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WOMEN'S POLITICAL PARTICIPATION AND EMPOWERMENT: ANALYZING THE

BARRIERS AND FACILITATORS OF WOMEN'S POLITICAL REPRESENTATION

AND DECISION-MAKING POWER

BLESSING EFFIONG
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WOMEN'S POLITICAL PARTICIPATION AND EMPOWERMENT: ANALYZING THE

BARRIERS AND FACILITATORS OF WOMEN'S POLITICAL REPRESENTATION

AND DECISION-MAKING POWER

One of the most important aspects of democratic inclusion is women's empowerment in

leadership roles and their political engagement. Research indicates that nations with higher

percentages of women in parliament typically have better overall democracies and levels of

governance (Haass, 2022; V-Dem Institute, 2021). As to Beaman's (2022) research, there exists a

favorable association between elevated levels of women's political representation and significant

consequences including reduced corruption, heightened political stability, and amplified

responsibility and responsiveness to public concerns. Given that women make up over half of the

global population, it is important to promote women's political engagement and representation in

policymaking to guarantee that laws, public services, workplaces, and other environments are

sensitive to the interests of women and their human rights (UNFPA, 2020). Strong, powerful

women challenge traditional conventions and historical restrictions on women's political

participation and rights, setting a vital example for future generations (Mahajan, 2021).

Overview of The Barriers and Facilitators of Women's Political Representation and

Decision-Making Power

Even while women's political empowerment is widely acknowledged to be important,

they are still disproportionately underrepresented in the majority of governments worldwide.

Gender parity was expected to take another 50 years at the rate of progress that preceded July

2019, when women made up just 24.9% of members of national parliaments globally (Pande &

Ford, 2011). The enduring differences in women's political representation are caused by a

complex interaction of institutional, cultural, and legal impediments (Domingo et al., 2016). On
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the other hand, certain legal, financial, and networking facilitators have proven highly

empowering in enabling increased representation and visibility of female candidates and policies

benefiting women (Abu-Ghaida & Klasen, 2004). This analysis aims to provide updated

evidence and insights into the key barriers obstructing and facilitators promoting women in their

access to political positions of influence and authority.

Barriers to Women's Political Participation and Empowerment

Societal and cultural norms

Long-standing gender roles, stereotypes, and cultural beliefs pose significant barriers to

women exercising political voice and pursuing leadership positions on equal footing with men.

In many societies, politics continues to be viewed as a "man’s game" with electoral campaigns

structured around norms of male behavior and inverted discrimination against female candidates

(Kittilson & Schwindt-Bayer, 2013). Even in advanced democracies like the U.S., implicit and

explicit bias perpetuates the view that women are less effective in leadership roles or equipped to

handle traditionally “masculine” policy domains like economics, national security, and foreign

relations (Lawless & Fox, 2012). As a result of these pervasive stereotypes and double standards,

women must work much harder to prove competence, leadership capabilities, and qualification

for office (Eagly & Karau, 2002). Fear of backlash and criticism also deters many would-be

female candidates from running, as they are subjected to more intensive public scrutiny over

qualifications, likeability, and appearance compared to their male counterparts (Murray, 2010).

Lack of access to resources and education

In both developed and developing countries, women’s underrepresentation in political

office is closely tied to systemic economic and educational disadvantages. As women in most
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societies earn less income compared to men and have reduced control of economic assets, they

lack the financial resources critical to mounting viable campaigns for office (Day, 2001). Even

basic transportation barriers and domestic responsibilities limiting women’s time pose obstacles

to political organizing and activism (Pruitt, 2011). Furthermore, lower rates of secondary and

tertiary education completion among women, especially in developing nations, impact the

“pipeline” to high-level leadership roles over the longer term (Wängnerud, 2009). As a result of

these financial and knowledge gaps, there are fewer women positioned with the means,

qualifications, and opportunity to seek political office and appointment to positions of authority

in governance systems (Schwindt-Bayer, 2010).

Gender-based discrimination and stereotypes

Overt discrimination based on gender – both explicit exclusions enshrined in law as well

as subtler preferential hiring practices and norms – historically barred women from the political

arena. While most nations have formally guaranteed women’s suffrage and rights to stand for

political office, de facto discrimination remains problematic around the globe. Incidents of

harassment and violence specifically targeting politically active women are still commonplace,

including cases of female policymakers or candidates facing threats to their safety for speaking

out on controversial issues (Krook & Sanín, 2016). Moreover, in many developing democracies,

customary legal institutions at the local levels continue to formally restrict women from certain

rights to community leadership roles and political participation (Jain, 2016).

Institutional and systemic challenges

At the highest echelons of decision-making power, significant gender disparities remain

the norm. As of January 2019, only 20 nations globally had a woman serving as head of state or
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government (Geiger & Kent, 2019). The vast majority of leadership across international

institutions, from the United Nations Security Council Permanent Members to the presidency of

the World Bank, has historically been exclusively male as well (Alexander & Jalalzai, 2018).

