CALCULUS

Instructor: Joy J. Gardon

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 Mathematics? Why?

■ Mathematics is about
• numbers, space, structures, …
■ Mathematicians seek out patterns, formulate new
conjectures, and establish truth by rigorous deduction from
appropriately chosen axioms and definitions.
■ Most important, it teaches us how to analyze problem in an
abstract form, with logical thinking.

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 They invented Calculus!

Sir Isaac Newton Gottfriend Wilhelm von Leibniz

(1642-1727) (1646-1716)

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 What is Calculus all about?
➢ Calculus is the study of changing quantities, or more precisely,
the rate of changes: e.g. velocities, interest rate, return on an
asset.

➢ The two key areas of Calculus are Differential Calculus and

Integral Calculus.

➢ The big surprise is that these two seemingly unrelated areas are
actually connected via the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.

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 What is Calculus all about?
➢ Mathematical study of continuous change, same way that
geometry is the study of shapes and algebra is the study of
generalizations of arithmetic operations

➢ Tool used by engineers to determine such quantities as “rates

of change and areas”

➢ Thy mathematical “backbone” for dealing with problems

where variables change with time or some other reference
variable
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Isaac Newton (4 January 1643 – 31 March 1727)

English physicist, mathematician,

astronomer, natural philosopher and
theologian, one of the most influential
men in human history.

Newton in a 1702 portrait by Godfrey Kneller

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Newton's own first edition copy of his Philosophiae Naturalis
Principia Mathematica with his handwritten corrections for the
second edition.
The book can be seen in the Wren Library of Trinity College,
Cambridge.

Cosmos1 8
Chapter 1
Functions, Graphs and Limits
In this Chapter, we will encounter some
important concepts.

➢Functions

➢Limits

➢One-sided Limits and Continuity

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 Section 1 Functions
➢A function is a rule that assigns to each object in a set A exactly one
object in a set B.

➢The set A is called the domain of the function, and the set of assigned
objects in B is called the range.

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 Function, or not?

YES

NO NO

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➢To be convenient, we represent a functional relationship by an
equation

➢In this context, x and y are called variables, furthermore, we refer

to y as the dependent variable and to x as the independent variable.
For instant, the function representation

➢Note: x and y can be substituted by other letters. For example, the

above function can be represented by

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Function that describes tabular data
Table 1.1 Average Tuition and Fees for 4-Year Private Colleges
Academic Year Tuition and
Ending in Period n Fees
1973 1 $1,898
1978 2 $2,700
1983 3 $4,639
1988 4 $7,048
1993 5 $10,448
1998 6 $13,785
2003 7 $18,273

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 Solution:
➢We can describe this data as a function f defined by the rule

Thus,

➢Note that the domain of f is the set of integers {1, 2, 3, …,7}

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 Polynomial Functions
Polynomial Function in Degree Name of Function
General Form

1 Linear
2 Quadratic
3 Cubic
4 Quartic

The largest exponent within the polynomial determines the degree of the polynomial.
Explore Polynomials
Linear
Function

Quadratic
Function

Cubic
Function

Quartic
Function
 Rational Functions

𝒈(𝒙)
𝒇 𝒙 =
𝒉(𝒙)

where f(x) and h(x) are not constant functions, g(x)

and h(x) are polynomial functions, and ℎ(𝑥) ≠ 0

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 Definition of a Vertical Asymptote

The line x = a is a vertical asymptote of the graph of a function f if f (x)

increases or decreases without bound as x approaches a.
f (x) → ∞ as x → a + f (x) → −∞ as x → a -

y y

f
f
a x a x

x=a x=a

Thus, f (x) → ∞ or f(x) → −∞ as x approaches a from either the right or the

left.
 Definition of a Vertical Asymptote

The line x = a is a vertical asymptote of the graph of a function f if f(x)

increases or decreases without bound as x approaches a.

f(x) → − ∞ as x → a + f(x) → − ∞ as x → a −
y y

x=a x=a

a x a x
f
f

Thus, f(x) → ∞ or f(x) → − ∞ as x approaches a from either the left or the

right.
 Locating Vertical Asymptotes

If is a rational function in which

𝑝(𝑥) and 𝑞(𝑥) have no common factors and 𝒂 is a

zero of 𝑞(𝑥), the denominator, then 𝒙 = 𝒂 is a
vertical asymptote of the graph of 𝑓.
 Locating Vertical Asymptotes

If is a rational function in which

𝑝(𝑥) and 𝑞(𝑥) have no common factors and 𝒂 is a

zero of 𝑞(𝑥), the denominator, then 𝒙 = 𝒂 is a
vertical asymptote of the graph of 𝑓.

