Engineering Physics (FIC 102)

UNIT-IV
 UNIT I – CLASSICAL PHYSICS
CONTENT
UNIT II – OPTICS

UNIT III – MODERN PHYSICS

UNIT IV – ELECTROMAGNETISM I

UNIT V – ELECTROMAGNETISM II
LECTURE-01

Electrostatic Field,
Flux and Gauss Law
Electric Charge
Electric Force
Coulomb’s law

The magnitude of the electric force between two point charges q1 and q2 is directly proportional to
the product of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
𝐹 ∝ 𝑞1 𝑞2
1
𝐹 ∝ 2
𝑟
𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹=𝑘 2
𝑟
Here r is the distance between the two charges
k is the proportionality constant and In SI units,
1
𝑘= = 8.9875 × 109 N m2/C2
4𝜋𝜖0
ε0 is the permittivity of the free space
= 8.85 × 10-12 C2/ N. m2 Thus in SI units
The force acts along the line joining the two charges.
 CONCEPT QUESTION
Identify the electro-static field lines representing a
positive electrical monopole
 CONCEPT QUESTION
Identify field lines representing an electrostatic di-pole?
 Lines Of Electric Force
• The electric field in a region can be graphically represented by drawing certain curves known as lines of electric
force or electric field lines.
• The tangent to the line of force gives the direction of the resultant electric field.
• The electric field due to a positive point charge is represented by straight lines originating from the charge and the
electric field due to a negative point charge is represented by straight lines terminating the charge.
• The field lines can never cross.
• The field lines begins on positive charge and end on negative charges.
 Lines of electric force
• Electric field lines for different combination of charges
INTERACTIVE PRESENTATION
 Electric Field
• The electric field at a point is the force experienced by unit positive charge due
to the source charge.
 Electric Field

Mass and Charge Analogy

 Electric Field

If we have several point charges q1,q2….,qn at distances r1,r2,…rn from Q.

The total force on Q is
1 𝑞 𝑄 𝑞2 𝑄 𝑄 𝑞 𝑞2
𝑭= 1
+ 2 +… = 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 2 + 𝑟 2 +…
1 =QE
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 2 𝑟2
1 1 2

1 𝑛 𝑞
𝑖
𝐸= ෍ 2
𝑟ෝ𝑖
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑖=1 𝑟𝑖

✓ The electric field is a vector quantity that varies from point to point.
✓ Physically the electric field is the force per unit charge that would be exerted on a test charge
if you were to place at P
Problem on Electric Field:

Charges +q, -q and +2q are placed as as shown in the figure. Find the Electric Field 𝐸
at point P, which is the mid point of the line AB.

𝑗Ƹ
A +q

P
d

+2q -q
O d B
𝑖Ƹ
 Flux of an electric field through a surface

Φ𝐸 = 𝐸𝐴 Φ𝐸 = 𝐸𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
𝐹𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 ⊥ 𝐹𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 ⊥
𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
 Flux of an electric field through a surface

∆Φ𝐸 = 𝐸𝑖 ∗ ∆𝐴𝑖 ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑖 = 𝐸𝑖 ∙ ∆𝐴𝑖

Φ𝐸 = lim ෍ 𝐸𝑖 ∙ ∆𝐴𝑖 = න 𝐸 ∙ 𝑑𝐴
∆𝐴𝑖 →0

❑ By summing the contributions of all elements, the total flux through the surface
can be obtained.
❑ If we let the area of each element approach zero, then the number of elements
approaches infinity and the sum is replaced by an integral.
Electrostatic Flux through a closed surface

The flux through an area

element can be
✓ Positive (element ①),
✓ Zero (element ②), or
✓ Negative (element ③).

Φ𝐸 = ර 𝐸 ∙ 𝑑𝐴
Net flux over
Integral over
closed surface
closed surface
 Electrostatic Flux through a closed surface

Φ𝐸𝑁 ≠ 0 Φ𝐸𝑁 = 0

Φ𝐸 = ර 𝐸 ∙ 𝑑𝐴 ⇒ 𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒

 Gauss’s Law
𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐
The flux through any surface enclosing the charge is
𝜖0
In other words, the flux of the net electric field through a closed surface equals the net
charge enclosed by the surface divided by 𝜖0 . If Q is the total charge enclosed by the surface
through which the flux is calculated
Electric Flux: Point charge
 SOLVED EXAMPLE
A uniform electric field exists in space. Find the flux of this field through a cylindrical
surface with the axis parallel to the field.

