NUNC COGNOSCO EX PARTE

THOMAS J. BATA LI BRARY

TRENT UNIVERSITY
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in 2019 with funding from
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 Handbook of
CALCULUS, DIFFERENCE
and
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

' NUNC COGNOSCO EX PARTE

TRENT UNIVERSITY
LIBRARY
PRENTICE-HALL MATHEMATICS SERIES

Albert A. Bennett, Editor

PRENTICE-HALL INTERNATIONAL, INC.

London • Tokyo • Sydney • Paris

PRENTICE-HALL OF CANADA, LTD.

PRENTICE-HALL DE MEXICO, S.A.

 Handbook of
CALCULUS, DIFFERENCE
and
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
SECOND EDITION

EDWARD J. COGAN
Department of Mathematics
Sarah Lawrence College

ROBERT Z. NORMAN
Department of Mathematics
Dartmouth College

Englewood Cliffs, N.J.

PRENTICE-HALL, INC.
1963
 ©— 1958, 1963 by
PRENTICE-HALL, INC.
Englewood Cuffs, N.J.

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. NO PART OF THIS BOOK

MAY BE REPRODUCED IN ANY FORM, BY MIMEO-

ORAPH OR ANY OTHER MEANS, WITHOUT PERMIS¬

SION IN WRITING FROM THE PUBLISHERS.

3 DO
CC,
Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 63-7375
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

aiwp
 PREFACE

This Handbook offers to the student of calculus and differential

equations a review of properties of often-used functions as well as
tables of values of the more common transcendental functions and a
table of integrals. Since the intention of the authors is that this book
be a self-contained supplement to a textbook in such a course, the
expository material is necessarily concise.
The key new feature of this Handbook is its tables for the solution of
differential equations. To solve an elementary differential equation,
the first step is to classify it so as to determine what technique to
apply; the second step is to apply the indicated technique. The Hand¬
book does just this. For each large class of differential equations,
there is a classification table which refers to an associated table of
techniques for solution. These tables are preceded by a general dis¬
cussion of differential equations and their solutions. Thus these tables
do for elementary differential equations what an integral table does
for indefinite integrals. Because of the numerous analogies that exist
between the difference and differential calculus, we have included
tables for differences, antidifferences, difference equations, and sums.
There is an increasing awareness that the undergraduate mathe¬
matics curriculum should include a deeper study of basic concepts
and more topics outside the calculus. We feel that the use of a hand¬
book wherever possible to replace extensive memorization of tech¬
niques releases sufficient time for the introduction of these topics into
the program of the first two years.
The original idea for this Handbook was conceived by the Com¬
mittee on the Undergraduate Program of the Mathematical As¬
sociation of America. It was intended as a companion to Modern

J21370
VI PREFACE

Mathematical Methods and Models, an experimental text for sophomore

students of the behavioral sciences developed for the Committee by
the Dartmouth College Writing Group. On writing the first version
of the Handbook, it became clear that using the Handbook is a good
way to teach all students of differential equations. The present Hand¬
book is extensively rewritten from the earlier version and is now
designed as well to supplement a basic calculus and differential equa¬
tions course for engineering and science students.
We are most grateful to the Committee on the Undergraduate
Program for their encouragement to prepare this Handbook, and for
the release to us of the original version. We received a number of
valuable suggestions from members of the Dartmouth College Writing
Group. Special thanks go to our students Sheldon Lippe and Richard
Schneider, who painstakingly helped check the Handbook’s entries
and who thrust upon us the viewpoint of the student, notably in¬
dispensable in a work such as this.
E. J. CoGAN
R. Z. Norman
 CONTENTS

Chapter 1:

FUNCTIONS 1

1.1 Definition: Function, domain, range. 1

1.2 Definition: Argument, value. 1
1.3 Symbolism. 2
1.4 Defining functions explicitly. 2
1.5 Definition: Constant function. 2
1.6 Definition: Identity function. 2
1.7 Composition of functions. 3
1.8 Example. 3
1.9 Example. 3

Chapter 2:
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS 4

2.1 Definition: Polynomial, degree, coefficient .... 4

2.2 Definition: Linear, quadratic, cubic. 4
2.3 Prime polynomials. 4
2.4 Properties of polynomials. 4
2.5 Definition: Multiplicity. 5
2.6 Definition: Rational function. 5
2.7 Partial fractions decomposition. 5
2.8 Example. 6
2.9 Definition: Algebraic operations. 6
2.10 Definition: Algebraic expressions.
2.11 Definition: Algebraic function.
2.12 Examples.
2.13 Definition: Inverse function. 8
2.14 Example. 8

Chapter 3:
FUNCTION —FUNCTION OPERATIONS 9

3.1 Definition: Derivative. 9

3.2 Definition: Translate. 9
vii
viii CONTENTS

3.3 Definition: Difference. jq

3.4 Operator polynomials.10
3.5 Relations between E and A.U
3.6 Examples.\ \

Chapter 4:

FUNCTIONAL EQUATIONS 12

4.1 Definition: Functional equation.12

4.2 Definition: Particular solution.12
4.3 Definition: General solution, general solution form 12
4.4 Definition: Differential equation, order.12
4.5 Definition: Difference equation, order.13
4.6 Examples. 13
4.7 Definition: Antiderivative, indefinite integral .... 13
4.8 Definition: Antidifference, indefinite finite integral . 14
4.9 Arbitrary constants.14
4.10 Methods of defining functions.16
4.11 Examples.17

Chapter 5:

SPECIAL FUNCTIONS DEFINED FOR INTEGERS 18

5.1 Definition: The factorial function.18

5.2 Table: The factorial function.19
5.3 Definition: Binomial coefficients.19
5.4 Table: Binomial coefficients.20
5.5 Definition: Factorial powers.20
5.6 Stirling numbers.21
5.7 Table: Stirling numbers, first kind.22
5.8 Table: Stirling numbers, second kind.23
5.9 Example ... 23
5.10 Example.23

Chapter 6:

THE TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS 24

6.1 Definition: Transcendental functions.24

6.2 Trigonometric functions. .... 24
6.3 Definition: Trigonometric functions.25
6.4 Properties of trigonometric functions.25 >
6.5 Table: Values of trigonometric functions.28
6.6 Inverses of the trigonometric functions.36
6.7 Definition: Inverses of the trigonometric functions 36
6.8 The logarithmic and exponential functions .... 37
 CONTENTS IX

6.9 Definition: Natural logarithm function.37

6.10 Definition: The number e.37
6.11 Definition: Logarithm function to the base a .... 37
6.12 Properties of logarithmic function.37
6.13 Table: Natural logarithms.39
6.14 Table: Common logarithms.41
6.15 Definition: Exponential function ex.43
6.16 Definition: Exponential function a1.43
6.17 Properties of exponential functions 43
6.18 Definition: Hyperbolic functions and their inverses . . 43
6.19 Properties of hyperbolic functions.44
6.20 Table: Values of exponential and hyperbolic functions . 45

Chapter 7:

TWO- AND THREE-DIMENSIONAL GRAPHS 52

7.1 The straight line.52

7.2 The circle.53
7.3 The parabola.54
7.4 The ellipse.55
7.5 The hyperbola.56
7.6 The cubic.58
7.7 The trigonometric functions.60
7.8 The inverse trigonometric functions.62
7.9 The logarithmic functions.63
7.10 The exponential functions.63
7.11 The hyperbolic functions.65
7.12 The inverse hyperbolic functions.66
7.13 Three-dimensional graphs.68
7.14 The conic sections.73

Chapter 8:
TYPES OF FUNCTIONAL EQUATIONS 75

8.1 Derivatives, antiderivatives, and indefinite integrals 75

8.2 Definite integrals.75
8.3 Other differential equations .... .... 76
8.4 Differences, antidifferences and indefinite finite integrals 76
8.5 Finite sums.77
8.6 Other difference equations.77

Chapter 9:
DERIVATIVES 78

9.1 Table: Properties of derivatives. 78

9.2 Table: Derivatives of basic functions. 78
X CONTENTS

Chapter 10:

INTEGRALS 81
10.1 Table: Properties of indefinite integrals.81
10.2 Techniques of integration.81
10.3 Suggestions for use of table of integrals.86
10.4 Table: Indefinite integrals . 87
10.5 Definite integrals.104
10.6 Table: Properties of indefinite integrals.104
10.7 Table: Definite integrals.105
10.8 Table: Definite integrals for probability.106
10.9 Antiderivatives of order n.106
10.10 Table: Antiderivatives of order n.107

Chapter 11:

LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS WITH

CONSTANT COEFFICIENTS 108

11.1 The auxiliary equation.109

11.2 Homogeneous equations of first order.109
11.3 Homogeneous equations of second order.109
11.4 Table: General solution forms: Linear homogeneous equa¬
tion, second order.1Q9
11.5 Examples.HQ
11.6 Homogeneous equations of order n.HO
11.7 Table: General solution forms: Linear homogeneous equa¬
tions, nth order.HI
11.8 Example.HI
11.9 Particular solutions: Linear equations with constant co¬
efficients .H2
11.10 Table: Particular solutions: Linear equations with con¬
stant coefficients .u2
11.11 Remark on extension of Table 11.10.U4
11.12 Examples. j j5

Chapter 12:

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF FIRST AND

SECOND ORDER

12.1 Functions of more than one argument.H7

12.2 Partial derivatives. Hy
12.3 Partial integration....
12.4 Examples. ^
12.5 Linear dependence and independence.Hg
12.6 Use of the integral table..
 CONTENTS XI

12.7 Differential equations: First order.119

12.8 Classification list for equations of the form Df = g(x, f) 120
12.9 Table: General solution forms: differential equations,
first order.121
12.10 Examples.125
12.11 Linear differential equations, second order .... 128
12.12 Table: General solution forms: linear differential equa¬
tions, second order.129
12.13 Nonlinear differential equations, first order .... 131
12.14 Table: General solution forms: nonlinear differential
equations, first order.132

Chapter 13:

DIFFERENCES OF FUNCTIONS 1 34

13.1 Table: Properties of differences.134

13.2 Table: First differences.134

Chapter 14:

INDEFINITE FINITE INTEGRALS, FINITE SUMS,

INFINITE SERIES 136

14.1 Table: Properties of indefinite finite integrals .... 136

14.2 Table: Indefinite finite integrals.137
14.3 Table: Properties of finite sums.138
14.4 Table: Finite sums.138
14.5 Infinite series.139
14.6 Table: Tests for convergence or divergence .... 140
14.7 Table: Infinite series.142
14.8 Probability sums.143
14.9 Antidifferences of order n.144
14.10 Table: Antidifferences of order n.144
14.11 Taylor’s series.146
14.12 Table: Taylor’s series.146

Chapter 15:

LINEAR DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS WITH

CONSTANT COEFFICIENTS 148

15.1 The auxiliary equation.149

15.2 Homogeneous equations, first order.149
15.3 Homogeneous equations, second order.149
15.4 Table: General solution forms: Linear difference equations,
second order.149
15.5 Examples.150
 XII CONTENTS

15.6 Homogeneous equations, order n.150

15.7 Table: General solution forms, linear homogeneous equa¬
tions, nth order.
15.8 Example.
15.9 Particular solutions: Linear equations with constant co¬
efficients . 152
15.10 Table: Particular solutions: Linear equations with
constant
coefficients. ■ ■ . 152
15.11 Remark on the extension of Table 15.10
• ■ . 153
15.12 Examples.
■ • . 154

Chapter 76:

OTHER DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS 156

Chapter 77:

LAPLACE TRANSFORM 158

17.1 Example..
17.2 Table: The Laplace transform.159

TABLE OF SQUARE ROOTS AND RECIPROCALS

FOR NUMBERS 1-999 162

INDEX 169
 Handbook of

CALCULUS, DIFFERENCE

and

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
 1
FUNCTIONS

A fundamental notion in mathematics is that of a function. In order

to specify a function, two sets called the domain and the range of
the function must be given, as well as a law of correspondence, or
mapping, which assigns to each member of its domain exactly one
element in its range.

1.1 DEFINITION
A function is a law of correspondence which assigns to each ele¬
ment of a set, called the domain of the function, exactly one element
of another set, called the range of the function. The range is re¬
stricted by the property that at least one domain element is mapped
into each range element.
The domain and range of functions treated in the calculus are
generally sets of real numbers. In finite differences, the domain is
usually a set of nonnegative integers.

1.2 DEFINITION
Any element of the domain of a function is called an argument
of the function; any element of its range is called a value of the
function.
1
 2 FUNCTIONS Sec. 1.3

1.3 SYMBOLISM

In this handbook, the letters f, g, and h, with or without sub¬

scripts, are used to stand for unspecified functions. An unspecified
value of f is denoted by y. The value of the function f which cor¬
responds to an unspecified argument x is denoted by f(x). Similarly,
the value of a function f for a specified argument, such as the number
2, is denoted by f(2).

1.4 DEFINING FUNCTIONS EXPLICITLY

A function may be defined explicitly by specifying its domain, its

range, and a rule for computing its value for any given argument.
However, when only the rule is given, the domain and range are taken
to be the greatest sets of real numbers for which the rule applies.
Thus the formula
y — x1 — x

defines a function whose value for each argument is found by sub¬

tracting the argument from its square. The domain of this function
is the set of all real numbers; the range can be shown to be the set
of all real numbers greater than or equal to —
When a function is defined by an ecjuation in which y occurs alone
in the left-hand member, we say that the function is defined explic¬
itly, and we use the right-hand member of the equation as a name
for the function. Thus we may call the function defined by the above
equation x2 — x, even though this combination of symbols actually
stands for the value of the function for an unspecified argument.

1.5 DEFINITION

Given a real number a, the function f for which f(x) = a for every
x is called a constant function and is denoted by a.

1.6 DEFINITION

The function f for which f(x) = x for every x is called the identity
function and is denoted by x.
Sec. 1.7 FUNCTIONS 3

1.7 COMPOSITION OF FUNCTIONS

Given two functions f and g, we call a function h the composition

of f on g if, for an unspecified argument x, the value h(*) is found by
first evaluating g(x) and then finding the value of f for the argument
g(x). Thus, h(x) = f(g(x)) for every argument x. The composition
of f on g will be denoted by f(g). The domain of f(g) is the set of all
real numbers in the domain of g for which g(x) is in the domain of f;
the range of f(g) is the corresponding part of the range of f.