Example:
 Definition of a Horizontal Asymptote
The line y = b is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of a function f
if f(x) approaches b as x increases or decreases without bound.

y y y
y=b
y=b
f
f
x f
y=b x
x

f(x) → b as x → ∞ f(x) → b as x → ∞ f(x) → b as x

→∞
 Locating Horizontal Asymptotes
Let f be the rational function given by
𝒂𝒏 𝒙𝒏 + 𝒂𝒏%𝟏 𝒙𝒏%𝟏 + ⋯ 𝒂𝟏 𝒙 + 𝒂𝟎
𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒎 𝒎%𝟏 , 𝒂𝒏 ≠ 𝟎, 𝒃𝒎 ≠ 𝟎
𝒃𝒎𝒙 + 𝒃𝒎%𝟏 𝒙 + ⋯ 𝒃𝟏 𝒙 + 𝒃𝟎

The degree of the numerator is 𝑛. The degree of the denominator is

𝑚.

1. If 𝑛 < 𝑚, the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠, or 𝑦 = 0, is the horizontal asymptote of

the graph of 𝑓.
2. If 𝑛 = 𝑚, the line 𝑦 = 𝑎! /𝑏𝑚 is the horizontal asymptote of the
graph of 𝑓.
3. If 𝑛 > 𝑚, the graph of 𝑓 has no horizontal asymptote.
Strategy for Graphing a Rational Function
!(#)
Suppose that 𝑓 𝑥 = where p(x) and q(x) are
%(#)
polynomial functions with no common factors.
1. Find any vertical asymptote(s) by solving the equation
𝑞 (𝑥) = 0.
2. Find the horizontal asymptote (if there is one) using the
rule for determining the horizontal asymptote of a
rational function.
3. Use the information obtained from the calculators and
sketch the graph labeling the asymptotes. (table of
values)
 Radical
Functions
 Graph of the Square Root

x y
-1 i
0 0
1 1
4 2

Note: We cannot graph

imaginary numbers on the
coordinate plane. Therefore,
the graph stops at 𝑥 = 0.
 Graph of the Cube Root

x y
-4 -1.59
-1 -1
0 0
1 1
4 1.59
Note: Since the index number
is odd, we can graph the
function for all x values.
Therefore, the domain is all
real.
 The General Equation
The general form of the square root function is

The cube root function is

Add a positive number to x.

Add a negative number to x. Add a positive number to the Add a negative number to the
radical. radical.
 Add a positive positive number to x.

Add a negative number to x.

Add a positive number to the Add a negative number to the

radical. radical.
 Absolute Value Function
The absolute value function is defined
by f (x) = |x|.

The graph of the absolute value

function is similar to the linear
parent function, except it must
always be positive.

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 Building the Absolute Value Function

The absolute value function is defined

by f (x) = |x|.

So we just take the negative portion of

the graph and reflect it across the
x-axis making that part positive.

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 Building the Absolute Value Function

The absolute value function is

defined by f (x) = |x|.

This is the absolute value parent

function.

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 Parent Function

• V-shape
• It is symmetric about the y-axis
• The vertex is the minimum point on the graph
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 Translation

A translation is a
transformation that shifts
a graph horizontally or
vertically, but doesn’t
change the overall shape
or orientation.

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 Translation
The graph of
y = |x – h| + k
is the graph of y = |x|
translated h horizontal
units and y vertical units.
•The new vertex is at (h, k)

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 Multiple Transformations
In general, the graph of an absolute value function of the form
𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥– ℎ + 𝑘
can involve translations, reflections, stretches or shrinks.

To graph an absolute value function, start by identifying the vertex.

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 Graphing Absolute Value Functions
Graphing y = a|x – h| + k is easy:

1.Plot the vertex (h, k). (note…if +h inside that means h is negative,
if – h inside that means h is positive)
2.Use the 𝒂 value as slope to plot more points. Remember you have
to do positive and negative slope to get points on both sides of the
V
• Connect the dots in a V-shape.

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 Exercise 2
Graph the following functions without making a table.
1. y = |x – 2| + 3 This graph will go right 2 and up 3 so from the origin go right
2 and up 3. This is the vertex (2, 3). Now from that point use the positive
and negative slope (a = 1 here) to get more points.

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 Exercise 2
Graph the following functions without making a table.
1.y = (1/2)|x| This function does not have an “h” or “k” so the vertex is
(0, 0). Since a = ½ the slope is ½. Go up 1 and right 2 then up one and left
2.

