Generate most of the chemical

energy needed to power the cell's

They create cell cohesion and prevent biochemical reactions.
fracture of the epithelial cell sheets
Regulates the transport of
Ribosomes are the site of materials entering and exiting
protein synthesis the cell.

To produce proteins They facilitate cell

for the rest of the cell movement, cell division,
to function and transportation of
materials within the cells.
The nucleus manages the
cells genetic material They organise the
microtubules
The nucleolus produces
and assembles the cells They assist with
ribosomes cell movement
Mixture of DNA and
proteins that form the
chromosomes found in They are the digestive system
the cells of the cell digest bacteria and
unwanted products
Helps process and
package proteins and synthesizes lipids,
lipid molecules which phospholipids as in
are then exported plasma membranes,
from the cell and steroids
Transports hormones enzymes
out of the cell

Carrying out oxidative reactions

using molecular oxygen.
This is where all the chemical
reactions happen in a cell Help sequester waste products

The cytoskeleton of a cell is made up of microtubules, actin filaments, and intermediate filaments.
These structures give the cell its shape and help organize the cell's parts. In addition, they provide a
basis for movement and cell division.
The cytoskeleton is so tiny that the filaments can’t
be seen but they are like motorways for all the
substances in the cell
 surrounds the plasma membrane of plant
cells and provides tensile strength and
protection against mechanical and osmotic
stress.
store their contents until specific
signals direct their fusion with
Let’s things in and
the plasma membrane.
out of the cell
Helps process and package
Site of protein synthesis proteins and lipid molecules
which are then exported
from the cell
Synthesises lipids
Site of photosynthesis
The nucleolus produces
and assembles the cells

↑
ribosomes Helps maintain the
cell water balance
The nucleus manages the
cells genetic material
enhance plants' defenses
against herbivores
To produce proteins for the rest of the
cell to function High capacity "calcium
control" and "herbivory
Stores water and resistance"
regulates turtle pressure

Site of respiration and

release of energy
A plant plastic that formed
and stores starch

# Where all the chemical

reactions in the cell occur

Carries genes for replicating their DNA,

transferring themselves from one host cell Ribosomes carry out protein
to another, and for a variety of synthesis
phenotypes

Helps the cell with

movement

Helps with cell adhesion protein and DNA secretion and

uptake, conductance, or cellular encapsulation
-

I
Lammele
⑪

Are covered with

ribosomes may have
little vesicles to
transport proteins to
the Golgi
Curved in
the golgi

Contains enzymes that

can go outside of the cell
eg lipaze
 T
Cytoplasm is connected between both
cells
• Stains are used to increase
contrast between cell
components and allow them
to be differentiated between
• Different components of
cells take up stains to differing
degrees
• Alternatively, the
surroundings of a cell may be
stained, leaving the cells
visible as they are not stained

u%
KM (negative staining)

o Image size

Magnification Actual size

⑳ -

Adjusts
the
beam
of light

----
Light microscope
=>
Electron microscope Laser scanning confocal
microscope

1
Preparing a specimen

To prepare a slide for a microscope with iodine solution, follow these

simplified steps:

1. Clean the microscope slide to remove any dust or debris.

2. Place a small drop of the specimen or sample you want to
observe in the center of the slide.
3. Gently lower a coverslip onto the slide, avoiding air bubbles.
4. Remove excess liquid by gently pressing down on the coverslip
with a tissue.
5. Add a few drops of iodine solution to the edge of the coverslip.
6. Allow the iodine solution to sit for a few minutes.
7. Blot away any excess iodine solution.
8. Place the prepared slide on the microscope stage and adjust the
focus to observe the specimen.

