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Chapter One: - Methods of Heat Transfer

1. The chapter introduces various methods of heat transfer including conduction, convection, and radiation. 2. Fourier's law states that heat will flow from higher to lower temperatures, with the rate of heat transfer proportional to the temperature gradient and thermal conductivity. 3. Thermal conductivity varies for different materials, with silver and copper having the highest values. Convection heat transfer depends on factors like fluid motion and properties. Radiation heat transfer follows Stefan-Boltzman law.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
51 views24 pages

Chapter One: - Methods of Heat Transfer

1. The chapter introduces various methods of heat transfer including conduction, convection, and radiation. 2. Fourier's law states that heat will flow from higher to lower temperatures, with the rate of heat transfer proportional to the temperature gradient and thermal conductivity. 3. Thermal conductivity varies for different materials, with silver and copper having the highest values. Convection heat transfer depends on factors like fluid motion and properties. Radiation heat transfer follows Stefan-Boltzman law.

Uploaded by

jatinb.cm.22
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Chapter One

Introduction
-Methods of heat transfer

Heat transfer: is transit energy between the bodies of materials due to the
temperature difference*, and its measured by (W=J/s)

1-Conduction heat transfer

Conduction: is heat transfer (energy) from the higher particles activity to lower
activity due to the temperature difference, and this phenomenon replay to random
motion, translational motion, rotational motion and internal vibrational motion of
particles.

-Fourier’s law

Heat will flow from the higher temperature to the lower temperature

dT
qx  A
dx
T(x) T1 > T2
dT ( x)
q x  k A (W ) heat transfer rate
dx
T1
Or
qx T2
dT ( x)
qx   k (W / m2 ) heat flux
dx

Where L

A: the area m2

T(x): the temperature distribution K or °C

X: the distance m
k: the thermal conductivity W/m.K

the minus sign is a consequence of the second law of thermodynamics, which


requires that heat must flow from higher to lower temperature. As illustrated
below;

Direction of heat flow Direction of heat flow T


T T

dT x dT x n
(a)Positive ( ) (b)Negative ( ) (c) General
dx dx
For three dimension bodies there are three components for heat transfer

dT dT dT
q x  k Ax , q y  k Ay , q z  k Az
dx dx dx

q  i q x  j q y  k q z , q  q x2  q 2y  q z2

The temperature gradients can be expressed as

dT T2  T1

dx L
And then the heat flux becomes;

T2  T1 T T T
qx  k  k 1 2 k
L L L
Example1: plane wall has thickness 100mm and thermal conductivity
k=100W/m.K, and the steady state conditions occurs at T1=400K, T2=600K.
dT
Calculate the heat flux qx and temperature gradient ?
dx
Sol.

dT T2  T1 600  400
   2000 K / m
dx L 0.1 T

qx  100  2000  20 kW / m 2

dT
Example2: Find and thermal conductivity of the following figure?
dx

T ( x)  300 (1  2 x  x 3 ) K
A( x)  (1  x) m 2
q  6000 W

Sol.

dT ( x)
q x  k A (W )
dx
dT ( x)
 300 (2  3x 2 )  300 (2  3x 2 ) K / m
dx
 6000 20
k ( x)  
 (1  x)  300 (2  3x 2 ) (1  x)(2  3x 2 )

For example at x=0 , k=10, A=1 and dT/dx=-600

q  10 1 (600 )  6000 W

Thermal Conductivities

Thermal conductivity is transitional property which its defined as

qx
k
T / x

qx : the heat flux per unit area normal to the surface.

For many materials, the thermal conductivity can be approximated as


a linear function of temperature over limited temperature ranges:

k (T )  k0 (1   k T )

 k : empirical constant

k0 :the value of conductivity at a reference temperature.