1.8 EXAMPLE

Let f(x) = x2 + x and g(x) = x — 1. Then

f(gOO) = (x - ly + (* - i) = x2 - *
and
g(f(x)) = (x2 + x) - 1.

1.9 EXAMPLE

Let h(;c) = (* + 2)3 — (x + 2) + 1 /{x + 2). We can write h(x)

as a composite of two functions f and g. By choosing f(at) = x3 — x
+ (1/x) and g(x) = x + 2, then h = f(g).
 2
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS

2.1 DEFINITION

If n is a nonnegative integer and aQ, ah . . . , an are real numbers,

then the function f for which f(x) = a0xn + axx71-1 + . . . + an~\x + an
is called a polynomial. If a0 ^ 0, then n is called the degree of the
polynomial. Each number m (where 0 ^ i ^ n) is called the coeffi¬
cient of the corresponding xn~\

2.2 DEFINITION

(1) A polynomial of degree 1 is called a linear function.

(2) A polynomial of degree 2 is called a quadratic function.
(3) A polynomial of degree 3 is called a cubic function.

2.3 PRIME POLYNOMIALS

A polynomial p(*) of degree n, with real coefficients, which cannot

be written as the product of two polynomials of degree less than n with
real coefficients, is called a prime polynomial.

2.4 PROPERTIES OF POLYNOMIALS

(1) The sum, difference, and product of two polynomials are poly¬
nomials.
4
Sec. 2.5 ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS 5

(2) Every polynomial can be expressed as a product of prime

factors which are polynomials of degree at most 2. Thus if p(x) is a
polynomial,

p(*) = a(x — by)(x — b2) • • • (* — bk)(x2 + cxx + dx)

• • • (x2 + Cix + dL),

where the numbers a, bx, c,-, and dx are all real.

2.5 DEFINITION

The number of times that a given polynomial occurs as a factor

in the product form of (2) of Sec. 2.4 is called the multiplicity of the
factor.

2.6 DEFINITION

If f and g are polynomials, then the function h for which h(*) =

f(.v)/g(x) is called a rational function.

2.7 PARTIAL FRACTIONS DECOMPOSITION

Let p(x)/q(*) be a rational function in which the degree of the

polynomial p(x) is m and that of q(x) is n. If m ^ n, then p(*)/q(*)
can be written in the form s(Y) + t(*)/q(*), where s(x) is a polyno¬
mial of degree m — n and t(x) is a polynomial of degree less than n.
Assume that p(x)/q(x) is a rational function for which the degree
of p(x) is less than that of q(x). The denominator can be written as a
product

[qiO)]n • [q2 0)]r! • • • [q<d»]r‘,

where the functions q,(jf) are prime polynomials and the numbers r,-
are their respective multiplicities. In this case, p(*)/q(*) is expres¬
sible as a sum of fractions of the form P(*)/Q,(*), where Q,(x) is a
power less than or equal to r, of the factor qi(x) and P(x) is a poly¬
nomial of degree less than that of qi(x).
6 ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS Sec. 2.8

2.8 EXAMPLE

We shall obtain the partial fractions decomposition of the rational

function
x4 - 2x3 + 3x2 - * + 1
x3 + 2x2 + ^

On dividing the numerator by the denominator, a quotient of x — 4

is obtained, with a remainder of 10x2 + 3x + 1. Hence, the fraction
may be written in the form

X ~ 4+ 3 , 02 , •
. . 10x2 + 3x + 1
x6 + 2x2 + x

Consider the fractional part of this expression. Its numerator has

lower degree than its denominator, and its denominator may be fac¬
tored as the product x(x + l)2. According to the procedure in Sec.
2.7, there are numbers A, B, and C such that

10x2 + 3x + 1 = A B C
x3 + 2x2 + x x x+1 (x+1)2

By clearing fractions, we find that

10x2 + 3x + 1 = A(x + l)2 + Bx(x + 1) + Cx

= (A + B)x2 -f (2A + B + C)x + A.

Setting coefficients of like powers of x equal to each other, we obtain

the system
A + B = 10,

2A + B + C = 3,

A = 1;

thus A = 1, B = 9, and C = — 8. Combining all our results, we have

x4 - 2x3 + 3x2 - x + 1 _ 1 9_8

x3 + 2x2 -\- x X xx+1 (x+1)2

2.9 DEFINITION

The operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division,

raising to an integral power, and extraction of a root are called alge¬
braic operations.
See. 2.10 ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS 7

2.10 DEFINITION

If x and y designate unspecified numbers, then an expression which

results from the combination of x, y, and a finite number of real num¬
bers by means of a finite number of algebraic operations is called an
algebraic expression in x and y. A(x,y) designates an unspecified
algebraic expression in x and y.

2.11 DEFINITION

If A{x,y) is an algebraic expression in x and y, then the equation

A(x,y) = 0 may define implicitly one or more functions f such that
y = f(x). A function f defined by such an equation is called an alge¬
braic function.

2.12 EXAMPLES

X 1vAj/l vOolv/llkj ✓v | y X ^ , and xy — 1 are

V x1 + y1
examples of algebraic expressions. The equations

x2 + y* _ 1 =0,

y \fx — x1^/y — 2 _ ^
V*2 + y2
xy — 1 =0

each define implicitly at least one function f for which y = f(x). The
function defined by the third equation may also be defined explicitly
by the equation

The equation x2 + y2 — 1 =0 defines two functions implicitly,

namely, those which are defined explicitly by the equations

y = V1 - x2
and
y = — V\ — x2.
8 ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS Sec. 2.1 3

It is not practical to express explicitly the functions determined by

the second equation.

2.13 DEFINITION

Let f be a function, and letjy be a number in the range of f. Then

the rule which assigns to each y those numbers x in the domain of f
for which f(x) = y is called the inverse of f. If for every y in the
range of f there is exactly one number x in the domain of f such that
f(x) = y, then the inverse of f is a function called the inverse function
of f and denoted f~h Thus the composition of f and f-1 is always the
identity function: f_1(f(x)) = f(f_1(x)) = x for every x common to the
domains of both f and f~h

2.14 EXAMPLE

If f(x) = x + 1 and g(x) = x — 1, then

f(g(x)) = (x — 1) + 1 = X
and

g(f(*)) = (* + 1) - 1 = *,

so that f and g are inverses of each other.

 3
FUNCTION-FUNCTION OPERATIONS

A number of laws of correspondence, or mappings, whose domains

and ranges are sets of functions rather than sets of numbers arise in
the calculus. Those used in this handbook are defined below.

3.1 DEFINITION
Given a function f, if there is a function g such that

f(x + h) — f(x)
gO) = lim -;-?
A-» 0

then g is called the first derivative of f and is denoted by Df. The

domain of Df is that part of the domain of f for which values can be
assigned to Df.
The second derivative of f, denoted by D2f, is the first derivative
of Df; thus D2f - D(Df).
The third derivative of f, denoted by D;,f, is the first derivative
of D2f; thus D3f = D(D2f).
In general, for any positive integer n, the n-th derivative of f,
denoted by D"f, is the first derivative of D'1-1f; thus D"f = D(Dn-1f).
The inverse of the derivative operator D, called the indefinite
integral, will be considered in Sec. 4.7.

3.2 DEFINITION
Given a function f, the function g for which g(v) = f(x + 1)
is called the translate (or first translate) of f and is denoted Ef.
9
10 FUNCTION-FUNCTION OPERATIONS Sec. 3.3

For every x for which x 4* 1 is in the domain of f, we find that

Ef(*) = £(x + 1).
The second translate of f, denoted by E% is the translate of Ef;
thus, E2f = E(Ef). Note that E2f(*) = f(* + 2).
The third translate of f, denoted by E3f, is the translate of E2f;
thus, E3f = E(E2f). Note that E3f(x) = f(* + 3).
In general, for any positive integer n, the n-th translate of f, de¬
noted by E"f, is the translate of En-1f; thus, E"f = E(E"-1f). Note
that ETf*) = f(* -T n).

3.3 DEFINITION

Given a function f, the function g for which g(*) = f(* + 1) — f(*)

is called the difference (or first difference) of f and is denoted by
Af. For every x for which * + 1 is in the domain of Af, we have
Af(*) = f(* + 1) - f(x).
The second difference of f, denoted by A2f, is the difference of
Af; thus, A2f = A(Af).
The third difference of f, denoted by A3f, is the difference of A2f;
thus, A3f = A(A2f).
In general, for any positive integer n, the n-th difference of f,
denoted by A"f, is the difference of Are-1f; thus, A”f = A(A'l_1f).
The inverse of the difference operator A, called the indefinite
finite integral, will be considered in Sec. 4.8.

3.4 OPERATOR POLYNOMIALS

In terms of the operators defined in Secs. 3.1 to 3.3, it is possible

to define a large class of operators by using the operations of ordinary
arithmetic. For any real number k, we define an operator k such that
the values of kf are k times the corresponding values of f. We can then
form polynomials in D, E, or A. For example, E2 + 2E — 1 may be
considered as a single operator which for any function f has the
property that

(E2 + 2E - l)f(x) = i{x + 2) + 2f(* + 1) - f(*).

If we assume the properties

Sec. 3.5 FUNCTION-FUNCTION OPERATIONS 11

(M + N)f = Mf + Nf,

M(kf) = k(Mf),

whenever M and N are operators, k is a constant operator, and f is a

function, then the meaning of the operator polynomial is clear.

3.5 RELATIONS BETWEEN E AND A

The definitions of E and A establish the following relations between

them:

(1) A = E — 1,

(2) E = A + 1,

(3) A2 = (E - l)2 = E2 - 2E + 1,

(4) E2 = (A + l)2 = A2 + 2A + 1.

If n is a positive integer, then

(5) An = (E — l)n

= E" - E'*-1 + E"-2

(6) E" = (A + 1)"

= A'* + (j\ A'-1 + A"-2 + . . . + 1,

where the numbers 1 ^ i 5S n, are the binomial coefficients

given in Table 5.4.

3.6 EXAMPLES

Let f(.v) = x2 — 2x + 3; then

Ef(x) = 0 + l)2 - 2{x + 1) + 3 = x2 + 2.
E2f(;r) = (* + 2)2 - 2(x + 2) + 3 = .v2 + 2* + 3.
Af(.v) = (E - l)f(.v)
= [(* + l)2 - 2(x + 1) + 3] - [.v2 - 2x + 3]
= 2x — 1.
A2f(x) = A(Af)(;c) = A(2x - 1)
= [2(x + 1) - 1] - [2x - 1] = 2.
A3fO) = A(A2f) (x) = A(2) =2-2 = 0.
 FUNCTIONAL EQUATIONS

4.1 DEFINITION

An equation which sets forth a condition to be satisfied by a func¬

tion is called a functional equation.

4.2 DEFINITION

Any function f which satisfies the conditions set forth in a func¬

tional equation is called a particular solution of the equation.

4.3 DEFINITION

The set of all functions which satisfy a given functional equation

is called the general solution of the equation. A symbolic representa¬
tion of the general solution of a functional equation is called a general
solution form of the equation.

4.4 DEFINITION

A functional equation which involves a finite number of powers

of the operator D is called a differential equation. The highest
power of the operator is called the order of the differential equation.
12
Sec. 4.5 FUNCTIONAL EQUATIONS 13

4.5 DEFINITION

A functional equation which involves a finite number of powers

of the operator E or the operator A is called a difference equation.
The highest power of the operator involved is called the order of the
difference equation.

4.6 EXAMPLES

(1) The equation f(*i + x2) = f(*i) + f(x2), where xi and x2 are
unspecified arguments of f, is an example of a functional equation.
The function f for which f(x) = x is a particular solution of this
equation, and so is the function f for which f(x) — 3x. In fact, if C
is any constant, then Cx is a solution of the equation, and every con¬
tinuous solution has this form. However, Cx is not the general solution
form, since there are discontinuous solutions not of this form.
(2) The equation Df(,v) = 1 is a simple example of a differential
equation. A particular solution of this equation is f(x) = x, and an¬
other solution is f(x) = x + 3. In fact, if C is an unspecified constant,
then f(*) = x + C is a general solution form for the equation, since
every solution can be written in this form for some value of C.
(3) The equation (E — 2)f(x) = 0 is an example of a difference
equation. A particular solution of this equation is f(x) = 2X, since
E(2X) = 2X+1 = 2 • 2X, and (E — 2)2X = 0. Another particular solu¬
tion is f(x) = 3 • 2X. In fact, if C is an unspecified constant, then
C ■ 2X is a general solution form of the equation, since every particular
solution can be written in this form for some value of C.

4.7 DEFINITION

Given a function g, any particular solution of the equation Df = g

is called an antiderivative of g. The general solution of the equation
Df = g is called the indefinite integral of g and is denoted by
J g(*) dx.
14 FUNCTIONAL EQUATIONS Sec. 4.8

4.8 DEFINITION

Given a function g, any particular solution of the equation Af = g

is called an antidiflference of g. The general solution of the equation
Af = g is called the indefinite finite integral of g and is denoted by
A_1g.

4.9 ARBITRARY CONSTANTS

In most cases, the representation of a general solution form is made

convenient by the fact that the particular solutions of the equation
share common features. In particular, the general solution form of a
difference or differential equation of order n can be written so that it
involves n arbitrary (unspecified) constants, usually designated by
Ci, C-2, , Cn. A particular solution of such an equation is obtained
by replacing each occurrence of Ci by the same fixed number, each
occurrence of C2 by the same fixed number, and so on. The assign¬
ment of a number to any one of the arbitrary constants is independent
of the assignments made to the others.
The general solution of a given equation may be written in many
ways. Some ways are simpler than others; some may involve more
arbitrary constants than necessary.
Example 7. The general solution of the equation of first order
Df(.t) = 1 can obviously be written f(x) = x + C. (We write C in¬
stead of Ci when only one arbitrary constant appears.) However, by
integrating both sides of this equation as follows,

f Df(*) dx = f dx,

we may also obtain the less desirable representations

f(x) + Ci = x + C2 or f(x) = x + C2 — Ci.