Calibrating a microscope:
Biological drawings
 >
- breaks of relising energy allowing the Protein to change shape

P* P P
-

ADPTP ATP
high energy
↓and
molecules have
Bulk transport : -
When extremely large
to be transported into the cell

G
↑

Osmosis is the net movement of water molecules from an area of

High water
Potential Low water Potential across Partially Permiable membrane

·
to an area of a

In animal cells is Placed in isotonic solution there will

-
an

be no net movement of water in

any direction

& fully damaged

>
-
Le
unle
negative than content
---
Less
of cell ·
*more

...
negative than
content of cell
-
bit damaged
·
\<
⑦@
<@
- ,
 Mitosis -
a series of steps where two identical daughter cells are created

Prophase :
- chromosomes condense , centrioles move to opposite
Poles of the cell , Nucleoli decrease in size
-

Nuclea envelope fragments into recite which disperse

-
microtubules are organised to form spindle sibres

Metaphase : Anaphase :
-chromosomal made of two chromatids lime -

Centromeres divide separating

up across the equator of the cell
the sister chromatids
They attach to the spindle by their Centromere
SPS
-

Contrast Putting chromatics

- The cell will check is the right amount of
to opposite ends of the cell
chromosomes are attached to the spindle

Telophase :
-
The chromatids reach the

opposite poles of the sell

Chromatids uncoil
-
and are now
called

chromosomes agains
-
The nuclear envelope reforms around each
group so to nuclei exist
↓
creating two genetically idential
daughter cell)
Meiosis :
variation in offspring
Sexual reproduction gives you a

Karyotyping is the process of pairing and ordering all the chromosomes of

↓p
an organism, thus providing a genome-wide snapshot of an individual's
chromosomes.

Thoar represent de

and genes are in the same place (gene Locus)

homologous
Pail
= roughly the same length
of chromosome asexual sexual
-

one Parent two Parents

offspring are offspring are

exact (lones of genetiCaly
each other different

cells are produced fusion of gameles

by mitosis Produces offspring
mitosis meiosis
diploid 46 ch haploid ch

e
Stem Cells :
A stem cell is an undiffrentiated cell which has the ability to divide to Produce more stem M or

types of cells
to become over

Communicable diseases :

Types of Pathogens
organism which causes disease by taking nutrition from a host and causing damage
-
Bad-erich
- virus
-
Fungi Animal Plant
Protoktids
meningitis Ringrot
-

Bacteria Tuberculosis
↳ not all Pathogenic -
↳ can be killed by antibiotics
↳ Prokaryotic organisms
many different groups (gramt and gram-
↳ can be categorised into

virus Animal Plant

↳ All viruses are Panogenic HIV/AidS TMV
↳ not classed as living organisms A Influenza

↳ may contain genetic information

host cell allowing replicate and burst out
↳ can cause harm by hijacking it to

Fungus Animal Plant

↳ Not all Panogenic and are eukariotic
Ringworm PlackSigatoba
↳ all examples are multicellular Athletes 50ot
-
busually transmitted using spores /
more danger to plants can animals
↳
Protockist Animal Plant
↳ Not all pathogenic
is eukaryotic
↳ all examples are multicellular Y Malaria Potato/tomato
Late blight
↳ usally transmitted by a vector

ransmission Plants :
touch
Direct-55 Plants
water small insects/animals, birds
Indirect-wind , ,

Plant defen as :

wasy cuticle passive defence g

-

-
Bark
-
Lignin before Pathogen
-
wall
cell even enters
-
guard cells

active plant defences

Transmission
Horizontal-organism to organism
vertical-mother to child

specific immune syste m.

cell mediated Humoral
defences to destroy
↳ defences to destroy Pathogen
infected cells
involve both T and
only involve T cells
⑧ cells
Cells T in the symus and O Ce from
regulate specific immune system Consist Of two gland
Lymphocytes -

marrow
makes holes in
Gone
The cells membrane
killing it
I

suppress d
immune Sy stem
When infection gone

Min a
- ntibodies are glycoproteins called immunoglobins.
↳ They are made from 4 Polypeptide chains two , light and two heavy
↳ They are held together by disulphide
bridges

hings,e

Pharmacogenetics Combination medicines that work best with

·
- of

your body
treated
scientists constantly finding and solutions existing diseses be
are new cures how can
on

