Teacher: Prerna Singh

ISC PSYCHOLOGY

XI PSYCHOLOGY
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CHAPTER: REMEMBERING AND FORGETTING

UNIT 6

Q- Describe the Atkinson and Shiffrin model for processing memory. [5]

Answer
The Atkinson and Shiffrin model was proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin in 1968. It is also
known as the Stage Model and Information-Processing model.

SENSORY MEMORY:
● The incoming information first enters the sensory memory.
● It has a large capacity but of very short duration i.e. less than a second.
● It is a memory system that registers information from each end of the senses with
reasonable accuracy.
● This system is referred to as sensory register because information from all the senses are
registered as exact replicas of the stimulus.
● Visual sensory memory is often called the iconic memory and only lasts for a fraction of
a section.
● Another type of sensory memory is echoic memory, a brief memory of something a
person heard. It holds information for about 4 to 5 seconds.
SHORT TERM MEMORY:
● Information that is attended to enters the second memory store called the short term
memory, which holds a small amount of information for a brief period of time (30
seconds or less).
● Miller has concluded that the capacity of STM is about seven items, plus or minus
two items. He called this the magical numbers, seven.
● To remember objects longer in STM, maintenance rehearsal is used. A person is simply
continuing to pay attention to the information to be held in memory.
Teacher: Prerna Singh

LONG TERM MEMORY:

● Information subjected to elaborative rehearsal is transferred to long-term memory.
● It is a permanent storehouse of all information.
● Once any information enters the LTM, it is never forgotten because it gets encoded
semantically i.e. in terms of the meaning that any information carries.
● What one experiences as forgetting is retrieval failure.

Q. Define: [1*2]

1. Semantic Memory- it is the general abstract knowledge about the world. It is the
memory for general factual knowledge and concepts, of the kind that endows
information with meaning and ultimately allows people to engage in such complex
cognitive processes as recognizing objects and using language.
2. Procedural Memory- refers to memories relating to procedures for accomplishing
various tasks and skills such as how to ride a bicycle or play basketball. Contents of
procedural memory cannot be described easily.

Q. Define: [1
each]
1. Iconic image/ Iconic memory- Iconic memory deals with visual information, holding
that information for 1 second.
2. Echoic memory- Echoic memory deals with auditory information, holding that
information for 1 to 2 seconds.
3. Free recall- A type of memory task in which participants attempt to remember
previously studied information in any order.
4. Serial position effects/Serial Position Curve- The greater accuracy of recall of words
or other information early and late in a list than of words or information in the middle of
the list. Words in the middle, in contrast, have vanished from short-term memory but are
not present in long-term memory.
5. Recency effects. Tendency to remember the last words of the list very well because they
are still present in short-term memory when one is asked to recall them.
6. Primary effects- Tendency to remember the words at the start of the list because they
have already been entered into long-term memory.
7. Episodic memory- Episodic memory contains biographical details of our lives.
Memories relating to our personal life experiences constitute the episodic memory and it
is for this reason that its contents are generally emotional in nature.
8. Working memory- Working memory is a type of short-term memory that stores
information temporarily during the completion of cognitive tasks, such as
comprehension, problem solving, reasoning, and learning. This temporary storage does
not cause any changes in the brain, since it is short-lived and momentary.
9. Retrieval Cues- Stimuli associated with information stored in memory that can aid in its
retrieval.
Teacher: Prerna Singh

Q. Write a short note on Long-term memory. [5/7]

● The third stage of memory is long term memory (LTM). It is the memory system for the
retention of large amounts of information over a long period of time.
● The information is kept more or less permanently. That does not mean that people can
always retrieve those memories. The memories may be available but not accessible.
● Long term does not mean that all memories are stored forever. We only store
long-lasting memories of events and concepts that are meaningful and important to us.
● STM sets into the control process of maintenance rehearsal, to retain the information.
This kind of rehearsal simply maintains information through repetition, and when such
repetitions discontinue the information is lost.
● Elaborative rehearsal is a way of transferring information from STM into LTM by
making that information meaningful in some way. The easiest way to do this is to
connect new information with something that is already well known.
● TYPES OF LONG TERM MEMORY:
Declarative- all information pertaining to facts, names, dates, are a part of declarative
memory.
Procedural memory- refers to memories relating to procedures for accomplishing
various tasks and skills.
Episodic memory- contains biographical details of our lives. Its contents are generally
emotional in nature.
Semantic memory- is the memory of general awareness and knowledge.

● Retrieval is our ability to locate information previously stored in memory. Principles

that play an important role in retrieval are organization and hierarchy.
The better organized materials are at the time they are stored, the easier it is to retrieve
them later on. Using classification systems that move from general to specific levels also
helps in retrieval.
Retrieval cues are stimuli that are associated with information stored in memory and so
can help bring it to mind at times when it cannot be recalled spontaneously.

Q. Describe the Information-Processing approach. [5]

Answer.
Information-processing model focuses on the way information is handled, or processed, through
three different systems of memory.
a. Encoding- it refers to a process by which information is recorded and registered for the
first time so that it becomes usable by our memory system. Incoming information is
received and some meaning is derived.
b. Storage- it is the second stage of memory. It refers to the storage through which
information is retained and held over a period of time. The period of time will actually
be of different lengths, depending on the system of memory being used.
Teacher: Prerna Singh

c. Retrieval- it is the third stage of memory. It refers to bringing the stored information to
her/his awareness so that the memory could be used in various tasks. Retrieval is done
whenever the information is needed.