Material Thermal conductivity Material Thermal conductivity


W/m.K W/m.K
Silver 410 Lead 35
Copper 385 Water 0.556
Aluminum 202 Air 0.024
Nickel 93 Ice 2.22
Iron 73 Saw dust 0.059
Carbon steel 43 Glass 0.78
Thermal diffusivity

The thermal diffusivity represents how fast heat diffuses through a


material. Appears in the transient heat conduction analysis. A
material that has a high thermal conductivity or a low heat capacity
will have a large thermal diffusivity. The larger the thermal
diffusivity, the faster the propagation of heat into the medium.
Heat conducted k
  ( m2 s )
Heat stored cp

Convection
Convection is the mode of energy transfer between a solid surface
and the adjacent liquid or gas that is in motion.
Convection is commonly classified into three sub-modes:

– Forced convection,
– Natural (or free) convection,
– Change of phase (liquid/vapor, solid/liquid, etc.)
The rate of convection heat transfer is expressed by Newton’s law of
cooling as

2
h is the convection heat transfer coefficient in W/m °C.
h depends on variables such as the surface geometry, the nature of
fluid motion, the properties of the fluid, and the bulk fluid velocity.

Mode h W/m2.K
Free convection 5-25
Forced convection
Gases 25-250
Liquids 50-20000
Convection with phase change 2500-100000
(condensation and boiling)

Radiation
Radiation is the energy emitted by matter in the form of electromagnetic
waves (or photons) as a result of the changes in the electronic configurations
of the atoms or molecules. Heat transfer by radiation does not require the
presence of an intervening medium. In heat transfer studies we are interested
in thermal radiation (radiation emitted by bodies because of their
temperature).

Radiation – Emission
The maximum rate of radiation that can be emitted from a surface at a
thermodynamic temperature T (in K or R) is given by the Stefan–
s

Boltzmann law
 Qemit ,max   AsTs4 (W)
8 2 4
=5.670X10 W/m ·K is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant.

The idealized surface that emits radiation at this maximum rate is called a
blackbody. The radiation emitted by all real surfaces is less than the
radiation emitted by a blackbody at the same temperature, and is expressed
as :

Qemit ,max   AsTs4 (W)



0   1
 is the emissivity of the surface.

Radiation - Absorption

The fraction of the radiation energy incident on a surface that is absorbed by


the surface is termed the absorptivity . Both  and  of a surface depend
on the
temperature and the wavelength of the radiation.

0  1

Example
A 10 cm diameter copper ball is to be heated from 100oC to an average
temperature of 150oC in 30 minutes . Taking the average density and
specific heat of copper in this temperature range to be ρ=8950 kg/m3 and
Cp=0.395 kJ/kgoC ,respectively . Determine (a) the total amount of heat
transfer to the copper ball
(b) the average rate rate of heat transfer to the ball and (c) the average heat
flux .
Ans : a) 92.6 kJ b) 51.4 W c) 1636 W/m2
Example
1.2 kg of liquid water initially at 15oC is to be heat to 95oC in a teapot
equipped with a 1200 W electric heating element inside . The teapot is 0.5
kg and has an average specific heat of 0.7 kJ/kg oC .Taking the specific heat
of water to be 4.18 kJ/kg o C and disregarding any heat loss from the teapot,
determine how long it will take for the water to be heated .
Ans : 6 min

Example
5 m long section of an air heating system of a house passess through an
unheated space in the basement . The cross section of the rectangular duct of
the heating system is 20 cm × 25 cm . Hot air enters the duct at 100 kPa and
60oC at an average velocity of 5 m/s . The temperature of the air in the duct
drops to 54oC as a result of heat loss to the cool space in the basement .
Determine the rate of heat loss from the air in the duct to the basement under
steady condition .
Example
The roof of an electrically heated home is 6 m long 8 m wide and 0.25 m
thick , and is made of a flat layer of concrete whose thermal conductivity is
k=0.8 W/m oC . The temperatures of the inner and the outer surfaces of the
roof one night are measured to be 15 oC and 4oC respectively for a period of
10 hours . Determine (a) the rate of heat loss through the roof that night and
(b) the cost of the heat loss to the home owner if the cost of electricity is $
0.08 /kWh .

Q4

Example
2m long 0.3 diameter electrical wire extends across a room at 15 oC . Heat is
generated in the wire as a result of resistance heat ing , and the surface
temperature of the wire is measured to be 152oC in steady operation Also the
voltage drop and electric current through the wire are measured to be60 V
and 1.5 A respectively . Disregarding any heat transfer by radiation
,determine the convection heat transfer Coefficient for heat transfer between
the outer surface of the wire and the air in the room

Example
Consider a person standing in a breezy room at 20oC . Determine the total
rate of heat transfer from this person if the exposed area and the average
outer surface temperature of the person are 1.6 m2 and 29oC respectively
and the convection heat transfer coefficient is 6 W/m2 oC .

Example
Consider steady heat transfer between two large parallel plates at constant
temperature of T1=300 K and T2=200 K that are L =1m apart .Assuming the
surfaces to be black ( ɛ=1) , determine the rate of heat transfer between the
plates when filled with atmospheric air . Take kair = 0.026 W/m . Co
Chapter Two
Introduction to Conduction heat transfer
-Heat diffusion equation in wall plane

rate of heat conduction into control volume+ rate of heat generation inside
control volume=rate of heat conduction out of control volume +rate of
energy storage inside control volume.
. 
qx  q y  qz  q dx dy dz  qx  dx  q y  dy  qz  dz  (  dV c T )
t

• Cartesian Coordinates:
q y
q y  dy  q y  dy
y
q z
q z  dz  q z  dz
z

t: time sec

ρ:density Kg/m3

c:specific heat J/kg.K

q:the rate of heat generation per unit volume inside the control volume;
W/m3.

q x q y q T
 dx  dy  z dz  qdV   dV c
x y z t
qqy   T 
z dy     k dx dz T 
yz dz   
  k dx dy  dz
dy
z 
y z 
y

Where ρ ,c & dV constant with time.


,
  T    T    T  T
k dV   k dV   k dV  q dV   c dV
x  x  y  y  z  z  t

  T    T    T  T
k    k    k   q   c
x  x  y  y  z  z  t
T
for steady state 0 for unsteady state
t
  T    T    T  q
       0
x  x  y  y  z  z  k

Without heat generation

 2T  2T  2T
  0
x 2 y 2 z 2

 2T  0 Laplace equation

2 2 2
  2 2 2
2
Laplace operator
x y z

d 2T
 0 one dimension
dx 2
Cylindirical coordinates

• Cylindrical Coordinates:

For T(r), steady state and q=0

d  dT 
r 0
dr  dr 

dT C1 C1
  T  C1 ln r  C 2 and q  k
dr r r
k C1
q  q A(r )   2rL  cons tan t
r

Spherical coordinates

1   2 T  1   T  1  2T q 1 T
r   sin    
r 2 r  r  r 2 sin      r 2 sin 2   2 k  t

• Spherical Coordinates:

For T(r) and q=0

d  2 dT 
r 0
dr  dr 
dT C1 C1 C1
  T   C2 and q  k
dr r 2 r r2
Specified Boundary Condition
1- Constant surface temperature.

T (o, t )  Ts

2- Specified Heat Flux Boundary Condition

The heat flux in the positive x-direction anywhere in the medium,


including the boundaries, can be expressed by Fourier’s law of heat
conduction as

dT
q  k  Heat flux in the
dx positive x-
direction
The sign of the specified heat flux is determined by inspection: positive if
the heat flux is in the positive direction of the coordinate axis, and negative
if it is in the opposite direction.