Ans.:𝑂𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒𝐸 ⊥ 𝑑𝑠 ⇒ 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 0

 POLL QUESTION

A spherical gaussian surface surrounds a point charge q.

Describe what happens to the total flux through the surface if

(A) the charge is tripled,

(B) the radius of the sphere is doubled,

(C) the surface is changed to a cube, and

(D) the charge is moved to another location inside the surface.

LECTURE-02

Application of Gauss
Law: ES field due to
infinite wire and sheet
CONCEPT QUESTION
Find the electric flux through each surface:
−𝑄 +𝑄 −2𝑄 +2𝑄
A. Φ𝑆1 = 𝜖0
; Φ𝑆2 =
𝜖0
; Φ𝑆3 =
𝜖0
; Φ𝑆4 =
𝜖0

−𝑄 −2𝑄 +2𝑄
B. Φ𝑆1 = 𝜖0
; Φ𝑆2 = 0; Φ𝑆3 =
𝜖0
; Φ𝑆4 =
𝜖0

−𝑄 −2𝑄
C. Φ𝑆1 = 𝜖0
; Φ𝑆2 = 0; Φ𝑆3 =
𝜖0
; Φ𝑆4 =0

−𝑄 +𝑄 −2𝑄
D. Φ𝑆1 = 𝜖0
; Φ𝑆2 =
𝜖0
; Φ𝑆3 =
𝜖0
; Φ𝑆4 =0
 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐
ර 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆 =
𝑠 𝜖0

Applications of Gauss Law

 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐
ර 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆 =
𝑠 𝜖0

Applications of Gauss Law

 Point Charge Distribution
Super-position
Coulomb’s Law Principle

1 𝑞𝑄
𝑭= 2
𝑟Ƹ 𝑭 = 𝑭𝟏+F2+F3+….
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟
𝐹 1 𝑛 𝑞
𝑖
𝐸= = ෍ 2
𝑟ෝ𝑖
𝑄 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑖=1 𝑟𝑖
 Continuous Charge Distribution
When the charge is distributed continuously in some region, the sum becomes integral
𝐹 1 𝑛 𝑞 1 1
𝑖
𝐸= = ෍ 2
𝑟ෝ𝑖 𝐸 𝑟 = න 𝑟𝑑𝑞
Ƹ
𝑄 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑖=1 𝑟𝑖 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟2

𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑞 ⇒ λ𝑑𝑙 ≡ 𝜎𝑑𝑎 ≡ 𝜌𝑑𝑣

POINT LINE SURFACE VOLUME
CHARGE CHARGE CHARGE CHARGE
 Continuous Charge Distribution
𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑞 = λ𝑑𝑙 ≡ 𝜎𝑑𝑎 ≡ 𝜌𝑑𝑣
λ ⇒ 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 [𝐶ൗ𝑚]
𝜎 ⇒ 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 [𝐶 Τ𝑚2 ]
𝜌 ⇒ 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 [𝐶 Τ𝑚3 ]
SURFACE VOLUME
POINT LINE
CHARGE CHARGE
CHARGE CHARGE
 Electrostatic
Field due to
infinite wire
• Electric charge is
distributed uniformly along an
infinitely long thin wire. The
charge per unit length is λ
(assumed positive). Find the
electric field at a distance r
from the wire by using Gauss’s
law.
 Electrostatic Field due to infinite wire
Electric charge is distributed uniformly along an infinitely long thin wire. The charge per unit
length is λ (assumed positive). Find the electric field at a distance r from the wire by using
Gauss’s law.
𝜑 = ර 𝐸. 𝑑𝑠 ⇒ ර 𝐸 𝑑𝑠 + ර 𝐸 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑬 𝟐𝝅𝒓𝒍. 𝐸 ⊥ 𝑑𝑠
𝑠 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓 𝐹𝑙𝑎𝑡 𝐸𝑛𝑑𝑠

𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 = λ𝑙
λ𝑙
From Gauss law 𝜑 = 𝐸 2𝜋𝑟𝑙 = ,
𝜖0

1 𝜆
𝐸= 𝑟Ƹ
2𝜋𝜖0 𝑟
 Electrostatic
Field due to
infinite sheet
Use Gauss’s law to find
the electric field caused
by a thin, flat, infinite
sheet with uniform
positive surface charge
density σ.
Use Gauss’s law to find the electric field caused by a thin, flat, infinite sheet with uniform positive
surface charge density σ.

