Wind load calculations

Calculations using a real building and special programs. Wind

load calculations, its distribution, stiffness and stability of wall
panels, their study and practical use.

LAB University of Applied Sciences

Bachelor of Engineering, Civil Engineering
2022
Maria Kupriyanova
 Abstract

Author(s) Publication type Completion year

Maria Kupriyanova Thesis, UAS 2022
Number of pages
57
Title of the thesis
Title of the Bachelor’s Thesis Wind load calculations
Calculations using a real building and special programs. Wind load calculations, its
distribution, stiffness and stability of wall panels, their study and practical use.
Degree, Field of Study
Engineer (UAS), Civil Engineering
Organisation of the client
Kosplan Oy

Abstract
The thesis was devoted to the study of loads acting on buildings. The parts analyzed
and identified in the work included: walls and a roof. More attention was paid to wind
loads, as a custom-made calculator was later made on them. The main purpose of
the analysis was to define the principle of wind load calculations, as well as to explain
the operation of calculation calculators. Previously, calculations were carried out man-
ually, using a large number of materials to find the necessary formulas. However, in
the modern world, there are various programs and applications that automate this
process. In this thesis, the calculations for loads and stability were studied, and the
formulas and the knowledge gained were applied and combined in electronic format,
in the form of an Excel file. Of course, there are more complex calculation methods,
but this one was the most capacious, demonstrating and explaining all the principles.
Then other ready-made calculators were tested and analyzed for subsequent calcula-
tions. The main task was to explain and show their features, thereby facilitating their
further use by interested parties. The thesis was aimed to show the basic things and
give basic information that will allow to start deepening into the topic of loads for fu-
ture self-studying or using official resources.
Keywords
wind loads, loads, calculations, Excel, civil engineering, house
Contents

1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 1
2 Concept of loads ........................................................................................................ 3
2.1 Types of the loads .............................................................................................. 3
2.2 Wind loads .......................................................................................................... 5
2.2.1 The reason of calculating wind loads ........................................................... 6
2.2.2 Wind Damage Prevention Methods ............................................................. 7
3 Calculations ............................................................................................................... 9
3.1 Three stages....................................................................................................... 9
3.1.1 Main parameters .......................................................................................... 9
3.1.2 Wind pressure ............................................................................................16
3.1.3 Wind forces ................................................................................................20
3.2 Implementation ..................................................................................................26
3.2.1 Familiarization with the building and determination of the main parameters 29
3.2.2 Defining and finding sector sizes ................................................................30
3.2.3 Finding the main wind parameters ..............................................................31
3.2.4 Finding the external coefficients..................................................................34
3.2.5 Finding the internal coefficients ..................................................................35
3.2.6 The wind pressure calculation ....................................................................36
3.2.7 Wind force calculation.................................................................................38
3.2.8 Calculator ...................................................................................................40
3.2.9 Stiffness and the stiffening walls .................................................................44
3.2.10 PuuInfo .......................................................................................................49
4 Summary ..................................................................................................................54
References ......................................................................................................................56

Appendix 1. Terrain category

Appendix 2. A list of basic definitions

 1

1 Introduction

Finland is famous for the quality of its houses. Small low-rise wooden or sometimes con-
crete houses are very common and popular. Construction standards are treated responsi-
bly, and all necessary measures and rules are invariably observed in the process of con-
struction of new facilities.

Figure 1. An example of a Finnish house (Hillman)

Understanding the effects of loads and their impact on the stability of the entire building is
essential to ensure the stability and durability of the building, as well as safety. When a built
house “fails” in the form of a sagging roof, thick cracks along the facade and other awk-
wardness, you need to understand that in most cases the cause of such problems was
incorrect design calculations.(Adapted from Simply Architects) Therefore, the profession of
a civil engineer is of great importance and carries with its great responsibility, high standards
and requirements for understanding your business. In this thesis, some points will be clari-
fied so that the achievement of such a level is faster and easier for everyone.

The purpose of this thesis work is to clarify the principles of calculating wind loads and
forces, starting with the most basic facts and definitions. Calculations will be carried out
using the house made by the customer (Kospan Oy). At the request of the client, it is also
required to develop a simple calculator based on an Excel file, so that you can quickly esti-
mate approximate loads for subsequent calculations and drawings. The main requirement
of the client is to quickly obtain information (before that, everything was considered manu-
ally or by eye), in order to understand how to proceed further based on it. In addition, the
task is to explain the program (to make a guide) for the stiffness of the wall plates for
Kosplan Oy. It will make it even easier to carry out calculations and understand which spe-
cific plates and fasteners they will need, withstand and fit for a building. However, despite
 2

the many points, all explanations and calculations will be performed in the simplest format
with idealized conditions. Particular cases are calculated in a similar way but using addi-
tional formulas and with less clear and convenient coefficients that can be viewed addition-
ally.
 3

2 Concept of loads

2.1 Types of the loads

To begin with, the very concept of loads should be analysed. In can be anything started with
what we count, what we find and why we need it.

Loads in building mechanics – force effects that cause changes in the stress-strain state of
structures of buildings and structures. The loads most often considered in the calculation of
building structures are the masses of bodies (and not always only the physical mass, and
sometimes also the inertial one) and the pressure difference.

In structural mechanics, the following types of loads are distinguished (Adapted from iSo-
promat.ru.):

1. Origin:

• No Payloads for the perception of which the structure is being built (equipment,
cranes, transport, hydrostatic pressure in dams)

• Self-weight of structures

• Natural loads (wind, snow, earthquakes, etc.)

2. By duration of action:

• The constant is its own weight and some types of payloads

• Temporary, subdivided into:

a) Long

b) Short-term (weight of people, atmospheric load)

c) Special (seismic, temperature, supports settlements).

3. By the nature of the action:

• Static - the magnitude, direction and position of the load are unchanged in time (no
inertia)

• Dynamic - loads causing inertial forces.

The structural system of a building must withstand these two types of loads. Their meaning
will become clearer if they are disclosed in more detail, as well as by giving examples of
 4

these loads. Please note that the example involves loads that have already been mentioned
earlier in another principle of separating loads by type.

Static loads:

They act on the structure for a long time and gradually reach their peak without sudden
jumps. The building reacts slowly to such loads, and its deformation reaches its maximum
at the maximum static force.

This includes:

1. Permanent load - the weight of walls, ceilings, roofs and all permanent elements of
the building, including communications.

2. Snow load - the load created by the accumulated snow on the building. It depends
on the geometry of the roof, the construction area and the area itself (openness of
the territory, wind).

3. Temporary ("live") load - the load that is created by all moving and moving objects,
for example, people in the building, temporary equipment / mechanisms, etc. It acts,
as a rule, vertically, but can also act horizontally, which reflects its dynamic nature.

4. Impact load - short-term kinetic load from moving vehicles, equipment and mecha-
nisms.

Dynamic loads:

They act on the building for a short time, often with a large and sharp difference in values
or in different areas. Under the action of a dynamic load, internal forces are formed in the
building, depending on its mass, and the magnitude of the deformation does not always
correspond to the magnitude of the applied force.

Two main types of dynamic loads:

• Seismic - characteristic of geographic areas with seismic activity (in such areas, in
general, their own specifics of construction and design). However, there is no need
for this in Finland.

• Wind load is the force generated due to the kinetic energy of a mass of air moving
in a horizontal direction.

When calculating structures, loads and actions should be considered in the most unfavour-
able combinations. Eurocodes (EN 1990 and EN 1991) mention a large number of load
 5

combinations depending on many factors. The values of the coefficients in their calculation
are also presented there. Together, these two documents provide a methodology for com-
bination of actions (combinations of loads) for the calculation of limit states. Tables 2, 3 and
4 provide the values to be used in Finland for the symbols of Tables A1.2(A), A1.2(B) and
A1.2(C) of SFS-EN 1990.