We say that one representation of the general solution of an equa¬

tion is simpler than another under one or more of the following cir¬
cumstances:
(1) Fewer different arbitrary constants occur in the first than in
the second.
Sec. 4.9 FUNCTIONAL EQUATIONS 15

(2) The total number of occurrences of arbitrary constants in the

first is smaller than in the second.
(3) Computations with the first representation can be made more
conveniently than with the second.
The first step toward satisfying requirement (1) is to reduce the
number of different arbitrary constants in a representation of the
general solution of an equation to a minimum. This minimum is
equal to the order of the equation.
Example 2. If one representation of the general solution of a given
equation is f = 3Ci*2 In (1 -f- C2), then a simpler one is f = Cx2 (see
Example 4).
Suppose that an algebraic combination of terms, or a factor of a
term, consists entirely of constants at least one of which is arbitrary.
The first two conditions for simplicity can be met by giving such a
collection of terms or factor of a term a single new name, Ck, provided
that Ck does not occur elsewhere in the representation. It will fre¬
quently be convenient to make use of some algebraic manipulation
before applying this rule. In simplifying an expression which already
contains the minimum number of constants, it is often more con¬
venient to express these constants as factors where possible.
Example 3. loga C\x = loga x -f loga C\ may'be replaced in any
representation by logQ x + C.
Example 4. 3Ci In (1 + C2) may be replaced by C (see Example 2).
Example 5. C2 — C\ may be replaced by C (see Example 1).
Example 6. Since 3Ciej!+r2 = 3Cier2er2, the expression 3Cie:r2+c'2 -f-
6Cier’2 may be replaced by Cex! + 2C.
In order to meet the third condition for simplicity, we make use
of known identity relations between functions to introduce into a rep¬
resentation of the general solution functions which combine more
readily with other parts of the representation than those which already
occur. Thus, an expression which is part of a representation, and
which involves a nonconstant function, may be replaced by a second
expression identically equal to it. Such a replacement often achieves
a different distribution of arbitrary constants since it may make pos¬
sible some simplifications of the type discussed in the preceding para¬
graph. Of course, simplicity here will depend not so much on the
 16 FUNCTIONAL EQUATIONS Sec. 4.10

intrinsic form of the representation as on the particular way in which

it is to be used.
Example 7. Since sin - x = 1 — cos2 x, we have

sin- x + C = —cos2 x + 1 -f- C.

We may replace 1 + C by Ci, and since the letter C is no longer in¬

volved, we may use C instead of Ci. Thus sin2 x + C may be replaced
by — cos2 x C.

Example 8. C, sin x + C2 cos x may be replaced by C3 sin (x + C4)

since

C3 sin (x + C4) = C3(sin x cos C4 -f cos .v sin C4)

and we may take

= + (,\ and C4 = arctan —■

Ci
gam, after replacement, Ci and C2 are no longer involved, so that
we may relabel the new expression to arrive at C, sin (x + C2).
Example 9. Solve for y in Cxx = C2e2^/+C',.

Cix = C2er,e2,/ = C2C4e2u,

e2,/ = Q,x,

2y = In Qx = In x + C6,

y = \ \n x + C.

4.10 METHODS OF DEFINING FUNCTIONS

. Functlo"s can bc defined in essentially two different ways: ex¬

plicitly or implicitly.

An explicit definition of a function furnishes a procedure by which

a value of the function for a given argument may be obtained. Some
algebraic functions may be defined explicitly, namely, those which
may be represented by an equation of the form y = f(*) which indi- *
cates the sequences of algebraic operations that must be applied to an
argument of the function to yield a value. The method of defining
the trigonometric functions is an explicit one, since it furnishes a
direct procedure by which a value of such a function is obtained for a
given argument.

An implicit definition of a function furnishes no such procedure.

Sec. 4.11 FUNCTIONAL EQUATIONS 17

Instead it sets forth conditions on the function. One way of specify¬

ing such conditions is by a functional equation. In general, a differ¬
ential or a difference equation is satisfied by several functions. In
order to specify a single function by means of such an equation, addi¬
tional conditions must be furnished in order that the particular func¬
tion to be defined may be distinguished from the other functions in
the general solution. These additional conditions are called bound¬
ary conditions.

4.11 EXAMPLES

(1) The general solution of the equation Df(*) = \/x is a class of

functions, one of which is the function In x (the natural logarithm;
see Sec. 6.9). This function is completely defined by the given equa¬
tion and the additional condition that f(l) = 0.
(2) The equation (E — 2)f(x) = 0 has f(x) — C2X as its general
solution. This equation along with the condition that f(0) = 1 suf¬
fices to define the function 2X for integral values of x.
 SPECIAL FUNCTIONS DEFINED
FOR INTEGERS

The domains of the functions defined in this section are sets of in¬
tegers. They occur frequently in situations from which difference
equations arise.

5.1 DEFINITION

The factorial function x\ is defined by

x'. = x(x - 1)(* - 2) ••• 2 • 1, if* > 0,

0! = 1.

Note that x\ is defined only when x > 0.

Table 5.2 gives values of xl for 0 ^ a ^ 35. For larger values of
*’ x\ can be approximated by Stirling's formula, which states that

x! = "\/ 2xir(x/e)z
More specifically,

V2x-ir(x/ey < x\ < V2^(x/e)*[l + (1/12.V - 1)].

18
Sec. 5.2 SPECIAL FUNCTIONS DEFINED FOR INTEGERS 19

5.2 TABLE

Values of a-!, 0 ^ x 35

The following formula makes possible the continuation of Table

5.2:
o + 1)! = (x + !)*!.

5.3 DEFINITION

The binomial coefficients are defined for 0 ^ n ^ x by the

equation
x!
n\(x — »)!
20 SPECIAL FUNCTIONS DEFINED FOR INTEGERS Sec. 5.4

5.4 TABLE

Values of the Binomial Coefficients, 0 ;£ x ^ 35

N. n 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

0 1
1 1 1
2 1 2 1
3 1 3 3 1
4 1 4 6 4 1

5 1 5 10 10 5 1
6 1 6 15 20 15 6 1
7 1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
8 1 8 28 56 70 56 28 8 1
9 1 9 36 84 126 126 84 36 9 1

10 1 10 45 120 210 252 210 120 45 10 1

11 1 11 55 165 330 462 462 330 165 55 11
12 1 12 66 220 495 792 924 792 495 220 66
13 1 13 78 286 715 1 287 1 716 1 716 1 287 715 286
14 1 14 91 364 1001 2 002 3 003 3 432 3 003 2 002 1001

15 1 15 105 455 1 365 3 003 5 005 6 435 6 435 5 005 3 003

16 1 16 120 560 1 820 4 368 8 008 11 440 12 870 11 440 8 008
17 1 17 136 680 2 380 6 188 12 376 19 448 24 310 24 310 19 448
18 1 18 153 816 3 060 8 568 18 564 31 824 43 758 48 620 43 758
19 1 19 171 969 3 876 11628 27 132 50 388 75 582 92 378 92 378

20 1 20 190 1 140 4 845 15 504 38 760 77 520 125 970 167 960 184 756
21 1 21 210 1 330 5 985 20 349 54 264 116 280 203 490 293 930 352 716
22 1 22 231 1 540 7 315 26 334 74 613 170 544 319 770 497 420 646 646
23 1 23 253 1 771 8 855 33 649 100 947 245 157 490 314 817 190 1144 066
24 1 24 276 2 024 10 626 42 504 134 596 346 104 735 471 1 307 504 1 961 256

25 1 25 300 2 300 12 650 53 130 177 100 480 700 1 081 575 2 042 975 3 268 760
26 1 26 325 2 600 14 950 65 780 230 230 657 800 1 562 275 3 124 550 5 311 735
27 1 27 351 2 925 17 550 80 730 296 010 888 030 2 220 075 4 686 825 8 436 285
28 1 28 378 3 276 20 475 98 280 376 740 1 184 040 3 108 105 6 906 900 13 123 110
29 1 29 406 3 654 23 751 118 755 475 020 1 560 780 4 292 145 10 015 005 20 030 010

30 1 30 435 4 060 27 405 142 506 593 775 2 035 800 5 852 925 14 307 150 30 045 015
31 1 31 465 4 495 31 465 169 911 736 281 2 629 575 7 888 725 20 160 075 44 352 165
32 1 32 496 4 960 35 960 201 376 906 192 3 365 856 10 518 300 28 048 800 64 512 240
33 1 33 528 5 456 40 920 237 336 1 107 568 4 272 048 13 884 156 38 567 100 92 561 040
34 1 34 561 5 984 46 376 278 256 1 344 904 5 379 616 18 156 204 32 451 256 131 128 140

35 1 35 595 6 545 52 360 324 632 1 623 160 6 724 520 23 535 820 70 607 460 183 579 396

The following formulas make possible the continuation of Table

CM.-.)
CtMM.-.)
5.5 THE FACTORIAL POWERS. DEFINITION
The n-th factorial power of * is given by the formulas

*(n) = x{x - 1)(* - 2) • • • (x - n + 1), n > 0;

*<°> = 1.
Sec. 5.6 SPECIAL FUNCTIONS DEFINED FOR INTEGERS 21

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 n s'
/ X
0
1
2
3
4

5
6
7
8
9

10
1 11
12 1 12
78 13 1 13
364 91 14 1 14

1365 455 105 15 1 15

4 368 1 820 560 120 16 1 16
12 736 6 188 2 380 680 136 17 1 17
31 824 18 564 8 568 3 060 816 153 18 18
75 582 50 388 27 132 11 628 3 876 969 171 19

167 960 125 970 77 520 38 760 15 504 4 845 1 140 20

352 716 293 930 203 490 116 280 54 264 20 349 5 985 21
705 432 646 646 497 420 319 770 170 544 74 613 26 334 22
1 352 078 1 352 078 1 144 066 817 190 490 314 245 157 100 947 23
2 496 144 2 704 156 2 496 144 1 961 256 1 307 504 735 471 346 104 24

4 457 400 5 200 300 5 200 300 4 457 400 3 268 760 2 042 975 1 081 575 25
7 726 160 9 657 700 10 400 600 9 657 700 7 726 160 5 311 735 3 124 550 26
13 037 895 17 383 860 20 058 300 20 058 300 17 383 860 13 037 895 8 436 285 27
21 474 180 30 421 755 37 442 160 40 116 600 37 442 160 30 421 755 21 474 180 28
34 597 290 51 895 935 67 863 915 77 558 760 77 558 760 67 863 915 51 895 935 29

54 627 300 86 493 225 119 759 850 145 422 675 155 117 520 145 422 675 119 759 850 30
84 672 315 141 120 525 206 253 075 265 182 525 300 540 195 300 540 195 265 182 525 3!
129 024 480 225 792 840 347 373 600 471 435 600 565 722 720 601 080 390 565 722 720 32
193 536 720 354 817 320 573 166 440 818 809 200 1 037 158 320 1 166 803 110 1 166 803 110 33
286 097 760 548 354 040 927 983 760 1 391 975 640 1 855 967 520 2 203 961 430 2 333 606 220 34

417 225 900 834 451 800 1 476 337 800 2 319 959 400 3 247 943 160 4 059 928 950 4 537 567 650 35

5.6 STIRLING NUMBERS

The factorial powers play a role in finite differences analogous to

that played by powers in the differential calculus. That is,

(1) A.r(,l) = nx(n~x\

(See Table 13.2.)

Thus, in order to difference a polynomial, it is convenient to write
the polynomial in terms of factorial powers instead of ordinary pow¬
ers. The relationships between ordinary powers and factorial powers
are
 22 SPECIAL FUNCTIONS DEFINED FOR INTEGERS Sec. 5.7

(2) For every nonnegative integer n the function xM is a polyno¬

mial of degree n in x\ that is, there are numbers Tnl, sn2, . . . , snn such
that
XM = JmX1 + Sn2X2 + . . . + SnnXn.

The numbers j»i, sn2, . . . , snn are called Stirling numbers of the
first kind and are listed in Table 5.7.
(3) For every nonnegative integer n the function xn is a linear
combination of factorial powers of at not higher than the n-th; that is,
there are numbers tn\, tn2, such that

Xn = tnl*(1) + tn2XW + . . . + tnnX(n).

The numbers tni, tn2, . . . , tnn are called Stirling numbers of the
second kind and are listed in Table 5.8.
These three considerations enable us to find differences of poly¬
nomials in the following way: First, apply (3) to express each power
of x in terms of factorial powers; second, find the required differences
of these powers by means of (1); third, by means of (2), write each
resulting factorial power as a polynomial.

5.7 TABLE

Stirling Numbers of the First Kind

n «^nl Sni Sn 3 «^n4 •S"n6 S n6 $n7 *^n8

i i 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 -i 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
3 2 -3 1 0 0 0 0 0
4 -6 11 -6 l 0 0 0 0
5 24 -50 35 -10 1 0 0 0
6 -120 274 -225 85 -15 1 0 0
7 720 -1 764 1 624 -735 175 -21 1 0
8 -5 040 13 068 -13132 6 769 -1 960 322 -28 1

To continue this table to find sni for n > 8, define jn0 = 0 for all n,
and use the formula

Sni Sn—1,—i 1 ).Tji—l,i, l — 1, 2, • • • , Tl.

Sec. 5.8 SPECIAL FUNCTIONS DEFINED FOR INTEGERS 23

5.8 TABLE

Stirling Numbers OF the Second Kind

n tni tni tnZ tn4 tnb tnb tni tnS

i i 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 i i 0 0 0 0 0 0
3 i 3 1 0 0 0 0 0
4 i 7 6 1 0 0 0 0
5 i 15 25 10 1 0 0 0
6 i 31 90 65 15 1 0 0
7 i 63 301 350 140 21 1 0
8 i 127 966 701 1050 266 28 1

To continue this table to find tni for n > 8, define tno = 0 for all
n, and use the formula

tni itji—11j “f- tn—iti—X) ^ Tl.

5.9 EXAMPLE

Express x3 + 2x — 1, using factorial powers. We find from Table

5.8 that

x3 = x(1) + 3x(2> + x{3),

2x = 2x{1),

-1 - -1.

Then, x3 + 2x — 1 = x(3) -f- 3x(2) + 3x(1) — 1.

5.10 EXAMPLE

Express x<3) — 2x(2) + 4x(1) as a polynomial.

We find from Table 5.7 that

x(3) = 2x — 3x2 + x3,

— 2x(2) = 2x - 2x2,
4x(1) — 4.v.

Thus, x(3) — 2x(2) + 4x(1) = x3 — 5x2 + 8x.

 6
TRANSCENDENTAL
FUNCTIONS

6.1 DEFINITION

Any function which is not an algebraic function is called a tran¬

scendental function.