𝜑 = ර 𝐸. 𝑑𝑠 ⇒ ර 𝐸 𝑑𝑠 + ර 𝐸 𝑑𝑠 = 2𝐸𝐴. 𝐸 ⊥ 𝑑𝑠
𝑠 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓 𝐹𝑙𝑎𝑡 𝐸𝑛𝑑𝑠

𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 𝜎A

𝜎𝐴
From Gauss’s law, 2𝐸𝐴 =
𝜖0
𝜎
and 𝐸 =
2𝜖0
INTERACTIVE PRESENTATION
 SOLVED
EXAMPLE
Two infinite parallel planes
carry equal but opposite charge
densities ±σ (see the figure).
Find the field in each of the
three regions (i) to the left of
both (ii) between them, (iii) to
the right of both.
 LECTURE-03
Electrostatic field due to
conducting and insulating
sphere.
 CONCEPT QUESTION

+Q If +Q charge is distributed on a conducting sphere

of radius R, where can we locate the charge:
R A. 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒
B. 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒
C. 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒
D. 𝑁𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒
 Application of Gauss Law:
Electrostatic Field due to Insulating Sphere
 Application of Gauss Law:
Electrostatic Field due to Insulating Sphere
 Application of Gauss Law:
Electrostatic Field due to Insulating Sphere
 Application of Gauss Law:
Electrostatic Field due to Insulating Sphere
 Application of Gauss Law:
Electrostatic Field due to Insulating Sphere
 SUMMARY SLIDE
1
𝜑 = ර 𝐸. 𝑑𝑠 = ර 𝐸 𝑑𝑠 = E ර 𝑑𝑠 = 𝐸 4𝜋𝑟 2
2 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
𝑄
Q 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜌 =
4 3
𝜋𝑅 3
r<R r>R 1 2 3
𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 𝜌𝑣 =
3
𝑄 4 3 𝑄𝑟 3
𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 𝑄 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 𝑄 4 33
𝜋𝑟 = 3
𝜋𝑅 𝑅
r=R 3
𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐
ර 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆 = ර 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆 = ර 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆 =
𝑠 𝜖0 𝜖0 𝑠 𝜖0
𝑠
𝑄 𝑄 𝑄𝑟
⇒𝐸= ⇒𝐸= ⇒𝐸=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅2 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑅3
 Radial distribution of
Electrostatic Field due to Insulating Sphere

𝑄
⇒𝐸= 2
𝐹𝑂𝑅 𝑟 > 𝑅
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

𝑄
⇒𝐸= 2
𝐹𝑂𝑅 𝑟 = 𝑅
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅

𝑄𝑟
⇒𝐸= 3
𝐹𝑂𝑅 𝑟 < 𝑅
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅
 Application of Gauss Law:
Electrostatic Field due to Conducting Sphere
1

2 𝜑 = ර 𝐸. 𝑑𝑠 = ර 𝐸 𝑑𝑠 = E ර 𝑑𝑠 = 𝐸 4𝜋𝑟 2
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
Q
1 2 3
r<R r>R
3

𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 𝑄 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 𝑄 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 0

r=R
𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐
ර 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆 = ර 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆 = 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐
𝑠 𝜖0 𝜖0 ර 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆 =
SAME FOR
𝑠
𝑠 𝜖0
𝑄 𝑄
⇒𝐸= ⇒𝐸=0
INSULATING 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
⇒𝐸=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅2
SPHERICAL SHELL
 Radial distribution of
Electrostatic Field due to Conducting Sphere

1 𝑄
𝐸= 2
𝑟>𝑅
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟
1 𝑄
𝐸= 2
𝑟=𝑅
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑅
𝐸 =0𝑟 <𝑅
For a conductor
➢ The electric field is zero
inside a conductor
➢ Any net charge must reside
on the surface
INTERACTIVE
PRESENTATION
 POLL QUESTION
Consider a solid ball of radius R whose charge density depends on the radial coordinate as
𝜌 𝑟 = 𝐴𝑟 2 , for some constant A. Find the electric field at a point inside (r < R) and outside
the ball (r > R).
𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 ‫𝑣𝑑𝜌 ׬‬
𝐴𝑅2 𝐴 𝐻𝐼𝑁𝑇: ර 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆 = =
A. 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑟 > 𝑅 = ; 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑟<𝑅 = 𝑠 𝜖0 𝜖0
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 2 4𝜋𝜖0

𝐴𝑅3 𝐴𝑅
B. 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑟 > 𝑅 = 𝜖0 𝑟 2
; 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑟<𝑅 =
4𝜋𝜖0

