Earthquakes The shaking of the ground caused bj tm yy the tremendous release of energy due to pressure in Barts crust is called an earthquake. As the pressure builds up, stress increases, ia the cron, which can be both due to natural geological activity such as a volcanic eruption o tectonic plate movement, or human-made activities resulting in increased pressure in the surface. Tectonic plate movement causes the most inducing stress activity for earthquakes to occur, Because we have learned that plate boundaries move against, away, or slide past through each other, this increases pressure, When they finally reach a point at which they let go, it will cause the ground to shake, Most active earthquakes happen to occur at plate boundaries and where most geologically active plates ae situated. However, weak earthquakes may also occur, which i ‘not associated by plate movernent. These are normally caused by volcanic activities or eruptions, meteorite impact, or landslides. epicenter fault Figure 120 Parts of an earthquake Likewise, the slipping of a block of Earth crust with another block, which is the feature of a fault, also causes a sudden shake in the surface of Earth. The origin at which the earthquake | aenare is called the hypocenter or focus. The point directly above the focus on the surface is called the epicenter. arthquakes release energy through sesmfc waves. Seismic waves travel along and within thelithosphere. These waves arein the form of body waves and surface waves, Body waves are in the form of primary or secondary waves. Primary waves oF compressional waves (also known as P-waves) travel through the interior of Earth and through solid ‘and fluid materials. They travel ; aeevthan § waves, in which their velocity varies depending an the location and the material | rewhich they move. The motion ofthe P-wave is longitudinal which vibrates along with the | ‘Hrection ofits motion, just like a sound wave that disturbs the ar molecules in a forward and backward manner as it propagates horizontally. Because it travels faster, the P-wave is the first eartive in any seismic station, making it the first detected wave that the earthquake produces. oeOn the other hand, the secondary waves or transverse waves (also known as S-waves) travel through solid materials only within the interior of Earth, Their velocity is typically less than that of P-waves, and their vibrations are perpendicular to the direction of the motion of the waves, ‘These properties of P-and S-waves have led tothe discovery ofthe liquid portion of the interior of Earth, Surface waves are waves tha be a love wave or a Rayleigh wave. Love waves movement, similar to how a snake moves on Rayleigh waves or R-waves shake the ground that you see in the ocean. Figure 1.21 shows occur on the surface of the lithosphere. A surface wave can (L-waves) sweep the surface in a side-to-side the ground. The motion of an L-wave is transverse, in an up-and-down movement, similar to the wave the different types of seismic waves. Figore 1.22 Types of surface waves: (a) R-wave; (b) L-wave rltsunami that was 45 m Another stron; a magnitude of Fault that res be in Rizal, Nue: im Metre s. Indonesia and Japan are countries! ey are also located in the Pacific Ring:Predicting an earthquake is not as easy as Predicting the occurrence of a typhoon. An earthquake does not have any impending signs or warnings before it occurs, The instrument that detects and measures seismic waves is called a seismograph. {he internal part of a seismograph is called the seismometer. The seismometer works as a pendulum that swings back and forth, which is attached to a barrel that rotates and makes prints of the ground shaking. Modern seismographs are attached to digital recorders that use electric signals to monitor and record ground shaking. Size of Earthquakes: Magnitude and Intensity ‘ ‘The magnitude of an earthquake is the quantitative measure of the amount of energy released by an earthquake. It is measured using a seismograph. The Richter scale is the most common scale for the magnitude of an earthquake. It is sometimes called the local magnitude (M,). It is a logarithmic scale of the wave amplitude of an earthquake. A 5.3-magnitude is 10 times stronger than a 4.3-magnitude earthquake. Other scales that express the magnitude of earthquakes are surface-wave magnitude, body- wave magnitude, and moment magnitude. ‘The other scale used to measure the size of an earthquakes is the intensity. Intensity refers to the strength of ground shaking during an earthquake. Moreover, intensity also refers to the amount of damage caused by an earthquake. Intensity varies in different areas or places depending on the distance from the epicenter of an earthquake, Each place has different degrees of damage compared to the other. The first scale used in identifying earthquake intensity was the Rossi-Forel Intensity Scale, which becomes the