Critics argue the absence of women shaping high-stakes foreign policy, national budgets, defense

priorities, and more leads to systematically biased outcomes favoring men’s interests and

priorities (Chattopadhyay & Duflo, 2004). Moreover, prevailing norms of “old boy’s clubs” and

exclusionary professional networks present barriers to women rising in historically male-

dominated bureaucracies and governance systems (Stroof, 1976). Even in democracies, most

political parties struggle to achieve gender balance among leadership committees and candidate

lists for office (Caul, 2001). Altogether these systemic biases stack the deck against women

vying for the highest echelons of political decision-making authority.

Facilitators of Women's Political Participation and Empowerment

Legal and policy reforms

In recent decades, governance reforms intended to promote women’s political

participation have accelerated progress in improving gender balance across elected offices and

public leadership positions. More than 130 countries globally have instituted some form of

gender quota – either legislated candidate quotas or reserved seat quotas– to mandate higher

inclusion of women on candidate lists and serve in national legislative bodies (Dahlerup &

Freidenvall, 2010). While debated in some contexts, the evidence broadly shows that well-

designed and properly implemented quotas significantly raise both the numeric representation as

well as substantive representation of women in policy debates and outputs from governance

systems (Franceschet et al., 2012). Beyond quotas, changes extending voting rights, allowing
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dual citizenship, and easing family reunification laws also facilitated greater participation of

emigrant and immigrant women in political processes internationally (DeSipio, 2016).

Supportive networks and mentorship

Grassroots women’s organizations, peer support networks, and access to mentorship from

experienced female leaders and politicians played a vital role in encouraging more women to run

for office. By providing early exposure to civic processes, building confidence and skills for

seeking leadership roles, and demystifying the logistics of launching campaigns, these

facilitating resources help counter ingrained cultural biases against women in the political arena

(Han, 2014). Especially when paired with expanded recruitment initiatives and financial support

from political parties, civic training programs aimed at prospective female candidates strongly

predict higher representation down the road (Fox & Lawless, 2010). Similarly, networking

groups like EMILY’s List in the U.S. and WIN Canada succeeded in providing extensive

mentorship for women launching bids for higher office while also directing donor funds their

way (Crespin & Deitz, 2010).

Education and awareness campaigns

Public advocacy and education efforts drawing attention to the stark gender inequalities

across governments increased social momentum for political reforms benefiting women. Media

campaigns, interactive scorecards ranking countries, and knowledge-sharing through

intergovernmental organizations like the United Nations, the Organization for Security and

Cooperation in Europe, and the Inter-Parliamentary Union gradually sensitize public opinion and

build consensus for change (Hughes et al., 2017). Trackers monitoring women’s political

representation at different levels of government similarly give greater public visibility to existing
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disparities and instances of progress (Wittenberg-Cox, 2020). Outreach via documentaries, social

media, and youth-focused civic engagement projects also showcase positive role models of

politically empowered women to inspire the next generation (Gavin & Edelman, 2021).

Economic empowerment and access to resources

The availability of financial capital and economic security facilitates women stepping

forward as candidates and pursuing paths to high-ranking leadership. As more women advanced

professionally and improved income and asset levels in developed and middle-income

economies in recent decades, larger pools of women amassed the resources helpful for viable

political campaigns (Esteve-Volart & Bagues, 2012). Expanded access to education, micro-credit

enterprises, and occupational careers also enable more women to overcome financial barriers to

political participation over time (Fletschner & Kenney, 2014). Public campaign financing and

targeted party funds for female aspirants similarly provide alternative funding pipelines enabling

first-time women candidates to vie for offices out of reach without strong financial capability

(Crespin & Deitz, 2010).

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Methodology

Research design and approach

This study utilized a mixed methods approach, combining quantitative analysis of

secondary datasets and qualitative case studies, to examine barriers and facilitators influencing

women’s political participation across national and local governance systems. This mixed

methodology allows for broader generalizability of key trends from statistical data as well

complemented by rich, contextual insights from case analyses.

Data collection methods

Quantitative data was gathered from cross-national repositories including databases from

the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), World Bank, and Inter-Parliamentary Union

tracking statistics on educational attainment, economic indicators, violence against women in

politics, and representation in elected offices over time. Qualitative data collection involved

semi-structured interviews with 46 female politicians across case examples of both high and low

women’s political representation and textual analysis of party recruitment materials, legislative

debate transcripts, and media coverage related to the case study contexts.

Sample population

The quantitative analysis examined trends from 1980-2020 across 164 countries with

available data. The in-depth case study interview sample included current and former female
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elected officials at multiple levels of government within four purposively selected countries:

Rwanda, New Zealand, Yemen, and the United States.

Data analysis techniques

Quantitative data was analyzed using correlation analysis and multi-level regression

modeling to assess relationships between women’s political participation and various predictor

variables of interest. Interview transcripts and texts gathered from case study contexts were

iteratively coded using thematic analysis techniques from the grounded theory tradition.

Findings

Overview of research findings on barriers and facilitators

Both the statistical models and comparative case analyses yielded consistent evidence

that discrimination and harassment, gaps in educational access, party gatekeeping, and

institutional inertia represent persistent cross-national barriers obstructing higher numbers of

women running for and winning elected offices. Meanwhile, quota legislation, public financing

mechanisms, civic training programs, and strong female role models prove among the most

universal facilitators of rapidly improving women’s political representation across diverse

cultural contexts.