Plant Transport :

-
metabolic demands
-
size
-
Surface area

dicotyledonous plants make seeds that contain cotyledons that act as 800d Stores for the developing embry

& -

to root hair y
& &
-
exodernis
3
&
1

E -
> aylem

↑sil
S
C
00
y /↑ ↳
i
&
scorted
Phloem
eP/dermis

&
endodermis

Cortex-fill the gap between exodermis and epidermis

mad na
ooampians
Epidermis- Some as been can out as a
are see
reagin othe
of the cell wall

/
Monosaccharides formula = (CH2O)n
Ha OH
64 Alpha glucose
H 5 -
⑮
H
-

/ OHH2
/
& -
I C
Beta glucose will have the
OH group above the carbon
1 instead of below it
OH C
3
e

x OH Alpha and beta

I ( glucose are
H OH isomers of each
other

Ribose and deoxyribose are Pentose sugars which contain 5 carbon

atoms however deoxyribose doesn’t have the last oxygen in group 2
A Saccharide is a sugar unit
molecule with
An isomer is a
formula but
te same Chemical ·

different atom arrangement

Benedict solution practical
Reducing sugars act as reducing agents in chemical reactions (i.e. donates electrons to other molecules).
Reducing sugars include all monosaccharides (e.g. glucose and fructose) and some disaccharides (e.g. lactose
and maltose).

Non-Reducing sugars do not act as reducing agents in chemical reactions. They include most disaccharides
(e.g. sucrose) and simple polysaccharides.

Test for reducing sugars

1. Add Benedict’s solution to the samples 2cm3 is needed then record the change that will happen immediately
after adding it. The samples should either stay blue as that is the colour of Benedict’s solution or turn green blue
or red depending on the sugar concentration.

2. Then heat the mixture at 60 degrees in a water bath for two minutes and observe the colour change again. If
your sample contains reducing sugars, the chemical reaction between the reducing sugar and the Benedict’s
solution will change the colour of the sample.

3. Do the same for another two minutes and observe the changes that happen this it done to ensure validity of the
results

Benedict’s Test is semi-quantitative.

Benedict’s Test can give us an idea of
how much reducing sugar is present in
the sample. The greater the
concentration of the reducing sugar, the
greater the colour change in the flow
diagram below. If we perform Benedict’s
Test for multiple samples under
standardised conditions, (i.e. ensuring all
solutions were given the same amount of
time from when Benedict’s solution was
added to inspecting for the colour
change) then we can estimate which
solutions contain the greater
Testing for non-reducing sugars concentration of reducing sugar in
comparison to the other.

1. First prepare your samples then add 2cm3 of dilute hydrochloric acid to each test tube then put in a 60
degree water bath for two minutes this should break down the die-saccharides
2. Take samples out and neutralise it until a ph of 7 is reached check for effervescence and test with litmus
paper
3. Then add 2cm3 of Benedict’s solution and observe the immediate colour change of the samples
4. After that put it in water bath for 2 minutes check colour change and repeat for another 2 minutes to ensure
validity
 General formula for amino acid

H H
O
Carboxyl group

↑ I
Amino N
group -

C -
C R groups are different
in different amino acids

H
/
I OH they can be polar
( contain O or OH)
R Non-polar ( contain C
Defines the formula as there are 20 different R and H)
groups Charged ( + or -)

To build it up its a
condensation reaction
and to break it down it
would be a hydrolysis
reaction. Enzymes are
needed for both
reactions
 The polypeptide chain can fold or
curl to form either an alpha helix
or a beta pleated sheet.,
Both alpha helices and beta pleated
sheets result from H bonds between
non-adjacent amine and carboxyl
groups.