basis for the development of the now widely- used scale known as the Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale. The Philippine Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS) developed an intensity scale used in the country to determine the extent of the effect of such earthquakes, It ranges from scarcely perceptible up to extremely devastating. This is most appropriate to our country because we lie along the Pacific Ring of Fire, where active plate movement is evident. Table 1.3 shows the magnitude scales and their equivalent intensities, Table 13 Earthquake intensity Scale with its Equivalent Magnitude Scale40-49 |Moderately Strong —- - — | Peopie indoors and some people outdoors can feel the shaking. Standing vehicles may rook slightly. Windows, doors, and some objects rattie. Hanging objects swing considerably. A rumbling sound may be heard. 40-49 (Strong vi Very strong People generally feel the tremor. Strang shaking can be felt in the buildings. Hanging objects swing tramendously. Many light and unstable objects may fall and break. Liquids may spill from open containers. Standing vehicles may rock. The shaking of the ground is frightening. Heavy objects and furniture move or may shift positions. Walls may crack. Poorty built structures such as houses and buildings can be slightly damaged. Possible landslides may occur in elevated or mountainous areas. Trees are shaking. | | | sab teaes vil | Destructive Jbivecnrsas + otf |Very vm | destructive The shaking of the ground is very scary. Heavy objects or furniture overturn or topple. Poorly built structures are considerably damaged. Cracks will possibly form on roads, dikes, or concrete walls. Trees are strongly shaken. Possible landstides may happen. Ground shaking is really frightening. People will start to panic. Damage may occur even in well-built structures. Concrete dikes and foundations of bridges can be destroyed. Landslides are likely to occur in hilly and | mountainous areas. Trees are violently shaken. 6.0-6.9 |People are thrown off to the ground. Most structures are totally damaged. Bridges and towers can topple or x ' Devastating _ collapse. Utility posts can be tilted and sewer pipes can Extremely x | 7.0 above devastating be bent, twisted, or broken. Trees are tremendously shaking and boulders are thrown out. A \All structures are completely destroyed. Massive landslides and liquefaction happen. (Liquefaction refers | to the reduction in soil strength and stiffness.) Many trees can be uprooted or toppled. Adapted from: https://www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/index.php/earthquake/earthquake-intensity-scale and https: //www.researchgate.net/figure / COMPARISON-OF-RICHTER-MAGNITUDE-AND-MODIFIED- MERCALLI-INTENSITY-SCALES_tbl1_279723404Safety Measures Before, During, and After an Earthquake Predicting earthquakes is not possible because an earthquake does not show any impending signs of Occurrences. The best way to prevent damage, however, is knowing what one should do duringand after an earthquake. Idea Constant monitoring of ground shaking is provided by the + Plate movement is DOST-PHIVOLCS to make people aware of earthquakes the major cause of and their resulting mgnitudes and intensities. Other earthquakes. y " 2 | + Earthquakes happen government organizations, likewise, provide necessary mtv leyatvere precautionary seminars and-lectures to reduce the amount Metonesna of damage that earthquakes may cause by increasing magnitudes. awareness among the people. Advance preparation is important to know what to do if an earthquake strikes. Preparing emergency kits are encouraged. An emergency kit should include important things that can be easily used and consumed once an earthquake happens. Water, nonperishable foods, flashlights, batteries, first-aid kits, personal hygiene and sanitation kits, extra shirts, and copies of personal documents such as birth certificates, passports, and other list of necessary information must also be included in the emergency kit. Once these things are ready, place them in a bag and have the bag placed in an area that can be easily grabbed prior to evacuation after an earthquake. During an earthquake, itis important to remember the “Drop, Cover, and Hold” rule, When the ground is shaking, one must not panic. Proceed with the drop, cover, and hold position until the shaking subsides. Once the shaking stops, do not immediately stand and run; wait for a few minutes before leaving in an orderly manner. Proceed to an open area that is free from any falling material or debris, Afier an earthquake, do not return immediately inside the house or building. Stay for a while outside and check yourself for possible injuries so that immediate care can be given. Possible aftershocks may also be felt, so stay a few minutes where you are before going to the evacuation area, Fat is the world’s deadliest earthquake ever recorded?