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 Exercise 2
Graph the following functions without making a table.
1.f (x) = -3|x + 1| – 2 This graph will go left 1 and down two so the vertex
will be (-1, -2). Since “a” is negative the graph will open down. Since the
value of “a” is 3 the slope will be 3 and -3 (just remember to go down.)

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 Piecewise-defined function
➢A piecewise-defined function is such a function that is often
defined using more than one formula, where each individual
formula describes the function on a subset of the domain.
➢Here is an example of such a function

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 Graphing Piecewise Functions:

f(x) = x2 + 1 , x < 0
x–1 , x³0
Determine the shapes of the graphs.

Parabola and Line

Determine the boundaries of each graph.

• •
line wherewhere
Graph the parabola x is greater
x is less
or equal to zero.
than zero. •
• • •
°• •
•
•
•
•
 Graphing Piecewise Functions:

f(x) = 3x + 2, x < -2
-x , -2 ≤ x < 1
x2 – 2, x ≥ 1
Determine the shapes of the graphs.

Line, Line, Parabola

Determine the boundaries of each graph.

•
•
•
• • •
•
•
• °•
• •
•
°•
Exercises
 Limits (Approaching)
➢Roughly speaking, the limit process involves examining the behavior of a
function f(x) as x approaches a number c that may or may not be in the
domain of f.
➢To illustrate the limit process, consider a manager who determines that when
x percent of her company’s plant capacity is being used, the total cost is

hundred thousand dollars. The company has a policy of rotating maintenance

in such a way that no more than 80% of capacity is ever in use at any one
time. What cost should the manager expect when the plant is operating at full
permissible capacity?

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It may seem that we can answer this question by simply evaluating C(80), but
attempting this evaluation results in the meaningless fraction 0/0. However, it
is still possible to evaluate C(x) for values of x that approach 80 from the left
(x<80) and the right (x>80), as indicated in this table:
x approaches 80 from the left → ←x approaches 80 from the right

x 79.8 79.99 79.999 80 80.0001 80.001 80.04

C(x) 6.99782 6.99989 6.99999 7.000001 7.00001 7.00043

The values of C(x) displayed on the lower line of this table suggest that C(x)
approaches the number 7 as x gets closer and closer to 80. The functional
behavior in this example can be describe by

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Limit: If f(x) gets closer and closer to a number L as x gets closer
and closer to c from both sides, then L is the limit of f(x) as x
approaches c. The behavior is expressed by writing

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Notation for LIMITS
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿
!→#
read as “the limit of f(x) as 𝑥 approaches c is equal to 𝐿”
lim- 𝑓 𝑥
!→#
read as “the limit of f(x) as 𝑥 approaches c from the left”

lim. 𝑓 𝑥
!→#
read as “the limit of f(x) as 𝑥 approaches c from the right”
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For the limit 𝐿 to EXIST, both limits from left and right
must be equal to L.

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Example 2
# ! &'
Investigate the function 𝑓 𝑥 = when 𝑥 = 1
#&'
and determine the limit of the function.

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 # ! &'
The 𝑓 𝑥 = becomes “𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒” when 𝑥 = 1.
#&'
'! &' (
=
'&' (
so instead of direct substitution, we will try approaching
closer and closer:

X 0.5 0.9 0.99 1 1.01 1.1 1.5

𝒇(𝒙) 1.5 1.9 1.99 2.01 2.1 2.5

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 Example 3

Use a table to estimate the limit

Solution:
!"#
Let 𝑓 𝑥 = and compute f(x) for a succession of values of x
!"#
approaching 1 from the left and from the right.
x→ 1 ←x
x 0.99 0.999 0.9999 1 1.00001 1.0001 1.001

f(x) 0.50126 0.50013 0.50001 0.499999 0.49999 0.49988

The numbers on the bottom line of the table suggest that f(x)
approaches 0.5 as x approaches 1. That is

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The figure below shows that the graph of two functions that do not have a
limit as x approaches 2.

Figure (a): The limit does not exist; Figure (b): The function has no
finite limit as x approaches 2. Such so-called infinite limits will be
discussed later. 58
Output 1(LIMITS)
Work in TRIAD
STRICTLY NO ERASURES
Use 1 whole yellow pad
Follow instruction

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Write the following mathematical symbol to mathematical
sentence

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Write the following mathematical statement to
mathematical symbol.

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PT # 1
Using the table of values, investigate and determine the
limits for the following functions