6.2 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Consider a circle whose center is at the origin of a cartesian co¬

ordinate system and whose radius is one unit. Label with the letter 0
the point (1, 0) at which the circle cuts the positive side of the hori¬
zontal axis. Let x be an unspecified real number. We assign to the
number x a point X on the circle as follows:
(1) If x > 0, the point X is * units from O, the distance being
measured along the circumference of the circle in a counterclockwise
sense.
(2) If v < 0, the point X is x units from 0, the distance being
measured along the circumference of the circle in a clockwise sense.
(3) If x = 0, then X is 0.
This assigns a point on the circle to each real number x, but several
real numbers are assigned to the same point X on the circle.
24
Sec. 6.3 TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS 25

For each number x, let the coordinates of the point X be (a, b).
Since the numbers a and b are determined as soon as x is specified,
the above procedure determines functions f and g such that f(*) = a
and g(x) = b.

6.3 DEFINITIONS

(See the last paragraph of Sec. 6.2.)

(1) sin x = b.

(2) cos x = a.

sin x
(3) tan x = --
cos X

(4) cot x =
tan x

1
(5) sec x =
cos X

1
(6) CSC x = —-
sin x

6.4 PROPERTIES OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Pythagorean Identities

(1) sin2 x + cos2 x = 1.

(2) tan2 x + 1 = sec2 x.

(3) cot2 x + 1 = esc2 x.

 26 TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS Sec. 6.4

Negative Argument Identities

(4) sin ( — x) = — sin*.

(5) cos ( — x) = cos x.

(6) tan ( — x) = — tan*.

Reduction Identities
The identities below show that values of these functions for any
real number can always be expressed in terms of their values for some
arc length between 0 and tt/2.
Let 0 ^ x ^ 7r/2 and k be any integer. Then

sin x if n = 4k,

COS X if n = 4k + 1,
(7) sin (x + —\ =
V 2) — sin x if n = 4k + 2,

— COS .V if n = 4k + 3.

COS X if n = 4k,

nir — sin x if n = 4k + 1,
(8) COS ( X +
— cos x if n = 4k + 2,

sin * if n = 4k + 3.

tan x if n = 4k,

— cot x if n = 4k + 1,
(9) tan
tan x if n = 4k + 2,

_ — cot * if n ~ 4k + 3.
Let and x2 be any real numbers.

Argument Sum Identities

(10) sin (*1 + x2) = sin xx cos x2 + cos X\ sin x2.
(11) cos (*i + *2) = cos x, cos x2 — sin xx sin x2.

(12) tan (xx + x2) = tan *i + tan*2

1 — tan *x tan x2

Argument Difference Identities

(13) sin (xi *2) sin xx cos x2 — cos xx sin x2.
(14) cos (xi x2) cos xx cos *2 + sin xx sin x2.

tan Vj — tan x2
(15) tan (*x — x2) =
1 + tan xx tan x2
Sec. 6.4 TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS 27

Product to Sum Identities

06) sin Xi cos x2 = | [sin (*i + x2) + sin (*i — x2)].

(17) COS X\ COS X2 = \ [cos (xi + X2) + cos (a:i — *2)].

(18) sin Xi sin x2 = \ [cos (xi — x2) — cos (x\ + at2) ].

Trigonometric Functions Involving 2x

(19) sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x.

(20) cos 2x = cos2 x — sin2 x,

(20a) cos 2x = 2 cos2 x —

(20b) cos 2a: = 1 — 2 sin2 x.

2 tan x
(21) tan 2x =
1 — tan2 x

Trigonometric Functions Involving

1 — COS X
(22) sin- -
2
1 + COS X
(23) cos 2 " -

2
6.5 TABLES OF VALUES OF THE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
Table 6.5(a)
NATURAL TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
X Sin Tan Ctn Cos X Sin Tan Ctn Cos

.00 .0000 .0000 00 1.0000 .50 .4794 .5463 1.830 .8776

.01 0100 .0100 99.997 1.0000 .51 .4882 .5594 1.788 .8727
.02 .0200 .0200 49.993 .9998 .52 .4969 .5726 1.747 .8678
.03 .0300 .0300 33.323 .9996 .53 .5055 .5859 1.707 .8628
.04 .0400 .0400 24.987 .9992 .54 .5141 .5994 1.668 .8577

.05 .0500 .0500 19.983 .9988 .55 .5227 .6131 1.631 .8525
.06 .0600 .0601 16.647 .9982 .56 .5312 .6269 1.595 .8473
.07 .0699 .0701 14.262 .9976 .57 .5396 .6410 1.560 .8419
.08 .0799 .0802 12.473 .9968 .58 .5480 .6552 1.526 .8365
.09 .0899 .0902 11.081 .9960 .59 .5564 .6696 1.494 .8309

.10 .0998 .1003 9.967 .9950 .60 .5646 .6841 1.462 .8253
.11 .1098 .1104 9.054 .9940 .61 .5729 .6989 1.431 .8196
.12 .1197 .1206 8.293 .9928 .62 .5810 .7139 1.401 .8139
.13 .1296 .1307 7.649 .9916 .63 .5891 .7291 1.372 .8080
.14 .1395 .1409 7.096 .9902 .64 .5972 .7445 1.343 .8021

.15 .1494 .1511 6.617 .9888 .65 .6052 .7602 1.315 .7961
.16 .1593 .1614 6.197 .9872 .66 .6131 .7761 1.288 .7900
.17 .1692 .1717 5.826 .9856 .67 .6210 .7923 1.262 .7838
.18 .1790 .1820 5.495 .9838 .68 .6288 .8087 1.237 .7776
.19 .1889 .1923 5.200 .9820 .69 .6365 .8253 1.212 .7712

.20 .1987 .2027 4.933 .9801 .70 .6442 .8423 1.187 .7648
.21 .2085 .2131 4.692 .9780 .71 .6518 .8595 1.163 .7584
.22 .2182 .2236 4.472 .9759 .72 .6594 .8771 1.140 .7518
.23 .2280 .2341 4.271 .9737 .73 .6669 .8949 1.117 .7452
.24 .2377 .2447 4.086 .9713 .74 .6743 .9131 1.095 .7385

.25 .2474 .2553 3.916 .9689 .75 .6816 .9316 1.073 .7317
.26 .2571 .2660 3.759 .9664 .76 .6889 .9505 1.052 .7248
.27 .2667 .2768 3.613 .9638 .77 .6961 .9697 1.031 .7179
.28 .2764 .2876 3.478 .9611 .78 .7033 9893 1.011 .7109
.29 .2860 .2984 3.351 .9582 .79 .7104 1.009 .9908 .7038

.30 .2955 .3093 3.233 .9553 .80 .7174 1.030 .9712 .6967
.31 .3051 .3203 3.122 .9523 .81 .7243 1.050 .9520 .6895
.32 .3146 .3314 3.018 .9492 .82 .7311 1.072 .9331 .6822
.33 .3240 .3425 2.920 .9460 .83 .7379 1.093 .9146 .6749
.34 .3335 .3537 2.827 .9428 .84 .7446 1.116 .8964 .6675

.35 .3429 .3650 2.740 .9394 .85 .7513 1.138 .8785 .6600
.36 .3523 .3764 2.657 .9359 .86 .7578 1.162 .8609 .6524
.37 .3616 .3879 2.578 .9323 .87 .7643 1.185 .8437 .6448
.38 .3709 .3994 2.504 .9287 .88 .7707 1.210 .8267 .6372
.39 .3802 .4111 2.433 .9249 .89 .7771 1.235 .8100 .6294

.40 .3894 .4228 2.365 .9211 .90 .7833 1.260 .7936 .6216
.41 .3986 .4346 2.301 .9171 .91 .7895 1.286 .7774 .6137
.42 .4078 .4466 2 239 .9131 .92 .7956 1.313 .7615 .6058
.43 .4169 .4586 2.180 .9090 .93 .8016 1.341 .7458 .5978
.44 .4259 .4708 2.124 .9048 .94 .8076 1.369 .7303 .5898

.45 .4350 .4831 2.070 .9004 .95 .8134 1.398 .7151 .5817
.46 .4439 .4954 2.018 .8961 .96 .8192 1.428 .7001 .5735
.47 .4529 .5080 1.969 .8916 .97 .8249 1.459 .6853 .5653
.48 .4618 .5206 1.921 .8870 .98 .8305 1.491 .6707 .5570
.49 .4706 .5334 1.875 .8823 .99 .8360 1.524 .6563 .5487

.50 .4794 .5463 1.830 .8776 1.00 .8415 1.557 .6421 .5403

28
 Table 6.5(a) (Cont’d)
NATURAL TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
X Sin Tan Ctn Cos X Sin Tan Ctn Cos

1.00 .8415 1.557 .6421 .5403 1.30 .9636 3.602 .2776 .2675
1.01 .8468 1.592 .6281 .5319 1.31 .9662 3.747 .2669 .2579
1.02 .8521 1.628 .6142 .5234 1.32 .9687 3.903 .2562 .2482
1.03 .8573 1.665 .6005 .5148 1.33 .9711 4.072 .2456 .2385
1.04 .8624 1.704 .5870 .5062 1.34 .9735 4.256 .2350 .2288

1.05 .8674 1.743 .5736 .4976 1.35 .9757 4.455 .2245 .2190
1.06 .8724 1.784 .5604 .4889 1.36 .9779 4.673 .2140 .2092
1.07 .8772 1.827 .5473 .4801 1.37 .9799 4.913 .2035 .1994
1.08 .8820 1.871 .5344 .4713 1.38 .9819 5.177 .1931 .1896
1.09 .8866 1.917 .5216 .4625 1.39 .9837 5.471 .1828 .1798

1.10 .8912 1.965 .5090 .4536 1.40 .9854 5.798 .1725 .1700
1.11 .8957 2.014 .4964 .4447 1.41 .9871 6.165 .1622 .1601
1.12 .9001 2.066 .4840 .4357 1.42 .9887 6 581 .1519 .1502
1.13 .9044 2.120 .4718 .4267 1.43 .9901 7.055 .1417 .1403
1.14 .9086 2.176 .4596 .4176 1.44 .9915 7.602 .1315 .1304

1.15 .9128 2.234 .4475 .4085 1.45 .9927 8.238 .1214 .1205
1.16 .9168 2.296 .4356 .3993 1.46 .9939 8.989 .1113 .1106
1.17 .9208 2.360 .4237 .3902 1.47 .9949 9.887 .1011 .1006
1.18 .9246 2.427 .4120 .3809 1.48 .9959 10.983 .0910 .0907
1.19 .9284 2.498 .4003 .3717 1.49 .9967 12.350 .0810 .0807

1.20 .9320 2.572 .3888 .3624 1.50 .9975 14.101 .0709 .0707
1.21 .9356 2.650 .3773 .3530 1.51 .9982 16.428 .0609 .0608
1.22 .9391 2.733 .3659 .3436 1.52 .9987 19.670 .0508 .0508
1.23 .9425 2.820 .3546 .3342 1.53 .9992 24.498 .0408 .0408
1.24 .9458 2.912 .3434 .3248 1.54 .9995 32.461 .0308 .0308

1.25 .9490 3.010 .3323 .3153 1.55 .9998 48.078 .0208 .0208
1.26 .9521 3.113 .3212 .3058 1.56 .9999 92.620 .0108 .0108
1.27 .9551 3.224 .3102 .2963 1.57 1.0000 1255.8 .0008 .0008
1.28 .9580 3.341 .2993 .2867 1.58 1.0000 -108.65 -.0092 -.0092
1.29 .9608 3.467 .2884 .2771

1.30 .9636 3.602 .2776 .2675

29
 In certain applications, it is convenient to allow trigonometric
functions to have angular measurements as arguments. The natural
measure of an angle, called its radian measure, is the arclength it
subtends from the center of a unit circle. Angles also may be meas¬
ured in degrees. The entire circumference of the unit circle is sub¬
tended by a central angle of 2n radians, or 360°. Each degree is
subdivided into 60 minutes; each minute is subdivided into 60
seconds.

Table 6.5(b)

RADIANS TO DEGREES, MINUTES AND SECONDS

Rad Rad Rad Rad Rad

1 57°17'44"8 .1 5°43'46".5 .01 0°34'22"6 .001 0° 3'26".3 .0001 0°0'20"6

2 114°35'29".6 .2 11°27'33".0 .02 1° 8'45".3 .002 0° 6'52".5 .0002 0°0'41".3
3 171°53'14" 4 .3 17°11'19" 4 .03 1°43'07".9 .003 0°10'18".8 .0003 o°roi"9
4 229°10'59".2 .4 22°55'05".9 .04 2°17'30".6 .004 0°13'45".l .0004 0°1'22''.5
5 286°28'44".0 .5 28°38'52".4 .05 2°51'53".2 .005 0°17'11".3 .0005 0°l'43".l

6 343°46'28".8 .6 34°22'38" 9 .06 3°26'15".9 .006 0°20'37".6 .0006 0°2'03".8

7 401° 4'13"6 .7 40° 6'25" 4 .07 4° 0'38".5 .007 0°24'03"9 0007 0°2'24"4
8 458°21'58"4 .8 45°50'11" 8 .08 4°35'01".2 .008 0°27'30".l .0008 0°2'45"0
9 515°39'43".3 .9 51°33'58",3 .09 5° 9'23".8 .009 0°30'56".4 .0009 0°3'05".6

DEGREES, MINUTES AND SECONDS TO RADIANS

Deg. Rad Min Rad Sec Rad

1 0.01745 33 1 0.00029 09 1 0.00000 48

2 0.03490 66 2 0.00058 18 2 0.00000 97
3 0.05235 99 3 0.00087 27 3 0.00001 45
4 0 06981 32 4 0.00116 36 4 0.00001 94
5 0.08726 65 5 0.00145 44 5 0.00002 42

6 0.10471 98 6 0.00174 53 6 0.00002 91

7 0.12217 30 7 0.00203 62 7 0.00003 39
8 0 13962 63 8 0.00232 71 8 0.00003 88
9 0.15707 96 9 0.00261 80 9 0.00004 36
10 0.17453 29 10 0.00290 89 10 0.00004 85

20 0.34906 59 20 0.00581 78 20 0.00009 70

30 0.52359 88 30 0.00872 66 30 0.00014 54
40 0 69813 17 40 0.01163 55 40 0.00019 39
50 0.87266 46 50 0.01454 44 50 0.00024 24
60 1.04719 76 60 0.01745 33 60 0.00029 09

