Main dimensions and main ratios 13
1.3 Depth, draught and freeboard
Draught
The draught T is often restricted by insufficient water depths, particularly for:
1. Supertankers.
2. Bulk carriers.
3. Banana carriers.
4. Inland vessels.
The draught must correspond to the equation r D L Ð B Ð T Ð CB . If not
restricted, it is chosen in relation to the width such that the desired degree
of stability results. The advantages of large draughts are:
1. Low resistance.
2. The possibility of installing a large propeller with good clearances.
Cargo ship keels run parallel to the designed waterplane. Raked keels are
encountered mostly in tugs and fishing vessels. In this case, the characteristic
ratios and CB relate to the mean draught, between perpendiculars.
Depth
The depth D is used to determine the ship’s volume and the freeboard and is
geometrically closely related to the draught. The depth is the cheapest dimen-
sion. A 10% increase in depth D results in an increase in hull steel weight of
around 8% for L/D D 10 and 4% for L/D D 14.
The depth should also be considered in the context of longitudinal strength.
If the depth is decreased, the ‘flanges’ (i.e. upper deck and bottom) must be
strengthened to maintain the section modulus. In addition, the side-wall usually
has to be strengthened to enable proper transmission of the shear forces. With
the same section modulus, the same stresses are produced for constant load.
But, a ship of lower depth experiences greater deflections which may damage
shaftings, pipes, ceilings and other components. Consequently, the scantlings
have to be increased to preserve bending rigidity when reducing depth.
Classification societies assume a restricted L/D ratio for their regulations.
Germanischer Lloyd, for example, specifies a range of 10–16. However, this
may be exceeded when justified by supporting calculations. Despite lower
stresses, there are no further benefits for depths greater than L/10 as buckling
may occur.
The first step when determining depth is to assume a value for D. Then this
value for the depth is checked in three ways:
1. The difference between draught and depth, the ‘freeboard’, is ‘statutory’.
A ‘freeboard calculation’ following the regulations determines whether the
assumed depth of the desired draught is permissible.
2. Then it is checked whether the depth chosen will allow both the desired
underdeck volume and hold space. Section 3.4 includes approximate
formulae for the underdeck volume.
14 Ship Design for Efficiency and Economy
3. The position of the centre of gravity, KG, dependent on depth, can be
verified using approximate methods or similar ships. Following this, the
chosen value of the metacentric height GM D KM KG can be checked.
For design purposes, an idealized depth is often adopted which is the actual
depth increased by the value of the superstructure volume divided by the ship
length multiplied by width.
Freeboard
The subject of freeboard has received extensive treatment in the literature,
e.g. Krappinger (1964), Boie (1965), Abicht et al. (1974), particularly in the
mid-1960s, when the freeboard regulations were re-drafted. These freeboard
regulations became the object of some heavy criticism as discussed at the end
of the chapter. Only the outline and the most important influencing factors of
the freeboard regulations will be discussed in the following.
General comments on freeboard and some fundamental concepts
The ship needs an additional safety margin over that required for static equi-
librium in calm seas to maintain buoyancy and stability while operating at
sea. This safety margin is provided by the reserve of buoyancy of the hull
components located above the waterline and by the closed superstructure. In
addition, the freeboard is fixed and prescribed by statute. The freeboard regula-
tions define the freeboard and specify structural requirements for its application
and calculation.
The freeboard F is the height of the freeboard deck above the load line
measured at the deck edge at the mid-length between the perpendiculars
(Fig. 1.6). The load line is normally identical with the CWL. If there is no
deck covering, the deck line is situated at the upper edge of the deck plating. If
there is deck covering, the position of the deck line is raised by the thickness
of the covering or a part of this.
Figure 1.6 Freeboard F
The freeboard deck is usually the uppermost continuous deck, although,
depending on structural requirements, requests are sometimes granted for a
lower deck to be made the freeboard deck. The difference in height between
the construction waterline and the uppermost continuous deck is still important
in design, even if this deck is not made the freeboard deck.
Superstructures and sheer can make the freeboard in places greater than
amidships. Sheer is taken into account in the freeboard regulations. The local
freeboard at the forward perpendicular is particularly important (Fig. 1.7). The
regulation refers to this as ‘minimum bow height’. For fast ships, it is often
Main dimensions and main ratios 15
Figure 1.7 Freeboard at the forward perpendicular
advisable to make the bow higher than required in the regulations. A high bow
with a small outward flare has a favourable effect on resistance in a seaway.
A ‘ship with freeboard’ is a ship with greater freeboard than that required
by the freeboard regulation. The smaller draught resulting from the greater
freeboard can be used to reduce the scantlings of the structure. For strength
reasons, therefore, a ‘ship with freeboard’ should not be loaded to the limit
of the normal permissible freeboard, but only to its own specially stipulated
increased freeboard.
Effect of freeboard on ships’ characteristics
The freeboard influences the following ship’s characteristics:
1. Dryness of deck. A dry deck is desirable:
(a) because walking on wet deck can be dangerous;
(b) as a safety measure against water entering through deck openings;
(c) to prevent violent seas destroying the superstructure.
2. Reserve buoyancy in damaged condition.
3. Intact stability (characteristics of righting arm curve).
4. Damaged stability.
A large freeboard improves stability. It is difficult to consider this factor in the
design. Since for reasons of cost the necessary minimum underdeck volume
should not be exceeded and the length is based on economic considerations,
only a decrease in width would compensate for an increase in freeboard and
depth (Fig. 1.8). However, this is rarely possible since it usually involves
an undesired increase in underdeck volume. Nevertheless, this measure can
be partially effected by incorporating the superstructure in the calculation of
the righting arm curve and by installing full-width superstructure instead of
deckhouses (Fig. 1.9).