𝐴𝑅5 𝐴𝑟 3
C. 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑟 > 𝑅 = 5𝜖0 𝑟 2
; 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑟<𝑅 =
5𝜖0

𝐴𝑅5 𝐴𝑅3
D. 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑟 > 𝑅 = 5𝜖0 𝑟 2
; 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑟<𝑅 =
5𝜖0 𝑟 2
 CONCEPT QUESTION
𝑊ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑝 ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:

A. 𝑉𝐴 > 𝑉𝐵 > 𝑉𝐶

B. 𝑉𝐴 < 𝑉𝐵 < 𝑉𝐶

C. 𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉𝐵 > 𝑉𝐶

D. 𝑉𝐴 > 𝑉𝐵 = 𝑉𝐶
 CONCEPT QUESTION
For the equipotential surfaces in adjacent
figure what is the approximate direction of
the electric field?
(a) Out of the page
(b) Into the page
(c) Toward the right edge of the page
(d) Toward the left edge of the page
(e) Toward the top of the page
(f) Toward the bottom of the page.
 Electric potential energy
• Electric potential energy of two point charges
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
• 𝑈= , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑟 is the distance between two charges.
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟
• We know that the work done by a conservative force is negative of change in potential
energy
𝑊𝑎→𝑏 = 𝑈𝑎 − 𝑈𝑏 = −∆𝑈.
• Potential energy is always defined relative to some reference point where U = 0. In the
above equation U = 0, when the charges are at infinite separation. Thus U represents the
work done on the charge q2 by the field of q1 if q2 moved from an initial distance r to
infinite.
• For a system of charges q1, q2, q3 etc., The total potential energy U is the sum of the
potential energies of interaction for each pair of charges.
1 𝑞𝑖 𝑞𝑗
𝑈=෍
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟𝑖𝑗
𝑖<𝑗
 Electric potential
• Electric potential is defined as the electrical potential energy per unit charge. It is a scalar
quantity.
1 𝑞
• Electric potential due to a point charge: 𝑉 = , where r is the distance from point charge
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟
where potential is measured.
1 𝑞
• Electric potential due to a collection of point charges: 𝑉 = σ𝑖 𝑖 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 qi is the value
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟𝑖
of ith point charge and ri is the distance from ith point charge to where the potential is
measured.
1 𝑑𝑞
• Electric field due to continuous distribution of charges = 𝑉 = ‫𝑟 ׬‬
4𝜋𝜖 0
𝑟
• Electric field and potential are closely related by 𝑉 𝑟 = − ‫𝐸 ∞׬‬. 𝑑𝑟
𝑟
• Electric potential energy U=q𝑉 𝑟 = −𝑞 ‫𝐸 ∞׬‬. 𝑑𝑟
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
• Electric field vector from potential: 𝐸 = − 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑘෠ 𝑉 = −𝛻𝑉 = −𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑉
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
• In components, 𝐸𝑥 = − , 𝐸𝑦 = − , 𝐸𝑧 = −
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
INTERACTIVE PRESENTATION
 Electric potential of a conducting sphere
Consider a conducting sphere of radius R and charge Q, as shown in Figure.
Find the electric potential everywhere.

From Gauss’s law, the electric field outside the metallic

1 𝑄
spherical shell is given by 𝐸 = 𝑟,Ƹ where Q is the
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 2

total charge on the sphere. The field inside the shell is zero.
For points outside the sphere (r > R), 𝑉(𝑟) = − ‫𝐸 𝑟∞׬‬. 𝑑𝑟,
𝑟
𝑄 ′ =
1 𝑄
𝑉 𝑟 = −න ′2
𝑑𝑟
∞ 4𝜋𝑟 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟

1 𝑄
𝑉 𝑟 =
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟
 Electric potential of a conducting sphere
Consider a conducting sphere of radius R and charge Q, as shown in Figure.
Find the electric potential everywhere.

On the other hand, to find the potential inside the

sphere (r < R), we must break the integral into two
pieces, using in each region the field prevails there
𝑟
𝑉 𝑟 = − ‫𝐸 ∞׬‬. 𝑑𝑟

𝑅 𝑟
𝑄 ′ ′
1 𝑄
= −න ′2
𝑑𝑟 − න 0. 𝑑𝑟 =
∞ 4𝜋𝑟 𝑅 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑅
 Electric potential of an insulating sphere
Find the potential inside and out-side a uniformly charged solid insulating sphere whose radius
is R and whose total charge is Q.
Q
Solution: 1 𝑄
𝐸= 2
𝑟,Ƹ 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑟 > 𝑅 r<R
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟

1 𝑄𝑟
𝐸= 3
𝑟,Ƹ 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑟 < 𝑅
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑅 r=R
𝑟 𝑟 𝑄 1 𝑄
For r > R, 𝑉 𝑟 =− ‫𝐸 ∞׬‬. 𝑑𝑟, 𝑉 𝑟 = − ‫∞׬‬ 𝑑𝑟 ′ = (r > R) r>R
4𝜋𝑟 ′2 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟

𝑅 𝑄 ′ 𝑟 1 𝑄𝑟 ′ ′ 𝑄 1 1 𝑟 2 −𝑅2 1 𝑄 𝑟2
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑟 < 𝑅, 𝑉 𝑟 = − ‫∞׬‬ 𝑑𝑟 - ‫׬‬ . 𝑑𝑟 = − 3 = 3 − 2
4𝜋𝑟 ′2 𝑅 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑅3 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑅 𝑅 2 4𝜋𝜖0 2𝑅 𝑅
 POLL QUESTION
Two point charges are located on the x-axis, q1= -e at x = 0 and q2 = +e at x = a (a) Find the
work that must be done by an external force to bring a third point charge q3 =+e from
infinity to x = 2a (b) Find the total potential energy of the system of three charges.

𝑒2 −𝑒 2
A. 𝑊 = 𝜋𝜖0 𝑎
,𝑈 =
𝜋𝜖0 𝑎

𝑒2 −𝑒 2
B. 𝑊 = 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑎
,𝑈 =
8𝜋𝜖0 𝑎

𝑒2 −𝑒 2
C. 𝑊 = 8𝜋𝜖0 𝑎
,𝑈 =
8𝜋𝜖0 𝑎

−𝑒 2 −𝑒 2
D. 𝑊 = 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑎
,𝑈 =
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑎
 SOLVED EXAMPLE
(a) Three charges are situated at the corners of a square (side a), as shown in the following figure
How much work does it take to bring in another charge, +q from far away and place it in the fourth
corner.
b. How much work does it take to assemble the whole configuration of four charges?
Solution:

1 𝑞 1 −𝑞 𝑞 −𝑞 𝑞 1
a. 𝑉 = σ𝑖 𝑖 = + + = −2 +
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟𝑖 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑎 2𝑎 𝑎 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑎 2
𝑞2 1
𝑊 = 𝑞𝑉 = −2 +
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑎 2
1 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞1 𝑞3 𝑞1 𝑞4 𝑞2 𝑞3 𝑞2 𝑞4 𝑞3 𝑞4 1 2𝑞2 1
b. 𝑊 = + + + + + = −2 +
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟12 𝑟13 𝑟14 𝑟23 𝑟24 𝑟34 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑎 2
 POLL QUESTION
𝑨
The electric field in a region is given by 𝑬 = 𝒊.Ƹ Write an expression for the potential in the
𝒙𝟑

region assuming the potential at infinity to be zero.

A. 𝑉 = 𝐴/𝑥

B. 𝑉 = 𝐴/𝑥 4

C. 𝑉 = 𝐴/𝑥 2

D. 𝑉 = 𝐴/2𝑥 2
 SOLVED EXAMPLE
Suppose the electric potential due to a certain charge distribution can be written in Cartesian
coordinates as 𝑽 𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛 = 𝑨𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐 + 𝑩𝒙𝒚𝒛, where A and B are constants. What is the
associated electric field?

Solution: 𝐸𝑥 = − 𝜕𝑉
𝜕𝑥
= −2𝐴𝑥𝑦 2 − 𝐵𝑦𝑧

𝜕𝑉
𝐸𝑦 = − = −2𝐴𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝐵𝑥𝑧
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑉
𝐸𝑧 = − = −𝐵𝑥y
𝜕𝑧

Thus 𝐸 = −2𝐴𝑥𝑦 2 − 𝐵𝑦𝑧 𝑥ො − 2𝐴𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝐵𝑥𝑧 𝑦ො − 𝐵𝑥𝑦𝑧Ƹ

 CONCEPT QUESTION
A capacitor gets a charge of 60μC when it is connected to a battery of emf 12V.

Calculate the capacitance of the capacitor.