70 1.22173 05
80 1.39626 34
90 1.57079 63

30
 Table 6.5(c)
VALUES OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Degrees Radians Sin Csc Tan Cot Sec Cos

0° O' .OuoO .0000 — .0000 — 1.000 1 .0000 1.5708 90° O'

10' 029 029 343.8 029 343.8 000 000 679 50'
20' 058 058 171.9 058 171.9 000 000 650 40'
30' .0087 .0087 114.6 .0087 114.6 1.000 1 .0000 1.5621 30'
40' 116 116 85.95 116 85.94 000 9999 592 20'
50* 145 145 68.76 145 68.75 000 999 563 10'
1° 0' .0175 .0175 57.30 .0175 57.29 1.000 .9998 1.5533 89° 0'
10' 204 204 49.11 204 49.10 000 998 504 50'
20' 233 233 42.98 233 42.96 000 997 475 40'
30' .0202 .0262 38.20 .0262 38.19 1.000 .9997 1.5446 30'
40' 291 291 34.38 291 34.37 000 996 417 20'
50' 320 320 31.26 320 31.24 001 995 388 10'
2° O' .0349 .0349 28.65 .0349 28.64 1.001 .•9994 1.5359 88° O'

10' 378 378 26.45 378 26.43 001 993 330 50'
20' 407 407 24.56 407 24.54 001 992 301 40'
30" . 0436 .0436 22.93 .0437 22.90 1.001 .9990 1.5272 30'
40' 465 465 21.49 466 21.47 001 989 243 20'
50' 495 494 20.23 495 20.21 001 988 213 10'
3° O' .0524 .0523 19.11 .0524 19.08 1.001 .9986 1.5184 87° 0'
lO' 553 552 18.10 553 18.07 002 985 155 50'
20' 582 581 17.20 582 17.17 002 983 126 40'
30' .0611 .0610 16.38 .0612 16.35 1.002 .9981 1.5097 30'
40' 640 640 15.64 641 15.60 002 980 068 20'
50' 609 669 14.96 670 14.92 002 978 039 10'
4° 0' .0098 .0698 14.34 .0699 14.30 1.002 .9976 1.5010 86° 0'

10' 727 727 13.76 729 13.73 003 974 981 50'
20' 756 756 13.23 758 13.20 003 971 952 40'
30' .0785 .0785 12.75 .0787 12.71 1.003 .9969 1.4923 30'
40' 814 814 12.29 816 12.25 003 967 893 20'
50' 844 843 11.87 846 11.83 004 964 864 10'
S° 0' .0873 .0872 11.47 .0375 11.43 1.004 .9962 1.4835 86° 0'

10' 902 901 11.10 904 11.06 004 959 806 50'
20' 931 929 10.76 934 10.71 004 957 777 40'
30' .0960 .0958 10.43 .0963 10.39 1.005 .9954 1.4748 30'
40* 989 987 10.13 992 10.08 005 951 719 20'
60' .1018 .1016 9.839 .1022 9.788 005 948 690 10'
6° 0' . 1047 .1045 9.567 . 1051 9.514 1.006 .9945 1.4061 84° 0'

10' 076 074 9.309 080 9.255 006 942 632 50'
20' 105 103 9.065 110 9.010 006 939 603 40'
30* .1134 .1132 8.834 .1139 8.777 1.006 .9936 1.4573 30'
40' 164 161 8.614 169 8.556 007 932 544 20'
50' 193 190 8.405 198 8.345 007 929 515 10'
7° 0' .1222 .1219 8.206 .1228 8.144 1.008 .9925 1.4486 83° O'

10' 251 248 8.016 257 7.953 008 922 457 50'
20' 280 276 7.834 287 7.770 008 918 428 40'
30' 1309 .1305 7.661 .1317 7.596 1.009 .9914 1.4399 30”
40' 338 334 7.496 346 7.429 009 911 370 20'
50' 367 363 7.337 376 7.269 009 907 341 10'
.1392 7.185 .1405 7.115 1.010 .9903 1.4312 82° 0'
0
o

. 1396
CO

10' 425 421 7.040 435 6.968 010 899 283 50'
20' 454 449 6.900 465 6.827 011 894 254 40'
30' . 1484 .1478 6.765 .1495 6.691 1.011 .9890 1.4224 30'
40' 513 607 6.636 524 6.561 012 886 195 20'
50' 542 536 6.512 554 6.435 012 881 166 10'
9° O' .1571 .1564 6.392 .1584 6.314 1.012 .9877 1.4137 81° 0'

Cos Sec Cot Tan Csc Sin Radians Degrees

31
 Table 6.5(c)

VALUES OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS (Confd)

Degrees Radians Sin Csc Tan Cot Sec Cos

9° O' .1571 .1564 6.392 .1584 6.314 1.012 .9877 1.4137 81° O'
10' 600 593 277 614 197 013 872 108 50'
20' 629 622 166 644 084 013 868 079 407
30' .1658 .1650 6.059 .1673 5.976] 1.014 .9863 1.4050 30'
40' 687 679 5.955 703 871 014 „ 858 1.4021 20'
SO' 716 708 855 733 769 015 853 992 10'
10° O' .1745 . 1736 5.759 .1763 5.671

CO

O
1.015 .9848

O
1.3963 O'
10' 774 765 665 793 576 016 843 934 50'
20' 804 794 575 823 485 016 838 904 407
30' .1833 .1822 5.487 .1853 5.396 1.017 .9833 1.3875 SO'
407 862 851 403 883 309 018 827 846 20'
50' 891 880 320 914 226 018 822 817 10'
11° O' .1920 .1908 5.241 . 1944 5.145 1.019 .9816 1.3788 79° 0'
10' 949 937 164 974 066 019 811 759 50'
20' 978 965 089 .2004 4.989 020 805 730 40'
30' .2007 .1994 5.016 .2035 4.1*15 1.020 .9799 1.3701 307
40' 036 .2022 4.945 065 843 021 793 672 207
507 065 051 876 095 773 022 787 643 10'
12° O' .2094 .2079 4.810 .2126 4.705 1.022 .9781 1.3014 78° O'
10' 123 108 745 156 638 023 775 584 50'
20' 153 136 682 186 574 024 769 555 40'
30' .2182 .2164 4.620 .2217 4.511 1.024 .9763 1.3526 307
40' 211 193 560 247 449 025 757 497 20'
50' 240 221 502 278 390 026 750 468 107
13° 0' .2269 .2250 4.445 .2309 4.331 1.026 .9744 1.3439 77° O'
107 298 278 390 339 275 027 737 410 50'
20* 327 306 336 370 219 028 730 381 40'
30' .2356 .2334 4.284 .2401 4.165 1.028 .9724 1.3352 30'
40' 385 363 232 432 113 029 717 323 20'
50' 414 391 182 462 061 030 710 294 10'
14° O' .2443 .2419 4.134 .2493 4.011 1.031 .9703 1.3265 76° O'
10' 473 447 086 524 3.962 031 696 235 50'
207 502 476 039 555 914 032 689 206 40'
307 .2531 .2504 3.994 .2586 3.867 1.033 .9681 1.3177 30'
40' 560 532 950 617 821 034 674 148 20'
50' 589 560 906 648 776 034 667 119 10'
16° 0' .2618 .2588 3.864 .2679 3.732 1.035 .9659 1.3090 75° 0'
107 647 616 822 711 689 036 652 061 50'
20' 676 644 782 742 647 037 644 032 40'
30' .2705 .2672 3.742 .2773 3.606 1.038 .9636 1.3003 30'
40' 734 700 703 805 566 039 628 974 207
50' 763 728 665 836 526 039 621 945 10'
16° 0' .2793 .2756 3.628 .2867 3.487 1.040 .9613 1.2915 74° 0'
10' 822 784 592 899 450 041 605 886 50'
207 851 812 556 931 412 042 596 857 40'
30' .2880 .2840 3.521 .2962 3.376 1.043 .9588 1.2828 30'
40' 909 868 487 994 340 044 580 799 20'
607 938 896 453 .3026 305 045 572 770 10'
17° 0' .2967 .2924 3.420 .3057 3.271 1.046 .9503 1.2741 73° 0'
10' 996 952 388 089 237 047 555 712 50'
20' .3025 979 357 121 204 048 546 683 40'
30' .3054 .3007 3.326 .3153 3.172 1.048 .9537 1.2654 30'
407 083 035 295 185 140 049 528 625 207
50' 113 062 265 217 108 050 520 595 107
18° O' .3142 .3090 3.236 .3249 3.078 1.051 .9511 1.2566 72° 0'
Cos Sec Cot Ton Csc Sin Radians Degrees

32
 Table 6.5(c)

VALUES OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS (Cont’d)

Degrees Radians Sin Csc Tan Cot Sec Cos

18° O' .3142 .3090 3.236 .3249 3.078 1.051 .9511 1.2566 72° O'
i«y 171 118 207 281 047 052 502 537 50'
20' 200 145 179 314 018 053 492 508 40'
SO* .3229 .3173 3.152 .3346 2.989 1.054 .9483 1.2479 30'
40- 258 201 124 378 960 056 474 450 20'
5(y 287 228 098 • 411 932 057 465 421 10'
19° 0' .3316 .3256 3.072 .3443 2.904 1.058 .9455 1.2392 71° 0'
icy 345 283 046 476 877 059 446 363 50'
207 374 311 021 508 850 060 436 334 40'
so* .3403 .3338 2.996 .3541 2.824 1.061 .9426 1.2305 30'
4(y 432 365 971 574 798 062 417 275 2<y
so- 462 393 947 607 773 063 407 246 10'
ao° 0' .3491 .3420 2.924 .3640 2.747 1.064 .9397 1.2217 70° O'
io7 520 448 901 673 723 065 387 188 50'
20' 549 475 878 706 699 066 377 159 40'
30' .3578 .3502 2.855 .3739 2.675 1.068 .9367 1.2130 30'
40' 607 529 833 772 651 069 356 101 20'
50' 636 557 812 805 628 070 346 072 10'
21° 0' .3665 .3584 2.790 .3839 2.605 1.071 .9336 1.2043 69° 0'
10' 694 611 769 872 583 072 325 1.2014 5cy
20' 723 638 749 906 560 074 315 985 40'
30- .3752 .3665 2.729 .3939 2.539 1.075 .9304 1.1956 30-
407 782 692 709 973 517 076 293 926 2cy
507 811 719 689 .4006 496 077 283 897 10'
22° 0' .3840 .3746 2.669 .4040 2.475 1.079 .9272 1.1868 68“ 0'

10' 869 773 650 074 455 080 261 839 scy
20' 898 800 632 108 434 081 250 810 40'
30' .3927 .3827 2.613 .4142 2.414 1.082 .9239 1.1781 30'
40' 956 854 595 176 394 084 228 752 20'
so7 985 881 577 210 375 085 216 723 10'
23° 0' .4014 .3907 2.559 .4245 2.356 1.086 .9205 1.1694 67“ 0'

icy 043 934 542 279 337 088 194 665 scy
20' 072 961 525 314 318 089 182 636 40'
3ty .4102 .3987 2.508 .4348 2.300 1.090 .9171 1.1606 307
40' 131 .4014 491 383 282 092 159 577 20'
50' 160 041 475 417 264 093 147 548 10'
24° 0' .4189 .4007 2.459 .4452 2.246 1.095 .9135 1.1519 66“ O'
107 218 094 443 487 229 096 124 490 50'
2cy 247 120 427 522 211 097 112 461 40'
so7 .4276 .4147 2.411 .4557 2.194 1.099 .9100 1.1432 30'
4cy 305 173 396 592 177 100 088 403 20'
50' 334 200 381 628 161 102 075 374 10'
25° O' .4363 .4226 2.366 .4663 2.145 1.103 .9063 1.1345 65“ 0'

icy 392 253 352 699 128 105 051 316 50'
2cy 422 279 337 734 112 106 038 286 407
30" .4451 .4305 2.323 .4770 2:097 1.108 .9026 1.1257 30'
4cy 480 331 309 806 081 109 013 228 20'
50' 509 358 295 841 066 111 001 199 10'
26° O' .4538 .4384* 2.281 .4877 2.050 1.113 .8988 1.1170 64“ 0'

10' 567 410 268 913 035 114 975 141 50'
207 596 436 254 950 020 116 962 112 4cy
scy .4625 .4462 2.241 .4986 2.006 1.117 .8949 1.1083 so7
40' 654 488 228 .5022 1.991 119 936 054 207
scy 683 514 215 059 977 121 923 1.1025 10'
27° O' .4712 .4540 2.203 .5095 1.963 1.122 .8910 1.0996 63° 0'