Figure 2. Note 1. (National Building Code of Finland, 2016)

There are basic, additional, and special combinations of loads (Adapted from iSopro-
mat.ru.):

• The main ones are permanent + long-term temporary and one of the most significant
short-term temporary loads.

• Additional are permanent + temporary long-term and all short-term temporary loads.

• Special combinations are permanent + temporary long-term + all short-term tempo-

rary plus special loads.

When the load exceeds the permissible value, it can lead to sad consequences, such as
the destruction of individual parts, as well as the entire structure.

2.2 Wind loads

Why wind load? The fact is that, for example, with a snow load, there are usually no prob-
lems because it lends itself to the senses. This load is visible, we can touch it and even
weigh it. Unfortunately, the wind load works differently. Wind is the movement of air masses
that are not recognized in the surrounding space. We can only feel and see their effect on
us or other objects.
 6

2.2.1 The reason of calculating wind loads

Obviously, the wind affects structures, and sometimes even very strongly, dangerously and
destructively: it tears off roofs, demolishes and tilts walls and fences, and so on. In connec-
tion with this, in the process of studying the wind, there is an opportunity to face many issues
related to accounting, calculation and finding the wind force. These points are disclosed in
various articles and textbooks. However, non-professionals really do not like to calculate
the wind load, and there is an explanation for this - its calculation is much more complicated
than the calculation of the snow load.

Figure 3. Consequences of wind loads (KORZHIK.NET 2016)

Figure 4. Consequences of wind loads (KORZHIK.NET 2016)

Mostly it depends on:

 7

• The angle at which the wind hits the structure

• Structure shape (height, width, etc.).

• Terrain type

2.2.2 Wind Damage Prevention Methods

Prevention of wind damage includes strengthening areas where building collapse may hap-
pen. All building elements such as walls, foundations and roofs must be strong, and the
connections between them must be strong and reliable. For a structure to withstand wind
action, it must conduct loads from the roof to the foundation.

The wind acts on the structure by three types of forces:

• Lift load is the pressure of the wind flow, which creates a strong lifting effect, very
similar to the effect of the wings of an aircraft. The flow of wind under the roof pushes
up; wind flow over the roof pulls up.

• Shear load is the horizontal wind pressure that can cause the walls to sway and tilt
the building.

• Lateral load - horizontal pushing and pulling pressure on the walls, which can cause
the structure to slide off the foundation or topple over.

Strong wind pressure can shatter doors and windows, rip off roofing and roof decking, and
destroy gable end walls. Roof overhangs and other elements that tend to trap air under-
neath, resulting in high lift forces, are particularly susceptible to damage. Broken windows
and doors can seriously damage the contents of a building due to internal wind pressure
and water intrusion (Municipality of Anchorage).

The actual impact of wind forces on agricultural buildings depends on their design, structure
and environment. Local windbreaks - trees - can help mitigate these impacts.
 8

Figure 5. Construction features (Pro-tec 2017)

Fortunately, Finland does not have the highest wind strengths, as well as the low height of
buildings, which reduces the chance of the most dangerous cases. However, the influence
of wind must be taken into account when calculating the stability and shear of a building.
 9

3 Calculations

3.1 Three stages

In the project, a special Eurocode - EN 1991-1-4 (2005) “Wind actions” was used to study
and explain how to calculate wind loads.

Before counting, divide our task into stages. The first is finding the main parameters, indi-
cators, and values such as:

• peak velocity pressure qp

• basic wind velocity Vb

• reference height Ze

• turbulence intensity Iv

• mean wind velocity Vm.

The main task to be reached is to determine the value of peak velocity pressure qp. In ad-
dition to the above, we will have to find other coefficients, that were not mentioned here.

The second one would be finding wind pressures, which is the pressure exerted by moving
air (wind) on obstacles.

And the third one is wind forces on structures.

All the parameters are explained in the following text.

3.1.1 Main parameters

1) Basic wind

The magnitude of wind loads is influenced by various factors. It is important to know

where our building is located and to know its dimensions. What is the terrain of the
territory we need, what kind of country and region is it, and what is the average wind
speed in this place?

a) Vb0 (fundamental Basic Wind Velocity)

According to RIL 201-1-2011 and the EN 1991-1-4 (2005), we find out that the basic
wind speed Vb that we are looking for is called the average value of the wind speed
over 10 minutes.
 10

Figure 6. The fundamental basic wind velocity (EN 1991-1-4 2005)

b) 𝑉𝑏 is the basic wind velocity

It should be calculated as:

(1)
𝑉𝑏 = 𝑉𝑏0 ∗ 𝑐𝑑𝑖𝑟 ∗ 𝑐𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑛

• 𝑉𝑏0 is the fundamental value of basic velocity, which was shown before
• 𝑐𝑑𝑖𝑟 ∗ 𝑐𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑛 are directional and season factors which can be found in National
Annex (Often, they are taken as 1)

That is why in most cases the values of “Basic wind velocity” and “Fundamental
value of basic velocity” are the same.
Sometimes the coefficient 𝑉𝑏0 in the formula is replaced by another coefficient
𝑐𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏 in case of annual excess in mean wind velocity.

(1 − 𝐾 ∗ ln (−ln (1 − 𝑝)) 𝑛
𝑐𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏 = ( ) (2)
(1 − 𝐾 ∗ 𝑙𝑛 (−𝑙𝑛 (0,98 ))

• K is the shape parameter (depending on the coefficient of variation of the ex-

treme-value distribution) (recommended to be taken as 0,2)
• n is the exponent (recommended to be taken as 0,5). (EN 1991-1-4 2005)
This values may be also given in National Annex.

Basic wind velocity is different:

in continental re- in sea areas in zones of the
gions hills/mountains

21 m/s 22 m/s 26 m/s

Table 1. Basic wind velocity (Finnish National Annex 2019)

There is also a website which shows the basic wind velocity. It allows to quickly
determine the value just by entering the name of the country or city.
 11

Figure 7. Basic wind velocity (Adapted from Dlubal)

2) Mean wind

𝑉𝑚(𝑧) = 𝑐𝑟(𝑧) ∗ 𝑐0(𝑧) ∗ 𝑉𝑏 (3)

As it shows, it depends on the roughness of the terrain, orography and the main wind
speed (basic wind velocity) taken at a certain height Z.

• 𝑐𝑟(𝑧) , 𝑐0(𝑧) are respectively the factors of these dependents

• 𝑐0(𝑧) (the orography factor) is recommended to be taken as 1

• 𝑐𝑟(𝑧) (the roughness factor) is calculated separately.

The roughness factor 𝑐𝑟(𝑧) takes into account and looks at how the average wind speed
changes in the area due to different terrain (height above ground level and the rough-
ness of the terrain on the leeward side of the structure in the considered wind direction).

Let’s start with the small the roughness length explanation.

• Z0 is the roughness length

• kr - terrain factor

• Zmin is the minimum height

• Zmax is to be taken as 200 m

• Z0, II – depends on terrain category.

So, the formulas are:

𝑐𝑟(𝑧)=𝐾𝑟 ∗ln ( 𝑧 ), for z between zmin and zmax (4)

𝑧0

(5)
 12

0,07
𝑧0
𝐾𝑟 = 0,19 ∗ ( )
𝑧0,𝐼𝐼

Figure 8. Features of the factor on the territory of Finland (Finnish National Annex
2019)

Or:

𝑐𝑟(𝑧)=𝑐𝑟 (𝑧𝑚𝑖𝑛) , for z≤zmin (6)

The terrain categories and terrain parameters can be found in the special table repre-
sented as a Figure 11 and Appendix 1.

When it is a situation when we must choose between two or more categories of terrain
in our region, then the area with the smallest roughness length should be used.

