various topics and ideas that come to mind. Here no
firm judgement is made about these ideas/topics. Individuals
ventilate their minds to wander around various social contexts at
local, county and national levels. It may even include wandering at
global level.
ii. Clustering interests-In the process of conversing among
themselves, the people realize certain interests, concerns, wishes,
desires and preferences are related and they are potentially
important. These interests can then be collated into one large
interest.
iii. Formulating questions or curricular focuses-It is here that
participants reflect on the collated interest and interrogate
themselves and colleagues. Questions that arise here are:
a. What do I or others want to know about these interests?
b. What do we havet to know about this interests or topic?
c. What questions are essential to gain command of implied
information?
d. What questions are essential to consider engaging individuals
in culturally significant conversation?
e. What conversations matter in the engagement and betterment
of contemporary civilization?
iv. Sequencing question and/or curricula focuses. This is about
how to organize these topics in ways that will engage learners in
these conversations. Participants at this stage consider how they
can arrange curricula so that when learners are engaged their
conversations will be carried forward.
v. Constructing context for the focuses-curriculum created from
this approach is similar to social and educational contexts. The
environmental/context take precedent for engaging learners in
conversation about the material. Pedagogic approaches and the
necessary education materials are considered. The players (talkers)
are brought into the educational space. Those who have been
engaged in this curricula conversation have notions about what
students ought to behave and even ought to think.
 This approach to curriculum development planning presents that
curriculum that should encourage players to apply their knowledge
into action in context. A curriculum created through this approach
is the product of the people and thus it is a product of their
consensus and not a product passed to them by curriculum
experts.

CONCLUSION

Curriculum models should be modified from time to time as no curriculum

model can be said to be perfect and no curriculum theory can be said to be
totally adequate.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE (SAE)

a. Explain what you understand by the term curriculum

model.
b. Give reasons why it is important for teachers to have
knowledge of curriculum models.
c. From what you have learnt, which model of curriculum
development do you prefer and why?
d. Discuss any model of curriculum development.