Cos Sec Cot Tan Csc Sin Radians Degrees

33
 Table 6.5(c)
VALUES OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS (Confd)

Degrees Radians Sin Csc Tan Cot Sec Cos

27° 0' .4712 .4540 2.263 .5095 1.963 1.122 .8910 1.0996 63° O'
10' 741 566 190 132 949 124 897 966 50'
20' 771 592 178 169 935 126 884 937 40'
30' .4800 .4617 2.166 .5206 1.921 1.127 .8870 1.0908 30'
40' 829 643 154 243 907 129 857 879 20'
50' 858 669 142 280 894 131 843 850 10'
28° 0' .4887 .4695 2.130 .5317 1.881 1.133 .8829 1.0821 62° 0'
10' 916 720 118 354 868 134 816 792 50'
20' 945 746 107 392 855 136 802 763 40'
30’ .4974 .4772 2.096 .5430 1.842 1.138 .8788 1.0734 30'
40' .5003 797 085 467 829 140 774 705 20'
50' 032 823 074 505 816 142 760 676 10'
29° 0' .5061 .4848 2.063 . 5543 1.804 1.143 .8746 1.0647 61° 0'
10' 091 874 052 581 792 145 732 617 50'
20' 120 899 041 619 780 147 718 588 40'
30” .5149 .4924 2.031 .5658 1.767 1.149 .8704 1.0559 30'
40' 178 950 020 696 756 151 689 530 20'
50' 207 975 010 735 744 153 675 501 10'
30° 0' .5236 .5000 2.000 .5774 1.732 1.155 .8660 1.0472 60° 0'
10' 265 025 1.990 812 720 157 646 443 50'
20' 294 050 980 851 709 159 631 414 40'
30' .5323 .5075 1.970 .5890 1.698 1.161 .8616 1.0385 30'
40' 352 100 961 930 686 163 601 356 20'
50' 381 125 951 969 675 165 587 327 10*
31° 0' .5411 .5150 1.942 .6009 1.664 1.167 .8572 1.0297 59° 0'
10' 440 175 932 048 653 169 557 268 50'
20' 469 200 923 088 643 171 542 239 40'
30' .5498 .5225 1.914 .6128 1.632 1.173 .8526 1.0210 30'
40' 527 250 905 168 621 175 511 181 20'
50' 556 275 896 208 611 177 496 152 10'
32° O' .5585 .5299 1.887 .6249 1.600 1.179 .8480 1.0123 58° O'
10' 614 324 878 289 590 181 465 094 50'
20' 643 348 870 330 580 184 450 065 40'
30' .5672 .5373 1.861 .6371 1.570 1.186 .8434 1.0036 30'
40' 701 398 853 412 560 188 418 1.0007 20'
50' 730 422 844 453 550 190 403 977 10'
33° 0' .5700 .5446 1.836 .6494 1.540 1.192 .8387 .9948 57° O'
10' 789 471 828 536 530 195 371 919 50'
20' 818 495 820 577 520 197 355 890 40'
30' .5847 .5519 1.812 .6619 1.511 1.199 .8339 .9861 30'
40' 876 544 804 661 501 202 323 832 20'
50' 905 568 796 703 1.492 204 307 803 10'
34° 0' .5934 .5592 1.788 .6745 1.483 1.206 .8290 .9774 66° 0'
10' 903 616 781 787 473 209 274 745 50'
20' 992 640 773 830 464 211 258 716 40'
30' .6021 .5064 1.766 .6873 1.455 1.213 .8241 .9687 30'
40' 050 688 758 916 446 216 225 G57 20'
50' 080 712 751 959 437 218 208 628 10'
36° 0' .6109 .5736 1.743 .7002 1.428 1.221 .8192 .9599 65° O'
10' 138 7G0 736 046 419 223 175 570 50'
20' 167 783 729 089 411 226 158 541 40'
30' .6196 5S07 1.722 .7133 1.402 1.228 8141 .9512 30'
40' 225 831 715 177 393 231 124 483 20'
50' 254 854 708 221 385 233 107 454 10'
36° O' .6283 .5878 1.701 .7265 1.376 1.236 .8090 .9425 54° 0'

Cos Sec Cot Tan Csc Sin Radians j Degrees

34
 Tabic 6.5(c)
VALUES OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS (Confd)
Degrees Radians Sia Csc Tan Cot Sec Cos

3'6° O' .6283 .6878 1.701 .7265 1.376 1.236 .8090 .9425 54° 0'
icy 312 901 695 310 368 239 073 396 50'
20' 341 925 688 355 360 241 056 367 40'
30' .6370 .5948 1.681 .7400 1.351 1.244 .8039 .9338 30'
40' 400 972 675 445 343 247 021 308 20'
50' 429 995 668 490 335 249 004 279 10'
37° 0’ .6458 .6018 1.6G2 .7536 1.327 1 252 .7986 .9250 53° 0'
10' 487 041 655 581 319 255 969 221 50'
20' 516 065 649 627 311 258 951 192 4CK
SO7 .6545 .6088 1.643 .7673 1.303 1.260 .7934 .9163 3<y
40' 574 111 636 720 295 263 916 134 20'
50' 603 134 630 766 288 266 898 105 10'
38° 0' .6632 .6157 1.624 .7813 1.280 1.269 .7880 .9076 52° 0'
10' 661 180 618 860 272 272 862 047 50'
20' 690 202 612 907 265 275 844 .9018 40'
30' .6720 .6225 1.606 .7954 1.257 1.278 .7826 .8988 30'
iff 749 248 601 .8002 250 281 808 959 20'
50' 778 271 595 050 242 2S4 790 930 10'
39° 0' .6807 .6293 1.589 .8098 1.235 1.287 .7771 .8901 61° 0'
10' 836 316 583 146 228 290 753 872 50'
20' 865 338 578 195 220 293 735 843 40'
307 .6894 .6361 1.572 .8243 1.213 1.296 .7716 .8814 30'
40' 923 383 667 292 206 299 698 785 20'
50' 952 406 561 342 199 302 679 756 10'
40° O' .6981 .6428 1.556 .8391 1.192 1.305 .7660 .8727 60° 0'
10' .7010 450 550 441 185 309 642 698 50'
20' 039 472 545 491 178 312 623 668 40'
30' .7069 .6494 1.540 .8541 1.171 1.315 .7604 .8639 30'
40' 098 517 535 591 164 318 585 610 2(y
50' 127 539 529 642 157 322 566 581 10'
41° 0' .7156 .6561 1.524 .8693 1.150 1.325 .7547 .8552 49° 0'
10' 185 583 519 744 144 328 528 523 50'
20' 214 604 514 796 137 332 509 494 40'
30' .7243 .6626 1.509 .8847 1.130 1.335 .7490 . .8465 30'
40' 272 648 504 899 124 339 470 436 20'
50' 301 670 499 952 117 342 451 407 10'
42° 0' .7330 .6691 1.494 .9004 1.111 1.346 .7431 .8378 48° 0'
10' 359 713 490 057 104 349 412 348 60'
20' 389 734 485 110 098 353 392 319 40'
30' .7418 .6756 1.480 .9163 1.091 1.356 .7373 .8290 30'
40' 447 777 476 217 085 360 353 261 20'
50' 476 799 471 271 079 364 333 232 10'
43° 0' .7505 .6820 1.466 .9325 1.072 1.367 .7314 .8203 47° O'
10' 534 841 462 380 066 371 294 174 50'
20' 563 862 457 435 060 375 274 145 40'
30' .7592 .6884 1.453 .9490 1.054 1.379 .7254 .8116 30'
40' 621 905 448 545 048 382 234 087 20'
50' 650 926 444 601 042 386 214 058 10'
44° O' .7679 .6947 1.440 .9657 1.036 1.390 .7193 .8029 46° O'
107 709 967 435 713 030 394 173 999 50'
20' 738 988 431 770 024 398 153 970 40'
30' .7767 .7009 1.427 .9827 1.018 1.402 .7133 .7941 30'
40' 796 030 423 884 012 406 112 912 20'
50' 825 050 418 942 006 410 092 883 10'
45° O' .7854 .7071 1.414 1 000 1.000 1.414 .7071 .7854 45° O'

Cos Sec Cot Tan Csc Sin Radians Degree#

35
36 TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS Sec. 6.6

6.6 INVERSES OF THE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Each of the trigonometric functions has the property that to each

value of the function there corresponds more than one argument. Their
inverses are thus not functions. However, if the domains of the trigo¬
nometric functions are restricted in such a way that to each value
there is exactly one argument, then the functions defined on these
restricted domains have inverses which are functions. In the defini¬
tions of the inverse trigonometric functions which follow, the restric¬
tions of domain and range are noted.

6.7 DEFINITION

arcsin x = sin 1 (x). Domain: [ — 1, 1].

(1)
Range: [ —7r/2, tt/2].

arccos x = cos-1 (x). Domain: [ — 1, 1].

(2)
Range: [0, tt].

arctan x = tan-1 (x). Domain: ( —00, <*>).

(3)
Range: ( — 7r/2, ir/2).

arccot x = cot-1 (x). Domain: ( — «, « ).

(4)
Range: (0, ir).

arcsec x = sec-1 (x). Domain: ( —«, —1] U [1, »),

(5)
Range: [0, tt/2) U [it, 3it/2).

arccsc x = esc-1 (x). Domain: ( —oo, —1] u [1, oo).

(6)
Range: (0, ir/2] U (ir, 3t/2\.
Sec. 6.8 TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS 37

6.8 THE LOGARITHMIC AND THE EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

The natural logarithm function is defined by a differential equa¬

tion with a boundary condition. If a is a positive number different
from 1, then we may define a logarithmic function to the base a in
terms of the natural logarithmic function. Since each logarithmic
function has the property that for each value there is exactly one argu¬
ment, each has an inverse which is a function. The exponential func¬
tions are the inverses of the logarithmic functions.

6.9 DEFINITION

The function f which satisfies the two equations

Df(x) = - and f(l) =0

x

is called the natural logarithm function and is denoted by In.

6.10 DEFINITION

The number x for which In x = 1 is called the base of natural

logarithms and is denoted by e. The number e — lim (1 + n)lln =

2.7182818 to seven decimals.

6.11 DEFINITION
If a > 0 and <2^1, the logarithm function to the base a is
defined by
In x
In a

6.12 PROPERTIES OF LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

(1) In e — 1.

(2) loga (l = 1.

(3) In x = loge x.
38 TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS Sec. 6.1 2

In .v
(4) loga X
In a

(5) loga b log,, a = 1.

(6) loga 1 = 0.

(7) logn X1X2 = log,, Vj + log, x2.

(8) log, - = log, Xi — loga *2.

*2

(9) log, *1 = X% loga Xi.

6.13 TABLE OF NATURAL LOGARITHMS

Table 6.1 3
NATURAL (NAPIERIAN) LOGARITHMS

N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

1.0 0.0 0000 0995 1980 2956 3922 4879 5827 6766 7696 8618
1.1 9531 *0436 *1333 *2222 *3103 *3976 *4842 *5700 *6551 *7395
1.2 0 1 8232 9062 9885 *0701 *1511 *2314 *3111 *3902 *4686 *5464
1.3 0.2 6236 7003 7763 8518 9267 *0010 *0748 *1481 *2208 *2930
1.4 0.3 3647 4359 5066 5767 6464 7156 7844 8526 9204 9878

1.5 0.4 0547 1211 1871 2527 3178 3825 4469 5108 5742 6373
1.6 7000 7623 8243 8858 9470 *0078 *0672 *1282 *1879 *2473
1.7 0.5 3063 3649 4232 4812 5389 5962 6531 7098 7661 8222
1.8 8779 9333 9884 *0432 *0977 *1519 *2058 *2594 *3127 *3658
1.9 0.6 4185 4710 5233 5752 6269 6783 7294 7803 8310 8813

2.0 9315 9813 *0310 *0804 *1295 *1784 *2271 *2755 *3237 *3716
2.1 0.7 4194 4669 5142 5612 6081 6547 7011 7473 7932 8390
2.2 8846 9299 9751 *0200 *0648 *1093 *1536 *1978 *2418 *2855
2.3 0 8 3291 3725 4157 4587 5015 5442 5866 6289 6710 7129
2.4 7547 7963 8377 8789 9200 9609 *0016 *0422 *0826 *1228

2.5 0.9 1629 2028 2426 2822 3216 3609 4001 4391 4779 5166
2.6 5551 5935 6317 6698 7078 7456 7833 8208 8582 8954
2.7 9325 9695 *0063 *0430 *0796 *1160 *1523 *1885 *2245 *2604
2.8 1.0 2962 3318 3674 4028 4380 4732 5082 5431 5779 6126
2.9 6471 6815 7158 7500 7841 8181 8519 8856 9192 9527

3.0 9861 *0194 *0526 *0856 *1186 *1514 *1841 *2168 *2493 *2817
3.1 1.1 3140 3462 3783 4103 4422 4740 5057 5373 5688 6002
3.2 6315 6627 6938 7248 7557 7865 8173 8479 8784 9089
3.3 9392 9695 9996 *0297 *0597 *0896 *1194 *1491 *1788 *2083
3.4 1.2 2378 2671 2964 3256 3547 3837 4127 4415 4703 4990

3.5 5276 5562 5846 6130 6413 6695 6976 7257 7536 7815
3.6 8093 8371 8647 8923 9198 9473 9746 *0019 *0291 *0563
3.7 1.3 0833 1103 1372 1641 1909 2176 2442 2708 2972 3237
3.8 3500 3763 4025 4286 4547 4807 5067 5325 5584 5841
3.9 6098 6354 6609 6864 7118 7372 7624 7877 8128 8379

4.0 8629 8879 9128 9377 9624 9872 *0118 *0364 *0610 *0854
4.1 1.4 1099 1342 1585 1828 2070 2311 2552 2792 3031 3270
4.2 3508 3746 3984 4220 4456 4692 4927 5161 5395 5629
4.3 5862 6094 6326 6557 6787 7018 7247 7476 7705 7933
4.4 8160 8387 8614 8840 9065 9290 9515 9739 9962 *0185

4.5 1.5 0408 0630 0851 1072 1293 1513 1732 1951 2170 2388
4.6 2606 2823 3039 3256 3471 3687 3902 4116 4330 4543
4.7 4756 4969 5181 5393 5604 5814 6025 6235 6444 6653
4.8 6862 7070 7277 7485 7691 7898 8104 8309 8515 8719
4.9 8924 9127 9331 9534 9737 9939 *0141 *0342 *0543 *0744

5.0 1.6 0944 1144 1343 1542 1741 1939 2137 2334 2531 2728
5.1 2924 3120 3315 3511 3705 3900 4094 4287 4481 4673
5.2 4866 5058 5250 5441 5632 5823 6013 6203 6393 6582
5.3 6771 6959 7147 7335 7523 7710 7896 8083 8269 8455
5.4 8640 8825 9010 9194 9378 9562 9745 9928 *0111 *0293

5.5 1.7 0475 0656 0838 1019 1199 1380 1560 1740 1919 2098
5.6 2277 2455 2633 2811 2988 3166 3342 3519 3695 3871
5.7 4047 4222 4397 4572 4746 4920 5094 5267 5440 5613
5.8 5786 5958 6130 6302 6473 6644 6815 6985 7156 7326
5.9 7495 7665 7834 8002 8171 8339 8507 8675 8842 9009

N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

39
 Table 6.1 3 (Cont’d)
NATURAL (NAPIERIAN) LOGARITHMS

N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

6.0 1.7 9176 9342 9509 9675 9840 *0006 *0171 *0336 *0500 *0665
6.1 1.8 0829 0993 1156 1319 1482 1.645 1808 1970 2132 2294
6.2 2455 2616 2777 2938 3098 3258 3418 3578 3737 3896
6.3 4055 4214 4372 4530 4688 4845 5003 5160 5317 5473
6.4 5630 5786 5942 6097 6253 6408 6563 6718 6872 7026

6.5 7180 7334 7487 7641 7794 7947 8099 8251 8403 8555
6.6 8707 8858 9010 9160 9311 9462 9612 9762 9912 *0061
6.7 1.9 0211 0360 0509 0658 0806 0954 1102 1250 1398 1545
6.8 1692 1839 1986 2132 2279 2425 2571 2716 2862 3007
6.9 3152 3297 3442 3586 3730 3874 4018 4162 4305 4448