Also, if the orography (e.g., hills, rocks, etc.) increases wind speed by more than 5%, it
is important to take the effects into account by using the special orography factor c0.
Since the basic principle of the calculation is shown here, we will not go into detail at
this point. However, for particular cases, all the necessary information is provided in the
EN 1991-1-4 (2005).

Figure 9. Additional materials for calculating the coefficient (EN 1991-1-4 2005)
 13

Figure 10. Additional materials for calculating the coefficient 2 (EN 1991-1-4 2005)

It can be seen from the diagrams that the steeper the rise and the closer the building is
to its top, the greater the effect of elevation on wind pressure. For gentle irregularities,
the effect will be less significant.
 14

Figure 11. Terrain category and parameters (EN 1991-1-4 2005)

The designation of the terrain categories is presented in Appendix 1.

3) Wind turbulence

Turbulence refers to the rapid fluctuations in wind speed. These fluctuations are due to
two factors acting separately or simultaneously in combination. The first arises as a
result of a friction force that occurs between moving air and the surface of the Earth. In
general, this is a change in the speed and direction of the wind as a result of obstacles
from natural objects - hills, mountains, forests, as well as human objects - buildings. The
second important factor is sudden temperature changes or gradients, due to which the
air moves quickly up and down.

The turbulent component of wind velocity has a mean value of 0 and a standard devia-
tion Ϭ𝑉 .

A) Standard deviation Ϭ𝑉 :

Ϭ𝑉 = 𝐾𝑟 ∗ 𝑉𝑏 ∗ 𝐾𝐼 , (7)

where 𝐾𝐼 is the turbulence factor, which is supposed to be 1.

B) The turbulence intensity 𝐼𝑉(𝑧) at height z:

Ϭ𝑉 𝐾𝐼
𝐼𝑉(𝑧) = 𝑉 = 𝑧 , for z between zmin and zmax (8)
𝑚(𝑧) 𝑐0(𝑧) ∗ln ( )
𝑧0

Or:
 15

𝐼𝑉(𝑧) = 𝐼𝑉(𝑧𝑚𝑖𝑛) , for z<zmin (9)

4) Peak velocity pressure

The last thing we will look for in this section is the peak velocity pressure.

• ρ- air density, which depends on the height, temperature, and air pressure ex-
pected in the area during windstorms

According to the National building code of Finland, the air density is 1,25 kg/m3.

• 𝑐𝑒(𝑧) is the exposure factor calculated as:

𝑞𝑝(𝑧)
𝑐𝑒(𝑧) = (10)
𝑞𝑏

• 𝑞𝑏 is the basic velocity pressure:

1
𝑞𝑏 = ∗ ρ ∗ 𝑉𝑏2 (11)
2

The peak velocity pressure:

1 2
𝑞𝑝(𝑧) = (1 + 7 ∗ 𝐼𝑉(𝑧) ) ∗ ∗ ρ ∗ 𝑉𝑚(𝑧) = 𝑐𝑒(𝑧) ∗ 𝑞𝑏 (12)
2

If the area is mostly flat and the 𝑐0(𝑧) is 1, then we can determine 𝑐𝑒(𝑧) by the function in
the Figure 11 and make the calculation shorter and easier.

Figure 12. Illustration of the exposure factor (EN 1991-1-4 2005)

 16

If a simplified method is enough for us, then we can also use the tables from RIL 201-
1-2011. They are in Finnish, however the meaning is the same and tables are similar,
so it is understandable to use. The table shows clearer values than just a graph.

Figure 13. Illustration of the exposure factor (RIL 201-1-2011)

Figure 14. Exposure factor table (RIL 201-1-2011)

Once the gust pressure has been determined, the calculation can be continued by two
different methods:

• the net wind force method

• the surface pressure method.

3.1.2 Wind pressure

Wind pressure can be divided as external and internal. Here are the formulas:
 17

𝑊𝑒 = 𝑞𝑝(𝑧𝑒 ) ∗ 𝑐𝑝𝑒 and 𝑊𝑖 = 𝑞𝑝(𝑧𝑖) ∗ 𝑐𝑝𝑖 , where (13,14)

𝑞𝑝(𝑧) is the peak velocity pressure, z is the reference height and 𝑐𝑝 is the pressure coeffi-
cient.

The "plus" sign of the coefficients determines the direction of the wind pressure on the
corresponding surface (active pressure), the "minus" sign - from the surface (suction).

Figure 15. Illustration of wind pressure on a building (Smith and Henderson 2015, 47)

Figure 16. Illustration of wind pressure on a building (EN 1991-1-4 2005)

On a funny and seemingly childish picture below (Figure 17), you can see the principle of
how the wind works. With lateral wind pressure, the air flow collides with the wall and roof
of the building. At the wall of the house, the flow is swirling, part of it goes down to the
foundation, the other, tangentially to the wall, hits the eaves of the roof. The wind flow at-
tacking the roof slope tangentially bends around the roof ridge, captures calm air molecules
from the leeward side and rushes away. Thus, three forces arise on the roof at once, capa-
ble of tearing it off and overturning it - two tangents on the windward side and a lifting force
 18

generated from the difference in air pressure on the leeward side. Another force arising
from wind pressure acts perpendicular to the slope (normal) and tries to push the roof slope
inward and break it. Depending on the steepness of the slopes, the normal and tangential
forces change their value. The greater the angle of inclination of the roof slope, the greater
the value of the normal forces and the smaller tangents, and vice versa, on gentle roofs,
the tangents take on greater values, increasing the lifting force from the leeward side and
decreasing the normal force from the windward side. (Wind load 2015)

normal (lift force)

tangent

tangent
normal
tangent

The wind tries to overturn a roof with steep slopes and raise it with gentle slopes.

Figure 17. The path of the wind (Wind load 2015)

Pressure coefficients (aerodynamic)

External pressure coefficients can be found from the tables. There are a lot of tables
depending on the type of the building and its roof.

External pressure coefficients

general coefficients local coefficients

1. when the loaded area is more 2. when the loaded area is 1 m2 (it
than 10 m2 (it can be used for a can be used for the small parts,
whole building) details and fasteners)
 17

Figure 18. How to determine the 𝑐𝑝𝑒 (EN 1991-1-4 2005)

Usually, when calculating, it is preferable to count differently. If small data is not important
and the calculation is to find values for large elements, then the coefficient is considered as
a general one. In more rare and special cases, the local coefficient is used more preferably.

Before finding the coefficients 𝑐𝑝𝑒 , the building should be divided (namely its walls) into
sectors. The separation occurs depending on the ratio of the variables e, d and b. b is the
length of the wall of the building which is perpendicular to the action of the wind. e is taken
as either b or 2h, whichever is smaller. The figure below shows the division into sections. If
e<d then we divide the lateral side parallel to the wind into 3 parts. If e>d, then into 2 parts
and if e>5d, then it is one section. The sides perpendicular to the wind remain separated by
one section. The dimensions of the sections (their lengths) are determined by the ratio of e
and d, as shown in the figure. Depending on the ratio of the side and the height of the wall,
other sections may appear on top. More details can be seen in Figure 22, which we use to
find the reference height.
 18

Figure 19. Key for vertical walls (EN 1991-1-4 2005)

Zone A B C D E

h/d Cpe,10 Cpe,1 Cpe,10 Cpe,1 Cpe,10 Cpe,1 Cpe,10 Cpe,1 Cpe,10 Cpe,1

5 -1.2 -1.4 -0.8 -1.1 -0.5 +0.8 +1.0 -0.7

1 -1.2 -1.4 -0.8 -1.1 -0.5 +0.8 +1.0 -0.5

<0.25 -1.2 -1.4 -0.8 -1.1 -0.5 +0.7 +1.0 -0.3

Table 2. Zones and the external coefficients (EN 1991-1-4 2005)

 19

The coefficients for the roof, as well as in general, all calculations and division into sectors
are carried out in the same way as for the walls, but they also provide for the angular values
of the slope of the roof and the type of roof itself.