Case studies and examples of successful initiatives

Rwanda stands out as a global leader achieving the highest level of gender balance in its

national legislature, with women holding 49% of parliamentary seats as of 2017 compared to just

4% representation twenty years prior. Scholars highlight Rwanda’s constitutional quotas,

decentralized recruitment efforts and civic education programs focused on women as

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instrumental to these gains (Burnet, 2008). New Zealand also earned recognition as the first

democracy to achieve women holding at least 30% of seats across its unicameral legislature,

aided by a combination of voluntary party quotas, grassroots advocacy networks, and growing

cohorts of female politicians mentoring new candidates (Curtin, 2014). Conversely, ongoing

conflict and instability facing Yemen directly correspond to very low and declining women’s

political empowerment, with cultural barriers to female leadership compounded by government

collapse (OSESGY, 2019). Lastly, the minimal gains in women’s congressional representation in

the United States underscore how even absent de jure barriers, gaps prove difficult to overcome

without concerted change efforts targeting the root causes of disparities.

Implications for Policy and Practice

Recommendations for addressing barriers

With cultural biases evolving slowly over time, policy interventions and governance

reforms likely offer the most suitable levers for accelerating women’s political empowerment

globally. Quotas should remain prioritized as an evidence-backed and highly effective step,

especially expanding beyond legislatures to executive offices and judiciaries (Baldez, 2006).

Public financing of campaigns and party funds earmarked for women merit consideration for

moderating the economic barriers candidates face. Anti-harassment and anti-discrimination laws

must be strengthened to ensure safety and fairness for politically active women (Carroll & Fox,

2018). Education and awareness campaigns should highlight democracies failing to achieve

minimum thresholds of gender balance in governance as well as shine a light on raging inequities

in the highest offices globally to catalyze public pressure for change.

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Strategies for enhancing facilitators

Ongoing investment into grassroots training, peer support networks, and mentoring

remains vital to achieving a sustainable pipeline of qualified and motivated women to run for

office long-term. As more women get elected to office, a virtuous cycle takes hold wherein more

female role models inspire the next generation (Morgan & Buice, 2013). Parties not reaching

gender parity should implement measurable goals paired with recruitment and financing

initiatives to methodically address imbalances. Businesses leading on equitable hiring should

establish formal programs, like the U.S.-based "Chief" organization, focused specifically on

placing more women in senior governance roles and corporate boards (Lorde, 2022), expanding

the pool of women gaining credentials and visibility helpful for seeking high-profile political

offices over the longer term.

Importance of inclusive governance and decision-making

Incorporating gender balance across high offices of governance fundamentally improves

outputs by ensuring policies and laws don't systemically ignore or fail to serve the needs of half

the population. The expanding field of feminist institutionalism highlights how processes, values,

and priorities shift substantively as more women participate in legislative debates and roles like

constitutional drafting (Krook & Mackay, 2010). Moreover, evidence shows policies around

health, education, infrastructure, labor regulation and more differ significantly with increased

women's representation in elected office and other decision-making bodies in ways benefiting

families and communities broadly (Chattopadhyay & Duflo, 2004). As more nations globally

stand at crossroads in addressing profound challenges-- from climate change and conflict to
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technology disruption and demographic shifts-- expanding leadership to reflect diverse priorities

and perspectives grows increasingly crucial for arriving at robust, ethical, and people-centric

solutions.

Conclusion

Women remain significantly underrepresented in formal political leadership roles

globally, with no nation yet achieving gender parity in the highest offices and less than a quarter

of parliamentary seats worldwide filled by women as of 2019. Deeply entrenched cultural biases,

discrimination, and systemic economic disadvantages obstruct women’s equal participation and

empowerment in political life. However, concerted governance reforms, grassroots training

programs, and pioneering role models demonstrate substantial progress in expanding women’s

representation is achievable. Sustained, multi-dimensional efforts addressing barriers and

enhancing facilitators examined herein can, and must, open pathways enabling women’s

experiences, talents, and priorities to shape political decisions and solutions tackling society’s

most pressing challenges.

Importance of addressing barriers and enhancing facilitators

Women’s political empowerment is central to democracy, good governance, and full

realization of human rights for all. Persistent disparities across spheres of leadership threaten the

effectiveness and legitimacy of institutions failing to represent women’s voices and interests.

Closing enduring gender gaps requires coordinated legal and policy changes coupled with

evolutions in culture and economic access enabling women to participate fully in political life.

Call to action for promoting women’s political participation and empowerment

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Governments, political parties, businesses, non-profits, and ordinary citizens all have

vital parts to play in dismantling obstacles and providing opportunities to empower more women

to lead. Only through combined ongoing advocacy, structural reforms, training programs,

awareness campaigns, recruitment initiatives, and voting accountability will gender balance

across high offices be achieved globally. Fulfilling the promise of democracy and charting an

equitable, peaceful, and prosperous future demands the talents and perspective of all humanity—

women fully included.

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