These are both the tertiary structures which make the polypeptide chains due to the different
types of bonds such as hydrogen, ionic, disulphate and hydrophilic and hydrophobic bonds.
 of Lipids :
There are 3 types
Some hydrocarbon chains
fatty and glycerol
Triglycerides : formed from can be
will be
saturated (chain
straight) unsaturated
(will

-
have kinks/bends
This can be then Broken down
-using a hydrolysis reaction

↓
cipaze

making Econdensation enzyme

↳ needed The condensation
reaction has to happen
reaction occurs 3X
3H20
/S
Molecue

Phosphate
Phospholipids : satty acids , glycerol
formed from
and a

Iroup

-E satty acid tail

Phosphate Which are hydrophobic
group
-
- hydrophylic head will attract water

fatty acids
Cholesterol : It's glycerol or
not made of

1.
Qualitative test for

First you have to get two test tubes and

or
add 2cm3 of distilled water to one of them
1.
Qualitative test for Lipids .
First get yourself 12 test tubes and and place
the Iiquid and solid samples in 8 of them
and the protein suspension to the other. 2. Then add 2cm3 of ethanol to each sample and
2. Using a pipette add 1cm3 of biuret solution shake well but mash the solid ones with a
at a 45 degree angle and look for the glass rod
immediate colour change 3. After transfer the solid samples to a fresh test
3. They shake both of them and record the tube and add 2cm3 of water to all the 8
colour change after shaking samples
4. Observe the clarity of the samples
Biosensors take a biological or chemical
variable and convert it into an electrical signal,

%i
which can then be read.
Uses include detecting contaminants in water,
pathogens and toxins in food, and airborne ↑
bacteria.
Nucleic acids
d
- I

d
et
er
m
in
at
io
n
↳
determination

"Yo
c
↳
↑

Pase Pair rules Parine always Pair with Pyramidine

DNa : A Pair with T
with 6
C Pairs

= differences a replaces T
RNA : A Pairs with U it is single stranded the
with C
c Pairs sugar changes

The phosphate group is inorganic

chemical so has a negative charge
 e
R/AN
-

structure of ATP
·
-

Adening
&/*

·
&

3 Phosphate
groups
Ribose
I
ATP = Adenosine Triphosphate
ADD = Adenosine Diphosphate
AMP = Adenosine monophosphate
-

n
Extraction (kiwi)
DNA of ° @ ° @ e
@
°
%

neutralise the charge of a Na

I . mash up Kiwi = to

2 .
add extraction buster (detergent with salt)
.
3 filter the mush to remove seeds and lumps

4. Slowly add alcohol dow the side of beaker

.
5 Fluffy white DNa will apear on the top

replication : bit at a time this is catalysed by gyrase enzyme

Dra DNA unwinds a

the DNA Unzips breaking hydrogen bonds between the complementary

Then
Base Pairs (Helicase)
DNA molecule will only unzip a tiny bit t a time to ensure that there are no mistakes made in the
base code
Genetic Code-sequence of bases in our genome
↳ codes for the Primary structure of our Polypeptides

There are 4 bases

Condons made of 3 bases

64 different
Condons

most amino acids have

many codons which code for it. So is a mutation
Degenerate -

Occurs it has a chance to code for the same amino acid

↳ valine has 4 codons which code for it

GTT GTC GTA GTG

Genetic code is non-overlapping -

which ensures each base is only read one

(in groups of three)

Genetic Code is universal most organisms use the same genetic code

The Triplet Code :

If one Pase I one amino acid
↳ Possible amino acids = 4

If two pases : one amino acid

↳ Possible amino acids = 16 (4 x4)

- Bree Pases = one amino acids

↓ possible amino acids = 64 (4x4x4)

ProteinSynthesis : messenger
↑
First Stage Protein Synthesis MRNA Copy is made
Transcription - of to

↓ takes a
copy of genetic Code on the
similarities and differences DNA Replication gene to the ribosomes

and Transcription :

similarities Differences
-
Hydrogen bonds between base Pairs are broken by Helicase -
A different type of Helicase enzyme is used
e
·
RNA Polymerase can only work in H 3-5 direction because
it would otherwise work backwards