Internal pressure coefficients

Internal and external pressure act simultaneously. The worst combination must be consid-
ered due to possible openings and other leakage paths.

The coefficient of internal pressure Cpi depends on the size and location of the openings in
the building envelope (these can be windows, doorways, chimneys, ventilation passages
and leaks through these objects and structures). If in at least two sides of a building (facade
or roofs) the total area of openings in each side is more than 30% of the area of that side,
the structural actions should be considered based on the data in the EN 1991-1-4 (2005).
Checks are important for high internal walls (high risk of hazard) when the wall must with-
stand the full external wind action due to openings in the building envelope.

A building facade is considered dominant if the area of openings on this facade is at least
twice the area of openings and leaks in other facades of the building in question. (EN 1991-
1-4 2005)

When the area of the openings at the dominant face is twice the area of the openings in the
remaining faces:

с𝑝𝑖 = 0,75 ∗ 𝑐𝑝𝑒 (15)

When the area of the openings at the dominant face is at least 3 times the area of the
openings in the remaining faces:

с𝑝𝑖 = 0,9 ∗ 𝑐𝑝𝑒 (16)

For buildings without a dominant facade, the internal pressure coefficient Cpi should be de-
termined from a Figure 19, which is presented in the bottom.
 20

Figure 20. Key for vertical walls (EN 1991-1-4 2005)

It is the ratio of the height and depth of the building (h/d), and opening µ for each wind
direction, which can be found by a special formula:

𝛴𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑝𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑟 − 0,0

µ= (17)
𝛴𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠

3.1.3 Wind forces

The force is the product of the structural factor, special coefficients, the reference area on
which the wind and peak velocity pressure. The wind forces for the whole structure or a
structural component should be determined: by calculating forces using force coefficients
or by calculating forces from surface pressures.

A) The force for the whole building is:

𝐹𝑤 = 𝑐𝑠 𝑐𝑑 ∗ 𝑐𝑓 ∗ 𝑞𝑝(𝑧𝑒 ) ∗ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑓 , (18)

otherwise we can summarize different forces on different elements:

𝐹𝑤 = 𝑐𝑠 𝑐𝑑 ∗ 𝛴𝑐𝑓 ∗ 𝑞𝑝(𝑧𝑒 ) ∗ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑓 (19)

Figure 21. Definition of variables (EN 1991-1-4 2005)

 21

B) The wind force Fw acting on a structure or structural element can be determined by

the vector the sum of forces from external and internal pressures.

𝐹𝑤,𝑒 = 𝑐𝑠 𝑐𝑑 ∗ 𝛴𝑊𝑒 ∗ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑓 – external forces (20)

𝐹𝑤,𝑖 = 𝑐𝑠 𝑐𝑑 ∗ 𝛴𝑊𝑖 ∗ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑓 – internal forces (21)

𝐹𝑤,𝑒 = 𝑐𝑓𝑟 ∗ 𝑞𝑝(𝑧𝑒 ) ∗ 𝐴𝑓𝑟 – friction forces (22)

Friction is the force resisting the relative motion of solid surfaces, fluid layers, and material
elements sliding against each other. Frictional forces, such as the traction needed to walk
without slipping, can be helpful, but they also greatly hinder movement. Friction forces act
in the direction of the wind components parallel to external surfaces. Data for finding the
coefficient of friction can be easily taken from the EN 1991-1-4 (2005).

However, it will be problematic to calculate the vector sum from the drawings, so in this
case, the first method of the calculation is more preferable.

Figure 22. Definition of variables 2 (EN 1991-1-4 2005)

The important note is that, while counting walls or other elements, the wind force is calcu-
lated as the difference between the external and internal resultant forces.

Finding the required variables

1) Structural factor 𝑐𝑠 𝑐𝑑

According to EN 1991-1-4 (2005), the structural factor should take into account how the
wind affects the non-simultaneous occurrence of peak wind pressures on the surface (cs)
together with the effect of structural vibrations due to turbulence (сd).
 22

Structural factor 𝑐𝑠 𝑐𝑑

Size factor 𝑐𝑠 Dynamic factor 𝑐𝑑

Table 3. Structural factor

Usually this factor is taken as 1.

• When the building is less than 15 m

In this case, this option is the most suitable, since the task includes the calculation of low-
rise buildings. In addition, as it was mentioned, Finland is dominated by the number of low
buildings.

• When a facade and roof elements have a natural frequency of more than 5 Hz

• When frame buildings have load-bearing walls and their high are <100 m and
less than 4 times the windward height.

Other cases are written in EN 1991-1-4 (2005) and its Annexes. It presents values not only
for buildings, but also for roads, furnaces, etc. In addition, there is a formula for more unique
cases and objects.

2) Reference height ze and area 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑓

The structural dimensions and the reference height used are shown in the Figure 23.
 23

Figure 23. How to find a reference height, depending on a size of the building (EN 1991-1-
4 2005)

As it shows, the reference heights Ze for the windward walls of rectangular buildings depend
on the aspect ratio h/b and are always the upper heights of the various parts of the walls.
At higher altitudes, the pressure is greater.

There are three cases:

• When h<b, it is counted and taken as 1 object.

• When b<h<2b, it can be regarded as having 2 parts, consisting of: a lower part pro-
jecting upwards from the ground to a height equal to b, and an upper part consisting
of the remainder.
 24

• h>2b, may be composed of several parts, including: a lower part raised above the
ground to a height equal to b; top part extending from top to bottom to a height equal
to b, and the middle region, between the top and lower parts, which can be divided
into horizontal stripes.

Figure 24. Shapes of structures (EN 1991-1-4 2005)

Reference area is just a height multiplied by width.

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑓 = ℎ ∗ 𝑏 (23)

3) Force coefficient 𝑐𝑓

To find the force factor, it is necessary to determine the effective slenderness (flexibility) of
the building – λ , as well as the power factor – h/b (The b side is the side perpendicular to
the wind and the d side is the side facing the wind direction). Everything is found with the
help of tables and graphs presented below. Unlike the RIL 201-1-2011, the EN 1991-1-4
(2005) considers this coefficient in great detail and it is highly recommended that the read-
ers familiarize themselves with this. However, the data from the RIL 201-1-2011 for Finnish
calculations would be better to use. It's clearer and it is easier to use for quick calculations.
 25

Figure 25. Effective slenderness (RIL 201-1-2011)

There are two ways: through a graph or calculated values in a table. In fact, the table is built
on data from the graph. Suitable values must be sought through interpolation.

Figure 26. Force coefficient 1 (RIL 201-1-2011)

Figure 27. Force coefficient 2 (RIL 201-1-2011)

 26

3.2 Implementation

In this section, an example of calculations is given for wind loads and is shown how the
calculator works. The most important thing to do before starting calculations is to define the
input data.

The calculation presents a residential two-story wooden building located in the suburbs of
Helsinki, Finland. The fundamental value of basic velocity is 21 m/s2. The roof is shed, the
building has many windows and several terraces. The plans of the building and its main
section are presented in Figures 29-31.

Figure 28. Stages of wind load calculations

 27

Figure 29. Plan of the 1st floor

 28

Figure 30. Plan of the 2nd floor

 29

Figure 31. Section 2-2

3.2.1 Familiarization with the building and determination of the main parameters

1) Determine the size of the building.

In our case, an ordinary two-story wooden building is presented, where b=15,135 m,

d=7,768 m, hleft=6,603 m and hright=7,736 m (h1floor=3,005 m, h2froor=2,924 m and hattic=0,674
m or hattic2=1,807 m – the roof is shed). At the same time, it is important to mention that both
floors of the building are identical in size (in further calculations, it will be shown how the
calculations take place when the first and 2nd floors are different). However, when con-
structing the calculator, a simpler type of house was used for easier calculation and clearer
control data. The wind, as seen in the picture, is perpendicular to side b.