7.0 4591 4734 4876 5019 5161 5303 5445 5586 5727 5869
7.1 6009 6150 6291 6431 6571 6711 6851 6991 7130 7269
7.2 7408 7547 7685 7824 7962 8100 8238 8376 8513 8650
7.3 8787 8924 9061 9198 9334 9470 9606 9742 9877 *0013
7.4 2.0 0148 0283 0418 0553 0687 0821 0956 1089 1223 1357

7.5 1490 1624 1757 1890 2022 2155 2287 2419 2551 2683
7.6 2815 2946 3078 3209 3340 3471 3601 3732 3862 3992
7.7 4122 4252 4381 4511 4640 4769 4898 5027 5156 5284
7.8 5412 5540 5668 5796 5924 6051 6179 6306 6433 6560
7.9 6686 6813 6939 7065 7191 7317 7443 7568 7694 7819

8.0 7944 8069 8194 8318 8443 8567 8691 8815 8939 9063
8.1 9186 9310 9433 9556 9679 9802 9924 *0047 *0169 *0291
8.2 2.1 0413 0535 0657 0779 0900 1021 1142 1263 1384 1505
8.3 1626 1746 1866 1986 2106 2226 2346 2465 2585 2704
8.4 2823 2942 3061 3180 3298 3417 3535 3653 3771 3889

8.5 4007 4124 4242 4359 4476 4593 4710 4827 4943 5060
8.6 5176 5292 5409 5524 5640 5756 5871 5987 6102 6217
8.7 6332 6447 6562 6677 6791 6905 7020 7134 7248 7361
8.8 7475 7589 7702 7816 7929 8042 8155 8267 8380 8493
8.9 8605 8717 8830 8942 9054 9165 9277 9389 9500 9611

9.0 9722 9834 9944 *0055 *0166 *0276 *0387 *0497 *0607 *0717
9.1 2.2 0827 0937 1047 1157 1266 1375 1485 1594 1703 1812
9.2 1920 2029 2138 2246 2354 2462 2570 2678 2786 2894
9.3 3001 3109 3216 3324 3431 3538 3645 3751 3858 3965
9.4 4071 4177 4284 4390 4496 4601 4707 4813 4918 5024

9,5 5129 5234 5339 5444 5549 5654 5759 5863 5968 6072
9.6 6176 6280 6384 6488 6592 6696 6799 6903 7006 7109
9.7 7213 7316 7419 7521 7624 7727 7829 7932 8034 8136
9.8 8238 8340 8442 8544 8646 8747 8849 8950 9051 9152
9.9 9253 9354 9455 9556 9657 9757 9858 9958 *0058 *0158

10.0 2.3 0259 0358 0458 0558 0658 0757 0857 0956 1055 1154

N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

To extend this table for a number less than 1.0 or greater than 10.9 write
the number in the form x = y • 10" where 1.0 < y < 10 and use the fact
that In x = ln^ + In 10".

N In N N In N
101 2.30259 106 11.51293
102 4.60517 106 13.81551
103 6.90776 107 16.11810
104 9.21034 108 18.42068

40
 Table 6.14
COMMON LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS

N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

10 0000 0043 0086 0128 0170 0212 0253 0294 0334 0374
11 0414 0453 0492 0531 0569 0607 0645 0682 0719 0755
12 0792 0828 0864 0899 0934 0969 1004 1038 1072 1106
13 1139 1173 1206 1239 1271 1303 1335 1367 1399 1430
14 1461 1492 1523 1553 1584 1614 1644 1673 1703 1732

15 1761 1790 1818 1847 1875 1903 1931 1959 1987 2014
16 2041 2068 2095 2122 2148 2175 2201 2227 2253 2279
17 2304 2330 2355 2380 2405 2430 2455 2480 2504 2529
18 2553 2577 2601 2625 2648 2672 2695 2718 2742 2765
19 2788 2810 2833 2856 2878 2900 2923 2945 2967 2989

20 3010 3032 3054 3075 3096 3118 3139 3160 3181 3201
21 3222 3243 3263 3284 3304 3324 3345 3365 3385 3404
22 3424 3444 3464 3483 3502 3522 3541 3560 3579 3598
23 3617 3636 3655 3674 3692 3711 3729 3747 3766 3784
24 3802 3820 3838 3856 3874 3892 3909 3927 3945 3962

25 3979 3997 4014 4031 4048 4065 4082 4099 4116 4133
26 4150 4166 4183 4200 4216 4232 4249 4265 4281 4298
27 4314 4330 4346 4362 4378 4393 4409 4425 4440 4456
28 4472 4487 4502 4518 4533 4548 4564 4579 4594 4609
29 4624 4639 4654 4669 4683 4698 4713 4728 4742 4757

30 4771 4786 4800 4814 4829 4843 4857 4871 4886 4900
31 4914 4928 4942 4955 4969 4983 4997 5011 5024 5038
32 5051 5065 5079 5092 5105 5119 5132 5145 5159 5172
33 5185 5198 5211 5224 5237 5250 5263 5276 5289 5302
34 5315 5328 5340 5353 5366 5378 5391 5403 5416 5428

35 5441 5453 5465 5478 5490 5502 5514 5527 5539 5551
36 5563 5575 5587 5599 5611 5623 5635 5647 5658 5670
37 5682 5694 5705 5717 5729 5740 5752 5763 5775 5786
38 5798 5809 5821 5832 5843 5855 5866 5877 5888 5899
39 5911 5922 5933 5944 5955 5966 5977 5988 5999 6010

40 6021 6031 6042 6053 6064 6075 6085 6096 6107 6117
41 6128 6138 6149 6160 6170 6180 6191 6201 6212 6222
42 6232 6243 6253 6263 6274 6284 6294 6304 6314 6325
43 6335 6345 6355 6365 6375 6385 6395 6405 6415 6425
44 6435 6444 6454 6464 6474 6484 6493 6503 6513 6522

45 6532 6542 6551 6561 6571 6580 6590 6599 6609 6618
46 6628 6637 6646 6656 6665 6675 6684 6693 6702 6712
47 6721 6730 6739 6749 6758 6767 6776 6785 6794 6803
48 6812 6821 6830 6839 6848 6857 6866 6875 6884 6893
49 6902 6911 6920 6928 6937 6946 6955 6964 6972 6981

50 6990 6998 7007 7016 7024 7033 7042 7050 7059 7067
51 7076 7084 7093 7101 7110 7118 7126 7135 7143 7152
52 7160 7168 7177 7185 7193 7202 7210 7218 7226 7235
53 7243 7251 7259 7267 7275 7284 7292 7300 7308 7316
54 7324 7332 7340 7348 7356 7364 7372 7380 7388 7396

N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

41
 Table 6.14
COMMON LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS (Confd)

N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

55 7404 7412 7419 7427 7435 7443 7451 7459 7466 7474
56 7482 7490 7497 7505 7513 7520 7528 7536 7543 7551
57 7559 7566 7574 7582 7589 7597 7604 7612 7619 7627
58 7634 7642 7649 7657 7664 7672 7679 7686 7694 7701
59 7709 7716 7723 7731 7738 7745 7752 7760 7767 7774

60 7782 7789 7796 7803 7810 7818 7825 7832 7839 7846
61 7853 7860 7868 7875 7882 7889 7896 7903 7910 7917
62 7924 7931 7938 7945 7952 7959 7966 7973 7980 7987
63 7993 8000 8007 8014 8021 8028 8035 8041 8048 8055
64 8062 8069 8075 8082 8089 8096 8102 8109 8116 8122

65 8129 8136 8142 8149 8156 8162 8169 8176 8182 8189
66 8195 8202 8209 8215 8222 8228 8235 8241 8248 8254
67 8261 8267 8274 8280 8287 8293 8299 8306 8312 8319
68 8325 8331 8338 8344 8351 8357 8363 8370 8376 8382
69 8388 8395 8401 8407 8414 8420 8426 8432 8439 8445

70 8451 8457 8463 8470 8476 8482 8488 8494 8500 8506
71 8513 8519 8525 8531 8537 8543 8549 8555 8561 8567
72 8573 8579 8585 8591 8597 8603 8609 8615 8621 8627
73 8633 8639 8645 8651 8657 8663 8669 8675 8681 8686
74 8692 8698 8704 8710 8716 8722 8727 8733 8739 8745

75 8751 8756 8762 8768 8774 8779 8785 8791 8797 8802
76 8808 8814 8820 8825 8831 8837 8842 8848 8854 8859
77 8865 8871 8876 8882 8887 8893 8899 8904 8910 8915
78 8921 8927 8932 8938 8943 8949 8954 8960 8965 8971
79 8976 8982 8987 8993 8998 9004 9009 9015 9020 9025

80 9031 9036 9042 9047 9053 9058 9063 9069 9074 9079
81 9085 9090 9096 9101 9106 9112 9117 9122 9128 9133
82 9138 9143 9149 9154 9159 9165 9170 9175 9180 9186
83 9191 9196 9201 9206 9212 9217 9222 9227 9232 9238
84 9243 9248 9253 9258 9263 9269 9274 9279 9284 9289

85 9294 9299 9304 9309 9315 9320 9325 9330 9335 9340
86 9345 9350 9355 9360 9365 9370 9375 9380 9385 9390
87 9395 9400 9405 9410 9415 9420 9425 9430 9435 9440
88 9445 9450 9455 9460 9465 9469 9474 9479 9484 9489
89 9494 9499 9504 9509 9513 9518 9523 9528 9533 9538

90 9542 9547 9552 9557 9562 9566 9571 9576 9581 9586
91 9590 9595 9600 9605 9609 9614 9619 9624 9628 9633
92 9638 9643 9647 9652 9657 9661 9666 9671 9675 9680
93 9685 9689 9694 9699 9703 9708 9713 9717 9722 9727
94 9731 9736 9741 9745 9750 9754 9759 9763 9768 9773

95 9777 9782 9786 9791 9795 9800 9805 9809 9814 9818
96 9823 9827 9832 9836 9841 9845 9850 9854 9859 9863
97 9868 9872 9877 9881 9886 9890 9894 9899 9903 9908
98 9912 9917 9921 9926 9930 9934 9939 9943 9948 9952
99 9956 9961 9965 9969 9974 9978 9983 9987 9991 9996

N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

42
Sec. 6.1 5 TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS 43

6.15 DEFINITION

The exponential function ex is the inverse of the logarithm func¬

tion and is given by

ex = In-1 (x).

6.16 DEFINITION

The exponential function a1 is defined by

ax = log^1 (x) a > 0, a ^ 1.

6.17 PROPERTIES OF EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

— g.r In a
(1) ax

(2) axiaxj = ax,+x,1

ax‘
(3) = ax,-x*.
axi
_ anni
(4) (ax,)'r!

(5) elnx = In ex

6.18 DEFINITIONS OF HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS AND THEIR

INVERSES

(1) sinh .v = 5(ex — e~x).

(2) cosh v = ^(ex + e_x).

, sinh x
(3) tanh x = —,-
cosh x

1
(4) coth x =
tanh x

1
(5) sech x =
cosh x

1
(6) csch x =
sinh x
Domain: (— oo, oo).
(7) sinh 1 x = In (x + Vx2 + 1).
44 TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS Sec. 6.19

cosh x = In (x + Vx2 — 1). Domain: [1, °o).

(8) 1

Domain: (— 1, 1).
(9) tanh-1 x = 5 In

Domain: ( — °o, —1), (1, oo)

(10) coth-1 x = ^ In

Domain: (0, 1],

(11) sech-1 x = ln(' + Vl “ *’)■

Domain: ( — «s, 0), (0, »).

(12) csch-1 x = In ^ + V1| | *y

6.19 PROPERTIES OF HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

(1) cosh2 * — sinh2 x = 1.

(2) sech2 x + tanh2 x = 1.

(3) csch2 x — coth2 x = — 1.

(4) sinh ( — x) = — sinh ,v.

(5) cosh (—x) = cosh x.

(6) tanh ( —x) = — tanh x.

(7) sinh (xi ± X2) = sinh Xi cosh x2 ± cosh X\ sinh x2.

(8) cosh (xi ± x2) = cosh Xj cosh x2 ± sinh Xi sinh x2.

(9) sinh 2x = 2 sinh x cosh x.

(10) cosh 2x = cosh2 x + sinh2 x.

(11) 2 sinh2 ^ = cosh x — 1.

2

(12) 2 cosh2 ^ = cosh x + 1.