Figure 1.8 Greater freeboard at the expense of
width decreases stability
16 Ship Design for Efficiency and Economy
Figure 1.9 Freeboard increased by additional
superstructure
Increasing depth and decreasing width would decrease both the initial
stability and the righting arm curve. The stability would only be improved
if the underwater form of the ship and the height of the centre of gravity
remained unchanged and the freeboard were increased.
Most of the favourable characteristics which are improved by high freeboard
can also be attained by other measures. However, these problems are easily
solved by using adequate freeboard. Often the regulation freeboard is exceeded.
Supertankers, for example, use the additional volume thus created to separate
cargo and ballast compartments. Passenger ships need a higher freeboard to
fulfil damage stability requirements.
The common belief that a ‘good design’ of a full-scantling vessel should
make use of the freeboard permissible according to the freeboard calculation
is not always correct. A greater than required freeboard can produce main
dimensions which are cheaper than those of a ship with ‘minimum freeboard’.
Freeboard and sheer
The problems associated with freeboard include the ‘distribution of freeboard’
along the ship’s length. The sheer produces a freeboard distribution with accen-
tuation of the ship’s ends. It is here (and particularly at the forward end) that
the danger of flooding caused by trimming and pitching in rough seas is most
acute. This is why the freeboard regulation allows reduction of the freeboard
amidships if there is greater sheer. Conversely the sheer can be decreased or
entirely omitted, increasing the freeboard amidships. For constant underdeck
volume, a ship without any sheer will have greater draught than a ship with
normal sheer. The increase in draught depends also on the superstructure length
(Fig. 1.10).
The advantages and disadvantages of a construction ‘without sheer’ are:
C Better stowage of containers in holds and on deck.
C Cheaper construction method, easier to manufacture.
C Greater carrying capacity with constant underdeck volume.
Figure 1.10 Ship with and without sheer with same underdeck volume (the differences in
freeboard are exaggerated in the diagram)
Main dimensions and main ratios 17
If the forecastle is not sufficiently high, reduced seakeeping ability.
Less aesthetic in appearance.
A lack of sheer can be compensated aesthetically:
1. The ‘upper edge of bulwark’ line can be extended to give the appearance
of sheer (Fig. 1.11).
Figure 1.11 Visual sheer effect using the line of the bulwark
2. Replacement of sheer line with a suitable curved paint line or a painted
fender guard (Fig. 1.12).
Figure 1.12 Paint line with sheer-like profile
For ships with camber of beam, care must be taken that the decks without
sheer do not become too humped at the ends as a result of the deck beam
curvature, i.e. the deck ‘centre-line’ should have no sheer and the deck edge
line should be raised accordingly (Fig. 1.13). Modern cargo ships, especially
those designed for container transport usually do not have camber of beam,
which avoids this problem.
Figure 1.13 Forward end of deck without sheer
The International Load Line Convention of 1966
The International Load Line Convention of 1966 (ICLL 66) has been recog-
nized by nearly every seafaring nation. The first international freeboard regu-
lations took effect in 1904. They were modelled closely on the freeboard
restrictions introduced in Great Britain in 1890 on the initiative of the British
18 Ship Design for Efficiency and Economy
politician and social reformer Samuel Plimsoll (1824–1898). The idea of using
a freeboard index line to mark this was also based on the British pattern. One
particularly heavy area of responsibility was thus lifted from the shoulders
of the captains. Problems associated with freeboard appeared with the emer-
gence of steamships. Sailing vessels normally had greater freeboard to enable
them to achieve the highest possible speed at greater heeling angles under sail
pressure. All freeboard regulations so far have been largely based on statis-
tically evaluated empirical data. It is difficult to demonstrate numerically to
what degree the chances of the ship surviving depend on the freeboard. Hence
there were widely contrasting opinions when the freeboard regulations were
introduced.
The ICLL 66 is structured as follows:
Chapter I—General
All the definitions of terms and concepts associated with freeboard and the
freeboard calculation, and a description of how the freeboard is marked.
Chapter II—Conditions for the assignment of freeboard
Structural requirements under which freeboard is assigned.
Chapter III—Freeboards
The freeboard tables and the regulations for correcting the basis values
given by the tables. This is the most complicated and also central part of
the freeboard regulations.
Chapter IV—Special regulations
For ships which are to be assigned a timber freeboard. Like Chapter II,
this concerns structural requirements. These special regulations will not be
discussed here.
The agreement is valid for cargo ships over 24 m in length and for non-
cargo-carrying vessels, e.g. floating dredgers. An increased freeboard may be
required for tugs and sailing craft. Vessels made of wood or other material
or which have constructional characteristics which render an application of
the regulations unreasonable or infeasible are subject to the discretion of the
national authorities. The agreement states that fishing vessels need only be
treated if engaged in international fish transportation or if an application for
freeboard is made. Warships are not subject to the freeboard regulations.
Chapter I—General Definitions (Reg. 3)
Length—The ship’s length L is the maximum of Lpp and 96% Lwl , both
measured at 85% of the depth.
Perpendiculars—In the freeboard regulation, the forward perpendicular is
located at the point of intersection of the waterline at 85% depth with the
forward edge of the stem. The aft perpendicular is established using the rudder
axis. This somewhat anomalous approach due to the forward perpendicular
makes sense, since the draught (to which usually the length is related) is not
available as an input value. The draught is only known after the freeboard
calculation is finished.
Chapter II—Structural requirements (Regs 10–26)
The requirement for the assignment of freeboard is that the ship is sufficiently
safe and has adequate strength. The requirements in detail are:
