Navigating Extremism in the Digital Age:

The Pervasive Influence of Social Media on Radicalization in the

United States

Kymberlee-Celeste Strozier-Ball

Global Cultures: Religion, Communication, and Security

Professor Edmund Abaka

December 7th, 2023

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Introduction:

All around the world, the exponential growth of social media has played a pivotal role in

the radicalization and indoctrination of individuals by extremist groups. In an era defined by the

presence of social media, the exponential growth of these digital platforms has become a driving

force in shaping the ideologies and actions of individuals susceptible to radicalization by

extremist groups. The influence of social media on the global stage cannot be overstated, as it

has turned from being a tool for communication to a highway for disseminating extremist

ideologies. This paper delves into this complex relationship, focusing on exploring the

background, findings, and potential countermeasures associated with social media and extremist

radicalization. Central to this exploration is an inquiry into the case studies that show how social

media contributes to the radicalization and indoctrination of individuals. From the passive

consumption of extremist content to active participation in dialogues and the dissemination of

pre-existing propaganda, this paper aims to untangle the complex web of interactions that

positions social media as a tool for extremist recruitment.

To understand any topic, one must first understand the terms that define it, beginning

with extremism. Extremism, as described by Haki Demolli, Professor of Criminalistics at the

University of Prishtina, Kosovo, is "vocal or active opposition to fundamental state values,

including democracy, the rule of law, individual liberty and mutual respect and tolerance of

different faiths and beliefs. Extremism also includes calls for the death of members of the armed

forces" (Demolli, 2019). However, in this day and age, extremism portrayed on social and news
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media favors the latter definition. Most notably, when extremism is religious in nature, religion

can be thought of as a set of guidelines, beliefs, ideals, morals, and teachings. To be a part of a

religious community or to claim a particular faith is to share in these cultures, customs, beliefs,

and ideals. Religion has a long history of bringing people together; however, for thousands of

years, people in positions of power have used religion to divide people. Hence why, religion is

often a prime target for abuse and misinformation. While religion sets frameworks for kindness,

love, forgiveness, and peace, groups all over the world find a way to twist and misrepresent

religious teachings for their bidding. These groups then create false and inflammatory messages

and, most recently, spread them through the Internet. By communicating hateful and extremist

messages on the Internet through social media, extremists have found a new and improved

highway for their messages to spread, in addition to a recruitment tool. The recruitment process

to an extremist organization or group is called radicalization, defined as "The process by which

an individual moves from mainstream political, religious, or social beliefs to a more extreme and

intolerant belief system" (Counter, 2023).

Multiple extensive studies show that there are some shared traits and characteristics for

people who are most susceptible to radicalization. These traits include "A sense of absolutism…

They do not believe in change and diversity and are usually very low in their tolerance level.

They have a sense of righteousness. Their truth is very limited and based on outdated,

contaminated and one-sided information. They usually do not even have enough knowledge

about their own religion and only know the surface part. They do confirmation bias. They have a

sense of knowing an ultimate meaning…They dehumanize whoever does not fit their

view…They idolize historic figures or stories… They have an utter certainty that they are
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right…They have a sense of unwillingness to compromise…They are not willing to find

common ground with other people and cannot find win-win positions. They have too much focus

on the life after death: a religious extremist has too little focus on the importance of this life and

what makes him feel fulfilled in it and is too attached to the concept of a 'great' afterlife. They

have many psychological defenses: such individuals have formed a number of psychological

defenses so none of their internal feelings would be challenged" (Demolli, 2017). Extremist

organizations and groups target and create people who fit these categories. Understanding these

individuals and the ways they think and act is crucial to fighting against this phenomenon.

Background

Within the complex landscape of terrorism in the United States, a myriad of ideologies

intertwines, each contributing to the diverse tapestry of extremist activities. According to

Demolli, "In the United States, terrorists are usually associated with one of the six most

commonly known ideologies: right-wing Extremism, left-wing Extremism, environmental

Extremism, nationalist/separatist Extremism, religious Extremism, and single-issue Extremism.

Further, the nature of radicalization and types of extremist attacks are dynamic, changing from

year to year and from decade to decade" (Demolli, 2019). Within these categories, the dynamics

of radicalization and the nature of extremist attacks unfold. The quote underscores the fluidity of

these phenomena, emphasizing their dynamic nature. Indeed, the landscape is ever-evolving,

with radicalization pathways and the types of extremist attacks exhibiting a dynamic shift over

the years and decades. In exploring the interconnectedness of these ideologies and the perpetual
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shifting tactics and motivations, a comprehensive understanding of the multifaceted nature of

terrorism in the United States begins to emerge.

Social media has long been used to sway and change the minds of people all over the

world. The world of social media has moved from blogging and online magazine publications to

a deeper and more complex interaction between people, bots, and algorithms. These interactions

that people have online every day can influence how they think, what they buy, how they vote,

and what they believe in. One of the first examples of social media being used to change beliefs

and expose people to hateful extremist ideals occurred in 1984. The same year that the game

TETRIS was created, so was the first website dedicated to hate speech and radicalization. It was

created by the then-grand dragon of the Ku Klux Klan, Louis Beam, and was titled the Aryan

Nations Liberty Net (Smith,2017). This website was designed for recruiting, networking, and

sharing documentation and other far-right documents. The description of the website by Beam

states, "Imagine, if you will, all the great minds of the patriotic Christian movement linked

together and joined into one computer. Imagine any patriot in the country being able to call up

and access these minds… You are online with the Aryan Nations brain trust. It is here to serve

the folk…A pro-American, pro-white, anti-Communist network of true believers who serve the

one and only God — Jesus, the Christ … for Aryan patriots only" (Smith, 2017). From this first

instance of extremists disseminating hate online, the number of websites and posts related to

extremism would increase exponentially.

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Case Studies

Social media would continue to be a playground and tool for extremists to use as they

wish. In October 2020, the FBI announced the foiling of a plot to kidnap Michigan's Governor

Gretchen Whitmer. The individuals involved were part of a militia group called the Wolverine

Watchmen. The group's discussions and planning were facilitated through online platforms

(Carrega, 2020). In a quote from CNN, "In a video, Fox live-streamed to a private Facebook

group that included a confidential informant, he complained about the judicial system and the

state of Michigan controlling the opening of gyms. Fox referred to Whitmer as 'this tyrant

b****,' adding, 'I don't know, boys, we gotta do something. You guys link with me on our other

location system, give me some ideas of what we can do,' according to authorities. The video was

preserved by the FBI, and a Facebook spokesperson told CNN the company is cooperating with

the investigation" (Carrega, 2020).

Another example of online extremism in the United States is ISIS/ISIL's presence and

recruitment on American social media and online platforms. The New York Times offers a

glimpse into the life and experiences of one 23-year-old American woman who fell prey to ISIL

online recruitment tactics. Alex was a lonely and curious girl looking for friends and acceptance

on the Internet. Over several months, she became increasingly involved with online contacts,

including a man named Faisal, who appeared to be associated with ISIS. Faisal played a crucial

role in guiding Alex towards adopting a strict interpretation of Islam and eventually convincing

her to declare her conversion on Twitter. The article highlights the tactics used by online

recruiters and the emotional and psychological impact on individuals vulnerable to radicalization
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(Callimachi, 2015). It also reveals Faisal's past involvement with extremist activities and a

history of legal issues. Thankfully, her family intervened, involving law enforcement to ensure

Alex's safety and investigate the online interactions, or the outcome could have been much

worse. In a statement from Michael Steinbach, the Executive Assistant Director of the National

Security Branch of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, he says, "As a communication medium,

social media is a critical tool that terror groups can exploit. One recent example occurred last

week. An individual was arrested for providing material support to ISIL by facilitating an

associate's travel to Syria to join ISIL. The arrested individual had multiple connections, via a

social media networking site, with other like-minded individuals…social media has allowed

groups, such as ISIL, to use the Internet to spot and assess potential recruits. With the widespread

distribution of social media, terrorists can identify vulnerable individuals of all ages in the

United States—spot, assess, recruit, and radicalize—either to travel abroad to join ISIL or to

conduct a homeland attack. The foreign terrorist now has direct access into the United States like

never before," (Steinbach, 2017). The United States is no stranger to homeland attacks or

terrorism in general, however the new frontier of social media opens up unknown pathways to

the American people.

Findings

Over the past few years, social media has emerged as an almost universal channel for

both accessing and disseminating extremist content, as well as connecting with extremists

globally. For extremists, social media platforms offer a highway into the brains of young, at-risk,

susceptible youth and adults. START, The National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and
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Responses to Terrorism, is the Department of Homeland Security Emeritus Center of Excellence

focused on the causes and consequences of terrorism in the United States. Located in Maryland,

the research center produces a breadth of knowledge on social media's role in radicalization.

START keeps constant monitoring of extremist use of social media in the United States and does

in-depth research on the subject. The PIRUS, or Profiles of Individual Radicalization in the

United States, is a database containing over 1800 extremists in various categories. Between 2011

and 2016, a substantial majority, precisely 73.2%, of the 295 extremists identified in PIRUS

utilized various social media platforms. Their activities ranged from passive consumption of

content to actively engaging in extremist discussions, sharing existing propaganda, and

communicating with fellow extremists (START, 2018). As anticipated with the rapid expansion

of social media, platforms facilitating user-to-user interactions have significantly contributed to

the radicalization and mobilization of a higher proportion of U.S. extremists in recent times. In

2016, social media was identified as playing either a primary or secondary role in the

radicalization processes of 86.75% of the extremists in PIRUS, marking a substantial increase

from the 48% observed four years earlier (START, 2018).