A. 5𝜇𝐹

B. 5𝑚𝐹

C. 5𝑛𝐹

D. 5𝑝𝐹
Capacitor and Capacitance
• A capacitor is a device which stores electric charge.
• They find many applications in electronics such as in pulsed lasers,
air bag sensors for cars, television receivers etc.
• Capacitors vary in shape and size
• Any two conductors separated by a insulator (or vacuum) form a capacitor.
• In the uncharged state, the charge on either one of the conductors in the capacitor is zero.
• During the charging process, a charge +Q is moved from one conductor to the other one,
giving one conductor a charge +Q (positive plate) and the other one an equal negative charge
–Q (negative plate).
• Thus a potential difference V is created with the positive charged conductor at higher
potential than the negatively charged conductor.
• For a given capacitor, the charge Q on the capacitor is proportional to the potential
difference, V
𝑸
Thus 𝑸 ∝ 𝑽 𝒐𝒓 𝑸 = 𝑪𝑽 or 𝑪 =
𝑽

where the proportionality constant C is called the capacitance of the capacitor

• The SI unit of capacitance is called farad (F).

1𝐶
1𝐹 = 1 𝑓𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑 = = 1𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏/𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡
𝑉
• The greater the capacitance C of a capacitor, the greater the magnitude Q of charge on
either conductor for a given potential difference V and hence the capacitance is a
measure of the ability of the capacitor to store energy.
Dielectrics
❑ Dielectrics are the materials effectively with no charge carriers.

❑ They are mostly insulators.

❑ In dielectrics, the electrons are tightly bound the nucleus. So, there are no free electrons.

❑ They are characterized by high specific resistance (1010 to 1020 ohm-m).

❑ They exhibit negative temperature coefficient of resistance and large insulation resistance.
The resistance of dielectric materials decreases with increase in temperature.

❑ The band-gap is very large.

❑ It is used for the charge storage in capacitors

❑ The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor increases by introducing a slab of dielectric

medium between the parallel plate capacitor.
 Dielectric polarization
•Consider an electrically neutral slab of an isotropic dielectric inserted between the plates of a charged parallel
plate capacitor.
•Dielectric materials have no free charge carriers. Hence current does not flow in the dielectric material.

Unpolarised Polarized by an electric field

Eo
Eʹ

•However, the electric field can act on the bound charges in the dielectric. These bound charges are not free to
migrate through the dielectric. The action of the field Eo on the bound charges consist in displacing the bound
charges relative to one other.
•The negative charges (electrons) are displaced in a direction opposite to the field, while the positive charges are
displaced in the same direction as that of the applied field. 68
INTERACTIVE PRESENTATION
 PARALELL PLATE CAPACITOR
𝜎
𝐸=
2𝜖0

𝜎 𝑄 𝑄𝑑
𝐸= = ⇒𝑉 =𝐸×𝑑 =
𝜎 𝜖0 𝜖0 𝐴 𝜖0 𝐴
𝐸𝑁𝑒𝑡 = 0 𝐸= 𝐸𝑁𝑒𝑡 = 0
𝜖0 𝑸 𝑨
𝑪 = = 𝝐𝟎
𝑽 𝒅
+Q -Q
 POLL QUESTION
The plates of a parallel-plate capacitor in vacuum are 5.00 mm apart and in
2.00 m2 area. A 10.0-kV potential difference is applied across the capacitor.
Compute the capacitance:
A. 4.56 nF
B. 3.54 nF
C. 5.67 pF
D. 7.89 pF
 POLL QUESTION
The plates of a parallel-plate capacitor in vacuum are 5.00 mm apart and in
2.00 m2 area. A 10.0-kV potential difference is applied across the capacitor.
Compute (b) the charge on each plate:
A. 12.4 𝜇𝐶
B. 27.6 𝜇𝐶
C. 35.4 𝜇𝐶
D. 45.4 𝜇𝐶
 POLL QUESTION
The plates of a parallel-plate capacitor in vacuum are 5.00 mm apart and in
2.00 m2 area. A 10.0-kV potential difference is applied across the capacitor.
Compute (c) the magnitude of the electric field between the plates.

A. 2 × 106 N/C

B. 4 × 106 N/C

C. 6 × 106 N/C

D. 8 × 106 N/C
 OPTIONAL SLIDES
on
Mathematical Foundations
Mathematical

Foundations
 Partial differentiation
Let f(x, y) be a function of two independent variables x and y.
The total differential df of the function f(x, y) is defined as

𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
𝑑𝑓 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