3-Adiabatic boundary conditions

T (0, t ) T (0, t )
k 0 or 0
x x

4- Thermal symmetry


T L , t
2 0 
x

5-Convection Boundary Condition

T ( L, t )
k  h2 T ( L, t )  T 2 
x

T (0, t )
k  h1 T1  T (0, t ) 
x
At the interface the requirements are:
(1) two bodies in contact must have the same temperature at the area of
contact,
(2) an interface (which is a surface) cannot store any energy, and thus the
heat flux on the two sides of an interface must be the same.

TA(x0, t) = TB(x0, t)

TA ( x0 , t ) T ( x , t )
k A  kB B 0
x x

Variable Thermal Conductivity for One-Dimensional Cases

thermal potential differance


Thermal resis tan ce 
heat flow

T T1  T2 L V
Rt ,cond    R
q q kA I

For variable k

d  dT 
k   0, k (t )  ko (1   T )
dx  dx 

dT
q  k (t ) A
dx
dT
q  ko (1   T ) A
dx
T2
q L
A 0 dx  ko T1(1   T )dT
qL   
 k o (T1  T2 ) 1  (T1  T2 )
A  2 

  
k av  ko 1  (Ts1  Ts 2 )
 2 

Ts1  Ts 2 LA
q  k av A , R
L k av

Example : The resistance wire of a 1200-W iron is 80 cm long and has a


diameter of 0.3 cm. Determine the rate of heat generation in the wire per
unit volume, in W/cm3 , and the heat flux on the outer surface of the wire as
a result of this heat generation.

Example : Consider a large plane wall of thickness L = 0.2 m ,


thermal conductivity k = 1.2 W/m · °C, and surface area A = 15 m2. The left
side of the wall is maintained at a constant temperature of T1 = 120 °C
while the right side loses heat by convection to the surrounding air at T2 =
50 °C. Determine (a) the variation of temperature in the wall and the value
of temperature at x=0.1 m and (c) the rate of heat transfer through the
wall.

Example : Consider the base plate of an 1200 W household iron with a


thickness of L= 0.5 cm, base area of A=300 cm2, and thermal conductivity
of k = 15 W/m · °C. The inner surface of the base plate is subjected to
uniform heat flux generated by the resistance heaters inside. When steady
operating conditions are reached, the outer surface losses heat to the
surrounding at T∞ = 20 oC by convection . Taking h= 80 W/m2 oC and
disregarding the heat loss by radiation (a) obtain a relation for the variation
of temperature in the base plate by solving the differential equation, and (b)
evaluate the inner and the outer surface temperature.
Example : Consider a large plan wall of thickness L=0.06 m and thermal
conductivity k=1.2 W/m oC in space . The wall is covered with white
porcelain tiles that have an emissivity of ɛ = 0.85 and a solar absorptivity of
α =0.26 . The inner surface of the wall is maintained at T1=300 K at all
times , while the outer surface is exposed to solar radiation that is incident at
a rate of q solar = 800 w/m2 . The outer surface is also losing heat by radiation
to deep space at 0 K . Determine the temperature of the outer surface of the
wall and the rate of heat transfer through the wall when steady operating
conditions are reached . What would you response be if no solar radiation
was incident on the surface .

Example : Consider a steam pipe of length L =20 m , inner radius r 1=6 cm ,


outer radius r2= 8 cm , and thermal conductivity k=20 W/m oC . The inner
and outer surfaces of the pipe are maintained at average temperature of T 1 =
150 oC and T2 = 60 oC respectively . obtain a general relation for the
temperature distribution inside the pipe under steady conditions , and
determine the rate of heat loss from the steam through the pipe .
Example :Consider spherical container of inner radius r1=8 cm , outer radius
r2=10 cm and the thermal conductivity k=45 W/m oC . The inner and outer
surfaces of the container are maintained temperature of T1=200oC and T2
=80 oC ,respectively as a result of some chemical reactions occurring inside .
Obtain a general relation for the temperature distribution inside the shell
under steady conditions and determine the rate of heat loss from the
container .

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