The exploration of social media's impact on extremist radicalization reveals profound

findings with far-reaching implications for society, particularly within the United States. The

exponential growth of social media applications has fundamentally transformed them into

influential tools for extremist groups, acting as conduits for the dissemination of extremist

content, propagation of hateful messages, and recruitment of individuals susceptible to

radicalization. Extremist organizations strategically exploit these interactions to steer individuals

toward more extreme and intolerant belief systems.

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The landscape of extremist activities is marked by continual evolution and adaptation, with

various ideologies contributing to the dynamic nature of radicalization. Studies, notably those

conducted by organizations like START, reveal alarming statistics regarding the surge in

extremists using social media platforms for radicalization purposes, emphasizing the growing

influence of these platforms.

Countermeasures

These findings necessitate heightened vigilance from authorities, tech companies, and the

average citizen to detect and counter the spread of extremist content. Promoting digital literacy

and critical thinking skills is crucial in combating the dissemination of misinformation and

extremist ideologies. Collaborative efforts among policymakers, tech companies, and research

institutions are essential to implement effective policies and interventions to regulate extremist

content without compromising freedom of expression or user freedom and privacy. In navigating

the complex challenge posed by the intersection of social media and extremist radicalization,

adaptive strategies are imperative to stay ahead of evolving tactics and platforms. The

implications of this research extend beyond theoretical understanding, emphasizing the urgent

need for proactive measures to safeguard Americans and counteract the insidious influence of

social media on extremist activities, specifically within the United States.

Conclusion
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In conclusion, the profound impact of social media on extremist radicalization is evident

in the role these digital platforms play in shaping ideologies and actions worldwide. As explored

in this paper, the exponential growth of social media has elevated it from a communication tool

to a driving force behind the propagation of extremist ideologies, providing an unprecedented

avenue for recruitment and dissemination of radical content. The in-depth look at religious

extremism, as defined by Haki Demolli, sheds light on the vulnerability of individuals

susceptible to radicalization. Exploiting religion's deep cultural and emotional significance,

extremist groups twist and misrepresent religious teachings for their agendas, utilizing social

media as a powerful conduit for spreading false narratives and recruiting new and pliable

recruits.

Within the United States, the complex landscape of terrorism encompasses a myriad of

ideologies, each contributing to the dynamic nature of radicalization. The ever-evolving interplay

of different types of extremism underscores the fluidity inherent in these phenomena. Exploring

social media's role in politics highlights its pervasive influence on public opinion, shaping

thoughts, purchasing decisions, and political beliefs. The historical context of the Aryan Nations

Liberty Net serves as an early example of how online platforms can be used for disseminating

extremist ideals, foreshadowing the challenges society faces today.

As demonstrated by case studies, such as the foiled plot to kidnap Michigan Governor

Gretchen Whitmer, online platforms continue to serve as hotbeds for extremist activities. The

FBI's intervention in this case exemplifies the crucial role law enforcement plays in monitoring

and mitigating online radicalization. The urgency of proactive measures becomes evident in

considering the impact on society. Digital literacy, critical thinking skills, and collaborative
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efforts between authorities, tech companies, and research institutions are imperative to counteract

the insidious influence of social media on extremist activities. Regulation and monitoring of

online platforms are crucial components of a strategy, ensuring a balance between free

expression and the prevention of radicalization.

In summary, this essay delves into the complex relationship between social media and extremist

radicalization, unraveling background contexts, case studies, and potential countermeasures. The

findings show the urgent need for a new approach involving education, policy, technology, and

collaborative efforts to address this intricate challenge within the United States. The evolution of

social media demands adaptive strategies to navigate the dynamic landscape, safeguarding

society from the pervasive influence of extremist ideologies.

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Biography

Callimachi, R. (2015). Retrieved from

https://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/28/world/americas/isis-online-recruiting-american.html

Carrega, C., Stracqualursi, V., & Campbell, J. (2020). Retrieved from

https://www.cnn.com/2020/10/08/politics/fbi-plot-michigan-governor-gretchen-whitmer/index.ht

ml

Counter Extremism Project. (2023). Retrieved from

https://www.counterextremism.com/content/radicalization

Smith, L. (2017). In the early 1980s, white supremacist groups were early adopters (and masters)

of the internet. Retrieved from

https://timeline.com/white-supremacist-early-internet-5e91676eb847

Steinbach, M. (2016). Retrieved from

https://www.fbi.gov/news/testimony/isil-online-countering-terrorist-radicalization-and-recruitme

nt-on-the-internet-and-social-media-

“Use of Social Media by US Extremists - UMD.” START.Umd.Edu, National Consortium for the

Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism , July 2018,

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www.start.umd.edu/pubs/START_PIRUS_UseOfSocialMediaByUSExtremists_ResearchBrief_J

uly2018.pdf.