2) Determine the region and zone.

Given house is located in the suburb of Helsinki, Finland. In this region, the construction of
low-rise and mid-rise buildings prevails. The objects themselves do not stand close to each
other, but they are not distant from each other at a great distance. According to EN 1991-
1-4 (2005), this type of territory is related to the 3rd category (It is an area with regular
 30

cover). The territory does not have significant elevation differences and is considered as
flat.

3) Determine a reference height.

The calculated height, if considered clearly, will be different for each wall due to a certain
slope of the roof. But for simplicity, we accept it along a wall with a lower height.

If h<b, then ze=h=6,603 m.

Based on such data, it can be understood that when divided into sectors in the vertical
direction, there will be only one zone each.

3.2.2 Defining and finding sector sizes

Next, we are faced with the task of dividing the building into sectors, depending on the
configuration of the building. For a better understanding, it is recommended to use Figure
19 and 32.

B
A

D E

A B

Figure 32. Sector division

In our case:

e=b=15,135 m or e=2h=2*6,603=13,206 m. We take the lower value. e=13,206 m.

 31

Then the length d and e are compared to each other. e>d, but it is less than 5d. Our case
is divided as on the picture below.

Figure 33. Sections (EN 1991-1-4 2005)

Consequently:

d=7,768 m;

e/5=13,206/5=2,641 m;

d-e/5=7,768-2,581=5,127 m.

Let's find the area of each sector using the standard formulas. The areas of sectors A and
B will be found according to the formula for finding the areas of trapezoids.

SA=1/2*2,641*(6,603+6,992)=17,95 m2

SB=1/2*5,127*(6,992+7,736)=37,76 m2

SD=6,603*15,135=99,94 m2

SE =7,736*13,126=101,54 m2

(If we assume the second floor of the house is less than the first, then the area of the side
will not be one rectangle, but either the sum of two, or the difference between the large area
and the area of the missing piece).

3.2.3 Finding the main wind parameters

1) Basic wind velocity and mean wind

 32

(24)
𝑉𝑏 = 𝑉𝑏0 ∗ 𝑐𝑑𝑖𝑟 ∗ 𝑐𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑛

Knowing our region - Helsinki, and the terrain, it is possible to find that the fundamental
value of basic velocity is 21 m/s2 (It is already mentioned in the input data).

• 𝑉𝑏0 = 21 m/s2.

• 𝑐𝑑𝑖𝑟 = 1

• 𝑐𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑛 = 1.

𝑉𝑏 = 21 ∗ 1 ∗ 1 = 21 m/s2.

Then we are going to find the mean wind:

𝑉𝑚(𝑧) = 𝑐𝑟(𝑧) ∗ 𝑐0(𝑧) ∗ 𝑉𝑏 (25)

• 𝑉𝑏 = 21 m/s2

• 𝑐0(𝑧) = 1.

The roughness factor is calculated as:

(26)
𝑐𝑟(𝑧)=𝐾𝑟 ∗ln ( 𝑧 ) , for z between zmin and zmax.
𝑧0

From the table in Figure 11, the z0III=0,3 m, zminIII=5 m and z0II=0,05 m are taken. z=h=6,603
m. (It was calculated before)

0,07
𝑧0 0,3 0,07
𝐾𝑟 = 0,19 ∗ ( ) = 0,19 ∗ ( ) = 0,2154
𝑧0,𝐼𝐼 0,05

𝑐 𝑧 6,603
𝑟(𝑧)=𝐾𝑟 ∗ln( )=0,2154∗ln( )=0,666
𝑧0 0,3

𝑉𝑚(𝑧) = 𝑐𝑟(𝑧) ∗ 𝑐0(𝑧) ∗ 𝑉𝑏 = 0,666 ∗ 1 ∗ 21 = 13,99 m/s

2) Wind turbulence

While calculating, deviation does not affect too much, because the formula of the turbulence
is converted to another by abbreviations and expansion of variables without using it. How-
ever, we still calculate it for a more detailed result.

Standard deviation Ϭ𝑉 :

Ϭ𝑉 = 𝐾𝑟 ∗ 𝑉𝑏 ∗ 𝐾𝐼 = 0,2154 ∗ 21 ∗ 1 = 4,523 m/s, where 𝐾𝐼 =1.

The turbulence intensity:

 33

Ϭ𝑉 𝐾𝐼 4,523
𝐼𝑉(𝑧) = = 𝑧 = = 0,323
𝑉𝑚(𝑧) 𝑐 13,99
0(𝑧) ∗ ln (𝑧 )
0

3) Peak velocity pressure

Let's start with the calculation method, since it is more accurate.

ρ=1,25 kg/m3 - air density

The basic velocity pressure:

1
𝑞𝑏 = 2 ∗ ρ ∗ 𝑉𝑏2 = 0,5 ∗ 1,25 ∗ 212 = 275,625 = 0,275 kN/m2

The peak velocity pressure:

1 2
𝑞𝑝(𝑧) = (1 + 7 ∗ 𝐼𝑉(𝑧) ) ∗ ∗ ρ ∗ 𝑉𝑚(𝑧) = 𝑐𝑒(𝑧) ∗ 𝑞𝑏 (27)
2

𝑞𝑝(𝑧) = (1 + 7 ∗ 0,323) ∗ 0,5 ∗ 1,25 ∗ 13,992 = 398,9 = 0,399 kN/m2

Also, we are going to calculate the exposure factor calculated as:

𝑞𝑝(𝑧) 0,399
𝑐𝑒(𝑧) = = = 1,45
𝑞𝑏 0,275

Knowing this factor, we can check our calculations by a graphical method.

Figure 34. Graphical method (adapted from EN 1991-1-4 2005)

 34

Here, the value of the factor is faster and easier to determine, but the values will be much
less accurate. In the case of calculations that do not require perfect accuracy, it can be
considered in a similar way.

𝑐𝑒(𝑧) = 1,45 with a building height of 6,603 m and territory type 3. However, if you do not
know the exact value, then it can easily vary from 1,4 to 1,5, which can quite strongly affect
further calculations and values.

3.2.4 Finding the external coefficients

h/d=6,603/7,768=0,85

Based on the ratio, we can find the coefficients Cpе. Since the building is considered as a
large object with large areas and volumes, we take the value of Cpе 10.

Zone A B C D E

h/d Cpe,10 Cpe,1 Cpe,10 Cpe,1 Cpe,10 Cpe,1 Cpe,10 Cpe,1 Cpe,10 Cpe,1

5 -1.2 -1.4 -0.8 -1.1 -0.5 +0.8 +1.0 -0.7

1 -1.2 -1.4 -0.8 -1.1 -0.5 +0.8 +1.0 -0.5

<0.2 -1.2 -1.4 -0.8 -1.1 -0.5 +0.7 +1.0 -0.3

Table 4. Zones and external coefficients

Linear interpolation is required to find a value between two unknowns. The formula is pre-
sented below. Thus, we get the data presented in the Table 5.

Figure 35. Interpolation (Image: Maria Kupriyanova)

 35

Zone A B D E

h/d Cpe,10 Cpe,10 Cpe,10 Cpe,10

0,85 -1.2 -0.8 +0.8 -0.46

Table 5. External coefficients in calculations

3.2.5 Finding the internal coefficients

Now we are faced with the task of dealing with the internal coefficient. In the example there
is no dominant facade, so the graphs in the bottom should be used.

Figure 36. Graphs for the internal coefficient (adapted from EN 1991-1-4 2005)

Now the window areas should be counted. We will consider windows of the same height
(therefore, we assume in advance that it will be reduced in the formula) and simply add their
lengths. An important point is not to forget about the windows of the 2nd floor.