𝜕𝑓
For the partial derivative , y is held constant and x is considered as a
𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑓
variable. Similarly for the partial derivative , x is held constant and y is
𝜕𝑦

considered as a variable
77
 CONCEPT QUESTION
𝜕𝑓
𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑥2 + 𝑦3 + 𝑧4
𝜕𝑥
A. 2x + y3 + z4
B. 2x
C. 2x + 3y2 + 4z3
D. 0
 Gradient, divergence and curl
Del operator:
The del operator is defined through the spatial derivative with respect to space coordinates.
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
In Cartesian coordinates, 𝛻 = 𝑥ො + 𝑦ො +𝑧Ƹ ; Here 𝑥,
ො 𝑦ො 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧Ƹ 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 along
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
X, Y and Z axes respectively.
Gradient
✓Let Φ (x, y ,z) be a scalar function. The gradient of a scalar function Φ is
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
✓𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝜑 = 𝛻𝜑 = 𝑥ො + 𝑦ො +𝑧Ƹ ; where , , are the partial derivative of the scalar
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
function Φ with respect to x, y, and z respectively.
✓ The gradient of any scalar function is a vector
✓ The gradient 𝛻𝜑 points in the direction of maximum increase of the function φ
✓ The magnitude of the gradient of φ gives the rate of increase along the maximal direction.
79
 Divergence +Ve

❑ Mathematically the divergence of a vector function is defined as the

dot product of the del operator and the given vector function
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝐴𝑥 𝜕𝐴𝑦 𝜕𝐴𝑧
❑ 𝛻. 𝐴Ԧ = 𝑥ො + 𝑦ො +𝑧Ƹ . 𝑥𝐴
ො 𝑥 + 𝑦𝐴
ො 𝑦 + 𝑧𝐴
Ƹ 𝑧 = + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Zero
❑ This is a scalar quantity termed as divergence. The divergence of a
vector field at any point is the amount of flux per unit volume
diverging from that point.
❑ A point of positive divergence is a source, and a point of negative
divergence is a sink or drain.

❑ A vector field with zero divergence is said to be solenoidal or

incompressible. -Ve
80
 Curl
✓Mathematically the curl of a vector function is defined
as the cross product of the del operator and the given
vector function

Positive divergence but zero curl

ෝ𝑥 𝑦ෝ 𝑧Ƹ
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
✓𝛻 × 𝐴Ԧ =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑦 𝐴 𝑧
✓The curl of a vector is the measure of how much the
vector 𝐹Ԧ swirls around the point in question.
✓ A vector field with zero curl is said to be irrotational.
Positive curl but zero divergence
81
 INTERACTIVE PRESENTATION

Divergence : ~2:15 to 3:35 Curl : ~4:33 to 5:20

Line, Surface and Volume integral

Line integral:
b
• A line integral is an expression of the form ‫׬‬a v. dl , where 𝑣is
Ԧ a vector function and

𝑑𝑙 = 𝑑𝑥𝑥ො + 𝑑𝑦𝑦ො + 𝑑𝑧𝑧Ƹ is the infinitesimal displacement vector.

• Here the integral is to be carried out along the path from point “a” to
a point “b” instead of integrating over an integral [a, b].

• If the path in question forms a closed loop (i.e. if b=a). The line integral is given by ‫𝑣 ׯ‬.
Ԧ 𝑑𝑙

Ԧ 𝑤 = ‫𝐹 ׬‬.
• Ex: Work done by a force, 𝐹, Ԧ 𝑑𝑙

• Generally, the value of line integral depends on the path taken from “a” to “b”. However there
is a special class of vector functions for which the line integral is independent of path known as
conservative systems. 83
Surface integral:

• A surface integral is an expression of the form‫𝑣 𝑠׬‬.

Ԧ 𝑑𝑠 , where 𝑣is
Ԧ a vector function and 𝑑𝑠 is

the infinitesimal patch of area with direction perpendicular to the surface.

• For a closed surface, the surface integral can be written as ‫𝑣 ׯ‬.

Ԧ 𝑑𝑠

• Ex: If 𝑣Ԧ describes the flow of fluid (mass per unit area per unit time), then ‫𝑣 ׬‬.
Ԧ 𝑑𝑠 represents
the total mass of the fluid per unit time passing through the surface (flux).

Volume integral:

• A volume integral is an expression of the form‫ 𝜏𝑑𝑇 𝑣׬‬, where T is a scalar function and 𝑑𝜏 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 is the infinitesimal volume element.
• Occasionally we shall also encounter the volume integral of vector functions
• If T is the density of a substance, then its volume integral give the total mass. 84
 Gauss theorem
• Gives us relation between surface and volume integrals
• The surface integral of the normal component of a vector F over a closed surface s is equal to
the volume integral of the divergence of the vector F over the volume v enclosed by surface s.