Translation : the reading of the geneticCode

of a
on

polypeptide
a mrNa to produce the Prim
any
structure

needed)
- (TRNa
n

↳ ribosomes

EA
L
U
1
6
Anticondon
I I

"A
Condor

2 molecules car
only
time
-enter at a

van de later
- Shift recycled
along
Enzymes : Piological Catalysts
Catabolic (treak down)
=

Anabolic- build up)

Enzymes are globular Proteins So

are soluble in water
works on hydrogen
-only Peroxide

↳ wasth ↓
also fastest
Product from
cells working
enzyme

Enzyme action intracellularly

occur both
extracellular
igestion
can or

encymes worke

outside of the cell to allow

molecules into the cell

We need enzymes as our body

Cannot Produce as high of temperature

to start reactions in our body efficient,

without them

Lock and key model

:

is specific and each substrate specific shape. Like lock and

Each enzymes active site key onl
has a a

the complementary substrate will sit into the active site

This is when the reaction can take place to either break up or . Then the Product leaves the
could up the substrate
enzymes which can the be used by the organism

Induced fit model

↳ The same as the lock and
key model but active site changes shape slighty so can break down or
build up a larger range of substrates
Enzyme action graph
at time increases
90 the volume of Oxygen increases

80 temperature rises
Is the

70 the temperature goe above 60's the

however when
↑
of concentration starts to Platoon
T

Oxygen

e DO

40

30

zu

10

O zu 40 60 80 100

Time

Enzyme inhibitors
They reduce enzyme action by either blocking active or changing shape it
the
of active site inhibiting from
Producing Products ↓ N
Start and competitive most are non-competitive binds to te

inhibitors reversible -Allosteric sitz

end Points - inhibitors

inhibitor
·
are the same
sor comp inhibitor can te reversible or non reversable
no
inhibitor as substrateConc increases

de Comp non Comp

in histor
There is no
the inhibitor is outcompeted
So no effect on ROR

competition so lower
rate
substrate conc

Temperature coefficient :

after 40
c the enzymes
-
> will start to denature
cofactors
a
molecules that inhibit enzyme activity
there a 3 types :
cofactors inorganicions mineral not permanently bound enzyme C G
-
.
cofactor for Amylase is a Chloride ions
coenzymes-organic molecules that temporarily bond to enzyme
Prosthetic groups
-
Exchange surfaces :

t organism the smaller Surface area to volume

ratio , also large organisms have a faster metabolism
The larger
so need . Furthermore diffusion is too slow for these larger
specialized exchange surfaces to sustain this demand
organism
.

vedi
A Face area /

Thin layers -

Ventilation-
Blood supply -

nose * Nasal carity

-
-astery
month
E
Gronsides vein
tracked -bronchides
↑
A
-

I
-lungs -Capilary
bronchi
>
- ribs
~

-intercostal
thoe- muscles

alreol :
>
- Pleural
membrane

↓
diaphram

Ventilation :
Pressure changes in the Thoracic cavity bringing about ventilation this is due to the change in
volume of the langs

↳asVolumeaePreismeinases-Pustingsuree
de

Inspiration :
In Expiration everything
Diaphram-contracts and moves down
is opposite
External intercostal muscles-contract moving its up and out
Thoracic Pressure -

Decrease
Thoracic vollume increases -

Air flow-into lungs

Diaphram :

Relaxe
n
contracted
Measuring lung capacity (the spirometer)
:
A Peak flow meter measures rate in which air can be expelled from the lungs
A vitolograph is a more complex venion of this ,
the instrument then Produces a grouph

I
-
Exchange
f

Surfaces in insects sishi

and

Dony sish have gills for gas exchange as having a

respiritory system like most land animals
would not be efficient because fish get their oxygen supply from water which is a lot denser tan air

So having lungs would take for gas exchange

too much
energy

A 3
&

E
4
8
Af /fora
Right Lest
atrim Crimin

Pamper
value

Right Lest

Ventill
rasp Verticle