It turns out that:

• Windows of the left wall (the side perpendicular to the wind and being a shadow with
a positive coefficient): 1,02*3+0,52*3+1,52=6,14 m
 36

• Top wall windows: 1,42+0,32+0,62+1,02+1,62=5 m

• Windows on the right wall: 0,52+0,72+1,22+3,02+2,32+1,82=9,62 m

• Lower wall windows: 2,02+1,02*2+1,02*2+2,02=8,12 m.

Let's sum up and find the ratio of wall openings with a negative coefficient and all openings.

𝛴𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑝𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑟 − 0,0 22,740

µ= = = 0,79 (28)
𝛴𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 28,880

Now we need to interpolate, since the ratio of height and length that we got lies between
the numbers 1 and 0,25. According to the graph, we see that the values of cpi will be be-
tween -0,28 and -0,18.

For 0,76 we obtain:

𝑐𝑝𝑖 = −0,25

3.2.6 The wind pressure calculation

Next, the useful pressure coefficients for each zone and the wind pressure as a whole are
calculated. It is necessary to consider whether it is pressure or suction in order to calculate
correctly without confusing the signs.

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑞𝑝(𝑧𝑒 ) ∗ 𝑐𝑝,𝑛𝑒𝑡 (29)

𝑐𝑝,𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑐𝑝𝑒 − 𝑐𝑝𝑖 (30)

The calculated data was entered into a Table 6.

A B D E

𝑐𝑝𝑒 -1,2 -0,8 +0,8 -0,46

𝑐𝑝𝑖 -0,25 -0,25 -0,25 -0,25

𝑐𝑝,𝑛𝑒𝑡 -0,95 -0,55 0,55 -0,21

Wnet -0,38 -0,22 0,22 -0,08

Table 6. Wind pressure in our calculation

 37

𝑞𝑝(𝑧𝑒 ) = 0,399 kN/m2

0,399𝑘𝑁
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡𝐴 = 𝑚2
∗ (−0,95) = −0,38 kN/m2

0,399𝑘𝑁
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡𝐵 = 𝑚2
∗ (−0,55) = −0,22 kN/m2

0,399𝑘𝑁
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡𝐷 = 𝑚2
∗ (0,55) = 0,22 kN/m2

0,399𝑘𝑁
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡𝐸 = 𝑚2
∗ (−0,21) = −0,08 kN/m2

Figure 37. The result of the wind pressure

 38

In this calculation, only one version of the wind direction is considered. As you can see in
Figure 37, this is from left to right. Influencing the main wall, the wind also affects the rest.
To find the pressure and wind forces under the action of the wind in a different direction, it
is required to calculate all the data in the same way as presented above. However, do not
forget that the division into sectors in this case will change.

3.2.7 Wind force calculation

Knowing the wind pressure, we can finally calculate the force of the wind. Before that, the
formulas for finding the strength of the wind will be shown. This can be done separately
from the wind pressure, but the individual coefficients must be found and calculated. This
is not laborious, but since we have already found the wind pressure, it will be most beneficial
to count through it.

𝐹𝑤,𝑒 = 𝑐𝑠 𝑐𝑑 ∗ 𝛴𝑊𝑒 ∗ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑓 – external forces (31)

(32)
𝐹𝑤,𝑖 = 𝑐𝑠 𝑐𝑑 ∗ 𝛴𝑊𝑖 ∗ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑓 – internal forces

There is also a force associated with friction, but in this case, we are not taking it into ac-
count to facilitate calculations.

𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐹𝑤,𝑒 − 𝐹𝑤,𝑖 or 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑐𝑠 𝑐𝑑 ∗ 𝛴𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 ∗ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑓 (33,34)

𝑐𝑠 𝑐𝑑 = 1

𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡𝐴 = 1 ∗ (−0,38) ∗ 17,95 = −6,82 kN

𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡𝐵 = 1 ∗ (−0,22) ∗ 37,76 = −8,31 kN

𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡𝐷 = 1 ∗ (0,22) ∗ 99,94 = 21,99 kN

𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡𝐸 = 1 ∗ (−0,08 ) ∗ 101,54 = −8,12 kN

For structuring and for convenience, we conclude the obtained values in another table (Ta-
ble 7).
 39

A B D E

Wnet -0,38 -0,22 0,22 -0,08

Aref 17,95 37,76 99,94 101,54

𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 -6,82kN -8,31 kN 21,99 kN -8,12 kN

Table 7. Wind force

Let's make one more addition. Although we have found the force acting on each sector, it
should be noted that our building is not square. It contains protruding parts, therefore, for a
clearer indication of the force values, a certain area should be taken from the sector. In our
case, this will affect sectors B and D. The area of the sector should be divided into 2 sepa-
rate parts. In our case, these will be 2 trapezoids. Then we need to calculate the force on
each of these areas.

Sb1=1/2*1,774*(6,992+7,246) =12,63 m2

Sb2=1/2*3,353*(7,246+7,736) =25,12 m2

𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡𝐵1 = 1 ∗ (−0,22) ∗ 12,63 = −2,79 kN

𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡𝐵2 = 1 ∗ (−0,22) ∗ 25,12 = −5,53 kN

Likewise, with the sector D.

Sd1=6,603*13,185=87,06 m2

Sd2=6,603*1,95=12,87 m2

𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡𝐷1 = 1 ∗ (0,22) ∗ 87,06 = 19,15 kN

𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡𝐷2 = 1 ∗ (0,22) ∗ 12,87 = 2,83 kN

The result is presented in Figure 38.

 40

Figure 38. The result of the wind force

Forces are found and now we can move on to a new stage. But up to this point, it would be
important to touch on the topic related to the creation of a program for calculating the wind
force.

3.2.8 Calculator

Its meaning was that on the main page there is a field for entering basic data on the building,
as well as a visual representation of how the building will be divided into sectors. The cal-
culator calculates buildings of different heights, so there are even more of these sectors
than in the EN 1991-1-4 (2005) (There is also a division into sectors up). Each sector is
 41

marked with a number. All graphs, tables and formulas are located on other tabs of the
Excel file and can be viewed if desired. The calculations are made in accordance with the
Eurocode (EN 1991-1-4 2005). The result, namely the wind force acting on each sector, is
recreated in a table that is both inside the file (in the working tabs) and placed on the main
sheet. Thus, through connections and painted formulas, inside it is enough to drive in the
basic data regarding the building and the completed table will instantly show the wind val-
ues.

Input data

The result

Figure 39. The main page

The second page describes the main formulas used in the calculator, their units of meas-
urement, as well as a short description of the principle for determining the coefficients.
 42

Figure 40. Second page

Figure 41,42. Calculation page

 43

Figures 41 and 42 show a page with calculations in the calculator. Here all the necessary
values for each variable are displayed and solving the problem of finding loads and forces
on your own, you can follow the calculations to trace the correctness of your implementa-
tion.

The last page includes all the necessary tables translated into excel format, as well as in-
terpolation formulas.

Figure 43. Tables

The work was done with rounding, and it cannot be said that the calculator calculates to the
nearest hundredth, but for the customer the goal was quick calculations and further approx-
imate verification. It was necessary to understand whether the layout of the walls is suitable,
 44

whether the stiffening ribs work and whether there are critical deviations in the limit values.
In this case, the customer assumed in-depth and accurate calculations on their own.

3.2.9 Stiffness and the stiffening walls

Stiffeners are the longitudinal and transverse walls of a building (an apartment building or
a non-residential detached building), which give it rigidity and additional resistance to de-
formation under external loads.

Such ribs enhance the strength of the entire structure of the building and keep it from de-
struction, so they are always given increased attention. After all, if the building does not
provide for stiffening ribs, too large force values will act on the wall, which will lead to defor-
mations, and later to cracks, with subsequent destruction of the wall.

Figure 44. Deformations of the wall (Image: Maria Kupriyanova)

That is why the wind forces acting on the longitudinal walls, which are just like stiffening
walls, have to be considered. Moreover, during the text, it will be shown how wind force is
distributed. Consider the example of the main wall. We know that a wall perpendicular to
the wind is subjected to a wind pressure 0,22 kN/m2.