Ԧ 𝑑𝑣 = ර 𝐹.
න (𝛻. 𝐹) Ԧ 𝑑𝑠
𝑣 𝑠

Stoke’s theorem

• Gives us relation between line and surface integrals

• The line integral of the normal component of a vector F around a closed curve is equal to the
surface integral of the curl of the vector F takes over the surface s surrounded by the closed
curve.
න 𝛻 × 𝐹Ԧ . 𝑑𝑠 = ර 𝐹Ԧ 𝑑𝑙
𝑠 𝑙
85
 SOLVED EXAMPLE
Find the gradient of a) 𝑟 = 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑧2 , and b) 𝑟 2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑧2

Solution:
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 1 2𝑥 1 2𝑦 1 2𝑧
a) 𝛻𝑟 = 𝑥ො + 𝑦ො + 𝑧Ƹ = 𝑥ො + 𝑦ො + 𝑧Ƹ
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 2 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +𝑧 2 2 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +𝑧 2 2 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +𝑧 2

𝑥 𝑥ො + 𝑦𝑦ො + 𝑧𝑧Ƹ
𝑟Ԧ
𝛻𝑟 = = = 𝑟Ƹ
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑧2 𝑟
𝜕 𝑥2+𝑦2+𝑧2 𝜕 𝑥2+𝑦2+𝑧2 𝜕 𝑥2+𝑦2+𝑧2
b) 𝛻𝑟 2 = 𝑥ො + 𝑦ො + 𝑧Ƹ = 2𝑥 𝑥ො + 2𝑦𝑦ො + 2𝑧𝑧Ƹ = 2𝑟Ԧ
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
 SOLVED EXAMPLE
Calculate the divergence of the following vector functions
(a) 𝑉 = 𝑥2𝑥ො + 3𝑥𝑧2𝑦ො − 2𝑥𝑧𝑧Ƹ
(b) 𝑉 = 𝑥𝑦𝑥ො + 2𝑦𝑧𝑦ො + 3𝑧𝑥𝑧Ƹ
Solution:
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
a. 𝛻. 𝑉 = 𝑥ො + 𝑦ො +𝑧Ƹ . 𝑥 2 𝑥ො + 3𝑥𝑧 2 𝑦ො − 2𝑥𝑧𝑧Ƹ
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝛻. 𝑉 = 𝑥2 + 3𝑥𝑧 2 + −2𝑥𝑧 = 2x
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
b. 𝛻. 𝑉 = 𝑥ො + 𝑦ො +𝑧Ƹ . 𝑥𝑦𝑥ො + 2𝑦𝑧𝑦ො + 3𝑧𝑥 𝑧Ƹ
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝛻. 𝑉 = 𝑥𝑦 + 2𝑦𝑧 + 3𝑧𝑥 = y + 2z + 3x
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 87
 SOLVED EXAMPLE
Calculate the curl of the following vector functions
(a) 𝑉 = −𝑦𝑥ො + 𝑥 𝑦ො
(b) 𝑉 = 𝑥2𝑥ො + 3𝑥𝑧2𝑦ො − 2𝑥𝑧𝑧Ƹ

Solution:
ෝ𝑥 𝑦ෝ 𝑧Ƹ
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝑎. 𝛻 × 𝑉 = 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
= 2𝑧Ƹ
−𝑦 𝑥 0

ෝ𝑥 ෞ
𝑦 𝑧Ƹ
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
b. 𝛻 × 𝑉 = 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
= −6𝑥𝑧𝑥ො + 2𝑧𝑦ො + 3𝑧2𝑧Ƹ
𝑥2 3𝑥𝑧 2 − 2𝑥𝑧 88
 POLL QUESTION
Calculate the divergence of 𝑟Ԧ = 𝑥𝑥ො + 𝑦𝑦ො + 𝑧𝑧Ƹ

A.0

B.1

C.2

D.3
 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐
ර 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆 =
𝑠 𝜖0

Differential form of Gauss Law

By applying Gauss divergence theorem ර 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆 = න 𝛻. 𝐸 𝑑𝜏
𝑠 𝑣
Rewriting Q in terms of the charge density, ρ 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 = ‫𝜏𝑑 𝜌 𝑣׬‬
So Gauss law becomes 𝜌
‫𝛻 𝑣׬‬. 𝐸 𝑑𝜏 = ‫𝜖 𝑣׬‬ 𝑑𝜏
0
Since this holds for any volume, the integrands must be equal,
𝜌
𝛻. 𝐸 = (𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑤 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚)
𝜖0