Memory failure can occur at any of these stages.

Q. Explain Parallel Distributed Processing. [1]/ [5]

Answer.
● The Parallel-Distributed Processing model states that information is processed
simultaneously by several different parts of the memory system, rather than
sequentially.
● Thr model states that information is not inputted into the memory system in a step by
step manner but instead, facts or images are distributed to all parts in the memory
system at once.
● These models assume that information processing takes place through interactions of
large numbers of units , each sending excitatory and inhibitory signals to other units.
● The Connectionist model, proposed by Rumelhart and McClelland, extends the
parallel-distributed processing model.
● This model emphasizes the fact that information is stored in multiple locations
throughout the brain in the form of networks of connections.

Q. What is forgetting? [1]

Answer.
Forgetting is referred to as the apparent loss of information already encoded and stored in
long-term memory.
Forgetting is not only about loss of information because of encoding or storage failure but also
the inability to retrieve the stored information when it is required.

Q. Wri0te and explain the different theories of forgetting. [5]

Answer.
TRACE DECAY THEORY
● It is the earliest theory of forgetting.
Teacher: Prerna Singh

● The assumption is that memory leads to modification in the central nervous system
which is known as memory traces.
● When these memory traces are not used for a long time, they simply fade away, and
become unavailable which means that disuse of information leads to its decay.

INTERFERENCE THEORY

● This theory suggests that forgetting is due to interference between various information
that the memory store contains
● This theory assumes that learning and memorizing involve forming of associations
between items and once acquired, these associations remain intact in the memory.
● However, interference comes about a time of retrieval when these various sets of
associations compete with each other for retrieval.
1. Proactive interference- what you have learnt earlier interferes with the recall of
your subsequent learning.
2. Retroactive interference- difficulty in recalling what you have learnt earlier
because of learning of new material.

RETRIEVAL FAILURE
● Forgetting can occur also because at the time of recall, either the retrieval cues are absent
or they are inappropriate.
● Retrieval cues are aids which help us in recovering information stored in the memory.
● This view was advanced by Tulving and his associates who carried out several
experiments to show that contents of memory may become inaccessible either due to
absence or inappropriateness of retrieval cues that are available/employed at the time of
recall.

Q. Explain the following disorders related to memory loss. [5]

Answer.
Teacher: Prerna Singh

RETROGRADE AMNESIA
It is a loss of memory across events that occurred or information that was learnt in the past. It is
caused by damage to the memory storage areas of the brain.
This type of damage can result from a traumatic injury, a serious illness, a seizure or stroke or a
degenerative brain disease.

ANTEROGRADE AMNESIA
It is a condition in which a person is unable to create new memories after an amnesia enduring
event. It may involve either partial or total inability to remember events that have happened.
Possible causes are drug use, traumatic brain injury, brain inflammation, stroke, brain surgery,
alcoholism.

DEMENTIA
● Dementia is the loss of cognitive functioning, thinking, remembering, and reasoning-to
such an extent that it interferes with the person’s daily life and activities.
● In the mild stage, it has started affecting a person’s functioning and in the severe stage,
the person is completely dependent on others for basic activities of daily life.
SIGNS:
1. Memory loss
2. Difficulty performing familiar tasks
3. Disorientation in time and place
4. Poor judgment
5. Changes in mood, personality or behaviour
6. Problems with awareness
7. Withdrawal from work or social activities

ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE
● It is the most common type of dementia. It is a progressive neurologic disorder that
causes the brain to shrink and brain cells to die.
● It begins with mild memory loss and possibly leading to loss of the ability to carry on a
conversation and respond to the environment.
● It can seriously affect a person’s ability to carry out daily activities.
SIGNS:
1. Unfamiliar environment
2. Physical discomfort
3. Tiredness
4. Agitated caregiver
5. Boredom
6. Frustration with tasks
7. Over stimulating environment
8. Trouble communicating properly
Teacher: Prerna Singh

Q. Write any five ways to improve memory. [5]

Answer.
1. ATTENTION- in order for information to move from your short-term memory into
your long-term memory, you need to actively attend to this information. It can prove
helpful to reduce your screen time, allowing you to repair your attention span, and make
an effort to work on one thing at a time, moving onto the next only when you’ve finished
the first.
2. USE OF IMAGERY- many people benefit greatly from visualizing the information they
study. Pay attention to the photographs,charts, and other graphics in your textbook. If
you don’t have images to help, try creating your own. Sometimes even just making
flashcards of various terms can help store information in your mind.
3. MNEMONIC DEVICES- a mnemonic is simply a way to remember information. The
best mnemonics are those that utilize positive imagery, humor, or novelty. Come up with
a rhyme, song, abbreviation, to help remember a specific segment of information.
4. ASSOCIATION- when studying unfamiliar material, take the time to think about how
this information relates to what you already know. By establishing relationships between
new ideas and previously existing memories, you can increase the likelihood of recalling
the recently learned information.
5. REHEARSE- use the technique of elaborative rehearsal and maintenance rehearsal.
Read the concepts and try to have a clear understanding of the concept. Then rehearse to
maintain the information by revising it again and again.