In our case, there are 3 walls that take loads. In order to understand what part of the total
force goes to a particular wall, it is necessary to calculate what area is perceived by a par-
ticular wall. For the first wall, this is half the length between walls 1 and 2 multiplied by the
height of the wall. For the 3rd, the situation is quite the same: it is half the length between
 45

the 2nd and 3rd sides multiplied by the height of the wall plus the length of the wall on
another side. Second wall will then take on half on each side. Having found the areas, we
can multiply each by the wind pressure and get the desired force. However, this method is
not entirely accurate. After all, we take into account the entire height of the wall without
exception.

Therefore, a more universal method is suggested, which is to determine what force acts on
each meter along the height of our building (let's call this force unit). Speaking about the
height, it is worth adding that the pressure will be distributed similarly. In our calculations,
we do not take the load perceived by the foundation. To determine the force acting on each
wall, we also determine the lengths, as in the first method. We multiply our unit force by a
given distance and get the desired force.
 46

1st wall

2nd wall

3rd wall

Figure 45. Three walls

Consider the load on our wall perpendicular to the wind as a whole. In the future, the load
and forces on it will be distributed to the walls (ribs) perpendicular to this wall. They are to
be found. But let's start with the main wall. Let's take a piece of wall meter long and standard
height, which we know as the original data. The load will go to the foundation, on the floor
of the first floor, the 2nd floor and at the top of the wall (ceiling or the bottom of attic). We
will duplicate the heights:

h1floor=3,005 m, h2froor=2,924 m and hattic=0,674 m.

 47

As mentioned earlier, we will not consider the foundation level, due to the fact that we are
calculating loads on the walls.

In order to transfer loads, we should know the concept of tributary area (or influence area).
This area is the load area that is perceived by the load-bearing structures. For example, for
a building with two load-bearing walls located at a distance of 5 meters from each other and
on which the ceiling rests, the cargo area for each wall will be 2.5 m* 1 m = 2.5 m2. Then
this figure is multiplied by the load, in order to get a force on each of the elements. The
gravitational forces from the slab flows into the wall or column, and the tributary areas helps
defining how much of the slab each wall attracts. Then follow the instructions:

• Measure the distance between the selected elements (in our case, these are floors
and walls)

• Divide the distance by 2

• Draw a perpendicular line at this point.

• Repeat for all adjacent grid lines and elements until a bounding polygon appears.
(Tribby3d)

Influence area, perceiving loads acting on each element will be different. The width of all
will be 1 meter and the height will be different. Thus, half of the height of the 1st floor and
half of the second floor is used for the first floor. On the foundation half of the 1st floor. And
so on.

The force will be:

0,22𝑘𝑁 3,005m
𝐹𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 1 ∗ ( 𝑚2
)∗( 2 )∗ 1𝑚 = 0,33 kN

0,22𝑘𝑁 3,005m 2,924𝑚

𝐹1𝑠𝑡𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑟 = 1 ∗ ( 𝑚2
) ∗ ( 2 + 2 ) ∗ 1𝑚 = 0,65 kN

0,22𝑘𝑁 2,924m 0,674𝑚

𝐹2𝑛𝑑𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑟 = 1 ∗ ( 𝑚2
)∗( 2 + 2 )∗ 1𝑚 = 0,4 kN

0,22𝑘𝑁 0,674m
𝐹𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 1 ∗ ( )∗( )∗ 1𝑚 = 0,07 kN
𝑚2 2
 48

Figure 46. Force distribution

Total force excluding foundation:

F=0,65+0,4+0,07=1,12 kN

In fact, further we also count only by considering the wall horizontally (along its length), and
not height. Now, in order to find out what force goes to a particular wall, we find how many
reference (or unit) meters can fit in each load area. In other words, we simply expand or
narrow our cargo area, 1 meter wide, to the extent we need.

For wall number 1, this is half the distance to the second wall.

F1=F*(1,95/2) =1,12 kN*0,975=1,09 kN

0,975 – how many reference (or unit) meters can fit. Even rather, it means what part of 1m
this part of the wall (the load area is) is.

Otherwise it will look like: 1,12 kN/m*1m changes to 1,12 kN/m*0,975 m

For the second wall, this will be half of the distances on each side.

1,12 kN*(11,176/2+1,95/2) =7,35 kN

For the 3rd wall the situation is the same. However, the load area also includes part of the
wall from below.
 49

1,12kN*(11,176/2+2,009) =8,5 kN

To determine whether a particular wall can withstand the load and how fasteners (nails,
etc.) will work, another calculator should be used from the site PUUINFO (PUUINFO. Sizing
program for plate stiffener.). In the next section there will be a little explanation about it.

3.2.10 PuuInfo

Let's take a look at the calculator. The third tab contains a section for entering initial data.
In this part, we look at how much the slabs will move and wobble and if this will be within
the allowable limits given the given load. From the main one, this is the wind force acting
on the wall and wall panels, which we found in the paragraph earlier. The load on the struc-
ture is taken taking into account the partial margin of safety equal to the standard 1.5.
Therefore, inserting our force into the initial data, we must use not it, but the load, taking
into account this additional coefficient. Below is the allowable movement. In the original it is
5 mm.

For a brief explanation, let's use the wall with the highest load. It is logical that in this case
we will have 3 calculations, since we do not use slabs at the openings. So, we need one
slab of 851 mm length, two slabs of 1200 mm and 1759-1200 =559 mm (the standard size
of slabs is 1200 mm so for the most part we try to use them), and one slab on the right,
which will also be 825 mm.

Number of panels

Initial data

Panels dimensions

Figure 47. Initial data

 50

Their parameters must be entered below. At the very top, you can initially set the number
of panels, and on the right, a drawing will appear in front of us, depending on the parameters
of the wall panels that we entered. Also, on the right the results of the calculation can be
seen, whether this type and size of the plates suits us, whether they will withstand, what the
deviation will be and what force will act on each panel.

Figure 48. Three panels

Next, we need to choose the stiffness(C) and durability(R) of the structure. But we do not
know it yet, so we need to go to the next tab and find it for another calculations.

On the second tab, we also enter the initial data. (They are identical). Here the ability of the
fasteners to resist pressure, as well as the stability of individual plates, will be calculated.
At the top, you can change the usage class and the time that the load will pass (permanent
or temporary). In our case, the load is wind load, so we should choose temporary type.
Below we can choose the material from which the frame is made of. It can be either plywood
or gypsum board. In addition to dimensions, the distance between frames should be spec-
ified.

After that, we will choose the type of connection (this is the number of pillars inside the
common frame), as well as the type of nails or other connections. The program even can
show with what pitch the screws are used. At the very bottom, we see stiffness indicators,
deviation, and they are highlighted in red or green. That is how the program let us know
whether this or that type of fastening is suitable for us in accordance with the dimensions
and materials.
 51

Usage class Type of the load

Material

Distance between frames Number of poles

Type of the screws

Pitch of the screws

class

Stiffness Deviation

Figure 49. How the second tab looks like

On the right you can find such a part. From here we need the value of durability. This is how
much this wall panel can withstand.

Figure 50. Important box on right

Returning to tab 3, we are faced with the task of changing the values of C and P, which
we received in the 2nd tab.

Figure 51. Further changes

 52

In this order, consider all 4 wall panels. However, if the value of the plate is too small, as,
for example, in our case (Figure 48), the calculator will say about it. That means that it
should not be taken into the consideration in the calculation.

Figure 52. Too small panel

Knowing the force acting on each of the panels, it is possible to check them on tab number
2 again. The goal is for the values to turn green. When considering three plates at once, we
see that everything is fine with the design. It resists pressure and will withstand our load.
However, the load on the second plate is greater than on the others. The percentage indi-
cators may be different, but when it is close to 100%, our design should be supplemented
with additional panels on the other side. Here a tick in 1 line with the original data will help
us.

Additional panels

The result

Figure 53. First result

Subsequently, the actions are repeated, only with additional wind-resistant plates. We find
the necessary indicators and try to make sure that the overall design fits in all respects and
that the screws in each panel hold tight and do not break out. If this does not work out with
ordinary data, it is possible to change the number of ribs (racks) in the frame, change the
pitch of the fasteners and change the material (The main thing is that it suits us in meaning
and that the dimensions of the plate remain unchanged).
 53

Figure 54. Editing the second panels

The final result should look something like in the Figure 51. Thus, it can be concluded and
shown how the load is distributed across the panels, what loads are obtained and whether
the structure is stiffed enough.

Figure 55. The final result

 54

4 Summary

When designing a building, it is important to consider all the loads that act on it. The task of
engineers is to make the building resistant to all external factors. Incorrect calculations can
lead to the fact that the loads exceed the allowable for a certain element of the building and
the structure will not withstand and will be destroyed. If during the calculations it becomes
obvious that the strength and rigidity of the same wall is not enough, then subsequently it
is necessary to strengthen the walls or add stiffening walls. The need to strengthen the walls
may arise due to the fact that during the operation the walls are subjected to deformations,
defects and damage appear in them. Stiffening of walls increases the strength characteris-
tics and bearing capacity of wall structures.

According to this, the main purpose of this thesis work was the understanding of the process
of finding wind loads and wind force on a building. Besides from it, a calculator for calculat-
ing them was introduced and a calculator from the Puuinfo.fi site for the stiffness and sta-
bility of wall panels was described. By using a ready-made example of a building from the
customer, everything was shown in a visual way.

The work on the diploma began with the receipt of the building project by the customer.
Initially, it was planned to create a calculation program for a different type of loads, but later
the work was changed to finding only wind loads. The reason was that there was less data
on them, which could be of the greatest benefit, but at the same time there would not be an
overload on the thesis work. At the beginning of the work, it was necessary to understand
the principle of calculating loads in order to create a calculation program. The difficulty was
the presence of many different coefficients, each of which is considered and accepted de-
pending on the category of factors.

However, after the analysis, everything was extremely simple and understandable. The cal-
culation process has been carried out, all required data, such as loads and forces, have
been found. Subsequently, it was determined how the force acting on a certain wall is dis-
tributed further and how the wall stiffeners help us. By placing them, we strengthen our
structure and make the wall more stable, because these walls become some kind of props
and supports, which also take on loads, reducing their impact on the main wall. This is one
of the ways to strengthen the structure.

The main questions that arose throughout the work were what kind of loads does the low-
rise building experience and can it withstand the forces generated by these loads on the
walls, especially the wall panels? Owing to the panel calculation program, it was found that
 55

depending on the size of the wall panels, their material, the type of frame and their fastening,
it is possible to increase wind resistance to a greater or lesser extent. Based on the calcu-
lations for the selected building, everything turned out to be normal and it can be assumed
that the calculated and selected walls will withstand the calculated loads.

Thus, it can be said that all the objectives of the thesis work were fulfilled. The work was
exciting and gave a lot of new in-depth knowledge. For a long time, the principles of calcu-
lating wind loads have been studied and explained, observing all the basic principles and
rules specified in the regulatory documents. Thanks to a large number of sources of infor-
mation, all the data was grouped and described.

The calculator file for the client was created based on the capabilities of the author. How-
ever, there were difficulties in creating it, since it was not clear how to sequentially describe
the process in a file so that everything looked neat and unloaded. In addition, in any calcu-
lations, there are many little things that make them unique. Due to not the most professional
knowledge in the field of computer science, many exceptions had to be left as exceptions
due to the complexity of programming. But despite this, the main task - to find quickly ap-
proximate values, was successfully completed and implemented.

Studying the program for the stiffness of wall panels was very interesting. The program was
in Finnish, and it was extremely important to understand its principle most correctly. It turned
out to be very useful and multifunctional and was also provided to the customer for subse-
quent calculations.

While calculating, it is necessary to find loads and check the stiffness not only of the 1st floor
level, but also of the roof level and the level of the second floor, since, as mentioned earlier,
any element or part of the building that does not pass the stability parameters can lead to
bad consequences for the entire building as a whole. In this work, they were excluded, since
the main idea of the work was to make a guide for the client, for the correct use of the
author's calculator and the Puuinfo calculation in Excel.

After a large amount of studied and updated information, the next step is to give the calcu-
lator to the customer and possibly subsequent adjustments. It is useful to have a free pro-
gram that can be beneficial for work as well as study. Also, there was a desire to delve more
into the principle of different building calculation processes. Because using certain formulas
wisely, understanding why they are needed and how they work, it is much more pleasant
and correct than mindlessly counting numbers.
 56

References

Eurocode 1: Actions on structures - Part 1-4: General actions - Wind actions. EN 1991-1-4.
2005.

National Building Code of Finland. Strength and stability of structures, 2019.

National Building Code of Finland. Strength and stability of structures, 2016.

Design principles and structural loads, part 1. RIL 201-1-2011. 2014.

PUUINFO. Sizing program for plate stiffener. Retrieved on 1 September 2022. Available at
https://puuinfo.fi/suunnittelu/mitoitustyokalu/levyjaykisteen-mitoitusohjelma/

PUUINFO. Abbreviated Timber Design Guideline Fifth Edition Eurocode 5 Source: RIL 205-
1-2017 and RIL 205-2-2019. Retrieved on 2 September 2022. Available at
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jestelmat

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iSopromat.ru. Виды нагрузок. Retrieved on 10 July 2022. Available at https://isopro-

mat.ru/stroimeh/vidy-nagruzok

Extension Foundation. Section 5. Structures and utilities. Wind loads of structures. Re-
trieved on 1 August 2022. Available at https://campus.exten-
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Skyciv. IS 875-3 Wind Load Calculation Example. Retrieved on 30 July 2022. Available at
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 57

Skyciv. EN-1991-1-4 Wind Load Calculation Example. Retrieved on 30 July 2022. Available
at https://skyciv.com/ru/docs/tech-notes/loading/en-1991-1-4-wind-load-calculation-exam-
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Tribby3d. Tributary Areas of Columns and how to Best Calculate them. Retrieved on 19
September 2022. Available at https://tribby3d.com/blog/tributary-areas-of-columns/

Municipality of Anchorage. Wind damage prevention. Retrieved on 21 July 2022. Available

at https://www.muni.org/Departments/OEM/Prepared/Pages/Wind.aspx

Simply Architects. The importance of structural calculations in architectural designs. Re-

trieved on 7 August 2022. Available at: https://www.simplyarchitects.co.uk/the-importance-
of-structural-calculations-in-architectural-designs/

Smith, D. & Henderson, D. 2015. Insurance Claims Data Analysis for Cyclones Yasi and
Larry. James Cook University. Available at DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.2472.1524

Pro-Tec, 2017. Construction features. Retrieved on 20 August 2022. Available at https://pro-

techomeinspectionorlando.com/wind-mitigation-inspection-orlando/

Korzhik.net, 2016. Торнадо в Витебской губернии. Retrieved on 15 August 2022. Availa-

ble at https://korzik.net/other/63451-tornado-v-vitebskojj-gubernii.html

Eurocode: Basis of Structural Design. EN 1990, 2002.

Hillman R. A. Финская дом. Retrieved on 12 August 2022. Available at https://ru.dream-

stime.com/%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8B%D0%B5-
%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE-
%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F-
%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BC-image1124483
Appendix 1. Terrain category (EN 1991-1-4 2005)
Appendix 2. A list of basic definitions (EN 1991-1-4 2005)