6.20 TABLES OF EXPONENTIAL AND HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

Table 6.20
VALUES OF EXPONENTIAL AND HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

X e1 ez sinh x cosh x tanh x

0.00 1.0000 1.00000 0.0000 1.0000 .00000

0 01 1.0101 0.99005 0.0100 1.0001 .01000
0 02 1.0202 98020 0.0200 1.0002 .02000
0.03 1.0305 .97045 0.0300 1.0005 .02999
0.04 1.0408 .96079 0.0400 1.0008 .03998

0.05 1.0513 .95123 0.0500 1.0013 .04996

0.06 1.0618 .94176 0.0600 1 0018 .05993
0.07 1.0725 .93239 0 0701 1.0025 .06989
0.08 1.0833 .92312 0.0801 1 0032 .07983
0 09 1.0942 .91393 0.0901 1.0041 .08976

0.10 1.1052 .90484 0.1002 1.0050 .09967

Oil 1.1163 .89583 0.1102 1 0061 .10956
0 12 1.1275 .88692 0.1203 1.0072 .11943
0.13 1.1388 .87809 0 1304 1.0085 .12927
0.14 1.1503 .86936 0.1405 1.0098 .13909

0.15 1.1618 .86071 0.1506 1.0113 .14889

0.' 6 1.1735 .85214 0.1607 1.0128 .15865
0.17 1 1853 .84366 0 1708 1 0145 .16838
0.18 1 1972 .83527 0.1810 1 0162 .17808
0.19 1.2092 .82696 0.1911 10181 .18775

0.20 1.2214 .81873 0.2013 1.0201 .19738

0.21 1.2337 .81058 0.2115 1 0221 20697
0 22 1.2461 .80252 0.2218 1 0243 .21652
0.23 1.2586 .79453 0.2320 1 0266 .22603
0.24 1.2712 .78663 0.2423 1.0289 .23550

0.25 1.2840 .77880 0.2526 1.0314 24492

0.26 1.2969 .77105 0.2629 1.0340 .25430
0.27 1.3100 .76338 0.2733 1 0367 .26362
0.28 1.3231 .75578 0 2837 1.0395 .27291
0.29 1.3364 74826 0.2941 1.0423 .28213

0.30 1.3499 .74082 0.3045 1.0453 .29131

0.31 1.3634 .73345 0.3150 1.0484 .30044
0.32 1.3771 .72615 0.3255 1.0516 .30951
0.33 1.3910 .71892 0.3360 1.0549 .31852
0.34 1.4049 .71177 0.3466 1.0584 .32748

0.35 1.4191 .70469 0.3572 1.0619 .33638

0.36 1 4333 .69768 0.3678 1.0655 .34521
0.37 1.4477 .69073 0.3785 1 0692 .35399
0.38 1.4623 .68386 0 3892 1.0731 .36271
0.39 1.4770 .67706 0.4000 1.0770 .37136

0.40 1.4918 67032 0.4108 1.0811 .37995

0.41 1.5068 .66365 0.4216 1.0852 .38847
0.42 1.5220 .65705 0.4325 1.0895 .39693
0.43 1.5373 .65051 0.4434 1.0939 .40532
0.44 1.5527 64404 0 4543 1 0984 41364

0.45 1.5683 .63763 0 4653 1.1030 .42190

0 46 1.5841 .63128 0.4764 1 1077 .43008
0.47 1.6000 .62500 0.4875 1.1125 .43820
0.48 1.6161 .61878 0 4986 1.1174 .44624
0.49 1.6323 .61263 0.5098 1.1225 .45422

0.50 1.6487 .60653 0.5211 1.1276 .46212

45
 Table 6.20 (Cont’d)
VALUES OF EXPONENTIAL AND HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

* e1 e 1 sinh x cosh x tanh x

0 50 1.6487 .60653 0 5211 1.1276 .46212
0 51 1.6653 .60050 0 5324 1.1329 .46995
0 52 1.6820 .59452 0.5438 1.1383 .47770
0 53 1.6989 .58860 0 5552 1.1438 .48538
0.54 1.7160 .58275 0.5666 1.1494 .49299

0.55 1.7333 .57695 0.5782 1.1551 .50052

0.56 1.7507 .57121 0.5897 1.1609 .50798
0.57 1.7683 .56553 0.6014 1.1669 .51536
0.58 1.7860 .55990 0.6131 1.1730 .52267
0.59 1.8040 .55433 0.6248 1.1792 .52990

0 60 1.8221 .54881 0.6367 1.1855 .53705

0.61 1.8404 .54335 0 6485 1.1919 .54413
0.62 1.8589 .53794 0.6605 1.1984 .55113
0.63 1.8776 .53259 0 6725 1 2051 .55805
0.64 1.8965 .52729 0.6846 1.2119 .56490

0 65 1.9155 .52205 0 6967 1.2188 .57167

0.66 1.9348 .51685 0.7090 1.2258 .57836
0.67 1.9542 .51171 0.7213 1.2330 .58498
0 68 1.9739 .50662 0.7336 1.2402 .59152
0.69 1.9937 .50158 0.7461 1.2476 .59798

0.70 2.0138 .49659 0.7586 1.2552 .60437

0.71 2.0340 .49164 0.7712 1.2628 .61068
0.72 2.0544 .48675 0.7838 1.2706 .61691
0.73 2.0751 .48191 0.7966 1.2785 .62307
0.74 2.0959 .47711 0.8094 1.2865 .62915

0.75 2.1170 .47237 0 8223 1 2947 .63515

0.76 2.1383 .46767 0.8353 1.3030 .64108
0.77 2.1598 .46301 0 8484 1.3114 .64693
0.78 2.1815 .45841 0.8615 1.3199 65271
0.79 2.2034 .45384 0.8748 1.3286 .65841

0.80 2.2255 .44933 0.8881 1.3374 .66404

0.81 2.2479 .44486 0.9015 1.3464 .66959
0.82 2.2705 .44043 0.9150 1.3555 .67507
0.83 2.2933 .43605 0.9286 1.3647 .68048
0.84 2.3164 .43171 0.9423 1.3470 .68581

0.85 2.3396 .42/41 0.9561 1.3835 .69107

0.86 2.3632 .42316 0.9700 1.3932 .69626
0.87 2.3869 .41895 0.9840 1.4029 .70137
0.88 2.4109 .41478 0.9981 1.4128 .70642
0.89 2.4351 .41066 1.0122 1.4229 .71139

0.90 2.4596 .40657 1.0265 1.4331 .71630

0 91 2.4843 .40252 1.0409 1.4434 .72113
0.92 2.5093 .39852 1.0554 1.4539 .72590
0.93 2.5345 .39455 1.0700 1.4645 .73059
0.94 2.5600 .39063 1.0847 1.4753 .73522

0.95 2.5857 .38674 1.0995 1.4862 .73978

0.96 2.6117 .38289 1.1144 1.4973 .74428
0.97 2.6379 .37908 1.1294 1.5085 .74870
0.98 2.6645 .37531 1.1446 1.5199 .75307
0.99 2.6912 .37158 1.1598 1.5314 .75735

1.00 2.7183 .36788 1.1752 1.5431 .76159

46
 Table 6.20 (Cont’d)
VALUES OF EXPONENTIAL AND HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

X e1 e~x sinh x cosh x tanh x

1.00 2 7183 .36788 1.1752 1.5431 .76159
1.01 2.7456 36422 1.1907 1.5549 .76576
1.02 2.7732 .36060 1.2063 1.5669 .76987
103 2.8011 .35701 1.2220 1.5790 .77391
1.04 2.8292 .35345 1.2379 1.5913 .77789

1.05 2.8577 .34994 1.2539 1.6038 .78181

1.06 2.8864 .34646 1.2700 1.6164 .78566
1.07 2.9154 .34301 1.2862 1 6292 .78946
1.08 2.9447 .33960 1.3025 1 6421 .79320
1.09 2.9743 .33622 1.3190 1.6552 .79688

1,10 3.0042 .33287 1.3356 1.6685 .80050

1.11 3.0344 .32956 1.3524 1.6820 .80406
1.12 3.0649 .32628 1.3693 1.6956 .80757
1.13 3.0957 .32303 1.3863 1.7093 .81102
1.14 3 1268 .31982 1.4035 1.7233 .81441

1.15 3.1582 .31664 1.4208 17374 .81775

1.16 3 1899 .31349 1.4382 1.7517 .82104
1.17 3.2220 .31037 1.4558 1.7662 .82427
1.18 3.2544 .30728 1.4735 1.7808 .82745
1.19 3.2871 .30422 14914 1.7957 .83058

1.20 3.3201 .30119 1.5095 1 8107 .83365

1.21 3.3535 .29820 1.5276 1.8258 .83668
1.22 3.3872 .29523 1.5460 1.8412 83965
1.23 3 4212 .29229 1.5645 1.8568 84258
1 24 3.4556 .28938 1.5831 1 8725 .84546

1.25 3.4903 .28650 1.6019 1.8884 .84828

1.26 3.5254 .28365 1.6209 1.9045 .85106
1.27 3.5609 .28083 1.6400 1.9208 .85380
1.28 3.5966 .27804 1.6593 1.9373 .85648
1.29 3.6328 .27527 1 6788 1.9540 .85913

1.30 3.6693 .27253 1.6984 1.9709 .86172

1.31 3.7062 .26982 1.7182 1.9880 .86428
1.32 3.7434 .26714 1.7381 2.0053 .86678
1.33 3.7810 .26448 1 7583 2.0228 .86925
1.34 3.8190 .26185 1.7786 2.0404 .87167

1.35 3.8574 .25924 1.7991 2 0583 .87405

1.36 3.8962 .25666 1.8198 2.0764 .87639
1.37 3.9354 .25411 1.8406 2.0947 .87869
1.38 3.9749 .25158 1.8617 2.1132 .88095
1.39 4.0149 .24908 1 8829 2.1320 .88317

1.40 4.0552 .24660 1.9043 2.1509 .88535

1.41 4.0960 .24414 1.9259 2.1700 .88749
1.42 4.1371 .24171 1.9477 2.1894 .88960
1.43 4.1787 .23931 1.9697 2.2090 .89167
1.44 4.2207 .23693 1.9919 2.2288 .89370

1.45 4.2631 .23457 2.0143 2.2488 .89569

1.46 4.3060 .23224 2.0369 2.2691 .89765
1.47 4.3492 .22993 2.0597 2.2896 .89958
1.48 4.3929 .22764 2 0827 2.3103 .90147
1.49 4.4371 .22537 2.1059 2.3312 .90332

1.50 4.4817 .22313 2.1293 2.3524 .90515

47
 Table 6.20 (Cont’d)
VALUES OF EXPONENTIAL AND HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

X ex e 1 sinh x cosh x tanh x

1 50 4.4817 .22313 2.1293 2.3524 .90515
1.51 4.5267 .22091 2.1529 2.3738 .90694
1 52 4.5722 .21871 2.1768 2 3955 .90870
1 53 4.6182 .21654 2.2008 2.4174 .91042
1.54 4.6646 .21438 2.2251 2.4395 .91212

1.55 4.7115 .21225 2.2496 2.4619 .91379

1.56 4.7588 .21014 2.2743 2.4845 .91542
1.57 4.8066 .20805 2.2993 2.5073 .91703
1.58 4 8550 .20598 2.3245 2.5305 .91860
1.59 4.9037 .20393 2.3499 2.5538 .92015

1.60 4.9530 .20190 2.3756 2.5775 .92167

1.61 5.0028 .19989 2 4015 2.6013 .92316
1.62 5.0531 .19790 2.4276 2.6255 .92462
1.63 5.1039 .19593 2.4540 2.6499 .92606
1.64 5.1552 .19398 2.4806 2.6746 .92747

1.65 5.2070 .19205 2 5075 2.6995 .92886

1.66 5.2593 .19014 2.5346 2.7247 .93022
1.67 5.3122 .18825 2.5620 2.7502 .93155
1.68 5.3656 .18637 2.5896 2.7760 .93286
1.69 5.4195 .18452 2.6175 2.8020 .93415

1.70 5.4739 .18268 2.6456 2.8283 .93541

1.71 5.5290 .18087 2.6740 2.8549 .93665
1.72 5.5845 .17907 2.7027 2.8818 .93786
1.73 5.6407 .17728 2.7317 2.9090 .93906
1.74 5.6973 .17552 2.7609 2.9364 .94023

1.75 5.7546 .17377 2.7904 2.9642 .94138

1.76 5.8124 .17204 2.8202 2.9922 .94250
1.77 5.8709 .17033 2.8503 3.0206 .94361
1.78 5.9299 .16864 2.8806 3.0492 .94470
1.79 5.9895 .16696 2 9112 3.0782 .94576

1.80 6.0496 .16530 2.9422 3.1075 .94681

1.81 6.1104 .16365 2.9734 3.1371 .94783
1.82 6.1719 .16203 3.0049 3.1669 .94884
1.83 6.2339 .16041 3.0367 3.1972 .94983
1.84 6.2965 .15882 3.0689 3.2277 .95080

1.85 6.3598 .15724 3.1013 3.2585 .95175

1.86 6.4237 .15567 3.1340 3.2897 95268
1.87 6.4883 .15412 3.1671 3.3212 .95359
1.88 6.5535 .15259 3.2005 3 3530 .95449
1.89 6.6194 .15107 3.2341 3.3852 .95537

1.90 6 6859 .14957 3.2682 3.4177 .95624

1.91 6.7531 .14808 3.3025 3.4506 .95709
1.92 6.8210 .14661 3.3372 3.4838 .95792
1.93 6.8895 .14515 3.3722 3.5173 .95873
1.94 6.9588 .14370 3.4075 3.5512 .95953

1.95 7.0287 .14227 3.4432 3.5855 .96032

1.96 7.0993 .14086 3.4792 3 6201 .96109
1.97 7.1707 .13946 3.5156 3.6551 .96185
1.98 7.2427 .13807 3.5523 3.6904 .96259
1.99 7.3155 .13670 3.5894 3.7261 .96331

2.00 7.3891 .13534 3.6269 3.7622 .96403

48
 Table 6.20 (Cont’d)
VALUES OF EXPONENTIAL AND HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

X e* e x sinh x cosh x tanh x

2.00 7.3891 .13534 3.6269 3.7622 .96403
2.01 7.4633 .13399 3.6647 3.7987 .96473
2.02 7.5383 .13266 3.7028 3.8355 .96541
2.03 7.6141 .13134 3.7414 3.8727 .96609
2.04 7.6906 .13003 3.7803 3.9103 .96675

2.05 7.7679 .12873 3.8196 3.9483 .96740

2.06 7.8460 .12745 3.8593 3.9867 .96803
2.07 7.9248 .12619 3.8993 4.0255 .96865
2.08 8.0045 .12493 3.9398 4.0647 .96926
2.09 8.0849 .12369 3.9806 4.1043 .96986

2.10 8.1662 .12246 4.0219 4.1443 .97045

2.11 8.2482 .12124 4 0635 4.1847 .97103
2.12 8.3311 .12003 4.1056 4.2256 .97159
2.13 8 4149 .11884 4.1480 4.2669 .97215
2.14 8.4994 .11765 4.1909 4.3085 .97269

2.15 8.5849 .11648 4.2342 4.3507 .97323

2.16 8.6711 .11533 4.2779 4.3932 .97375
2.17 8.7583 .11418 4.3221 4.4362 .97426
2.18 8.8463 .11304 4.3666 4.4797 .97477
2.19 8.9352 .11192 4.4116 4.5236 .97526

2.20 9.0250 .11080 4.4571 4.5679 .97574

2.21 9.1157 .10970 4.5030 4.6127 .97622
2.22 9.2073 .10861 4.5494 4.6580 .97668
2.23 9.2999 .10753 4.5962 4.7037 .97714
2.24 9.3933 .10646 4.6434 4.7499 .97759

2.25 9.4877 .10540 4.6912 4.7966 .97803

2.26 9.5831 .10435 4.7394 4.8437 .97846
2.27 9.6794 .10331 4.7880 4.8914 .97888
2.28 9.7767 .10228 4.8372 4.9395 .97929
2.29 9.8749 .10127 4.8868 4.9881 .97970

2.30 9.9742 .10026 4.9370 5.0372 .98010

2.31 10.074 .09926 4.9876 5.0868 .98049
2.32 10.176 .09827 5.0387 5.1370 .98087
2.33 10.278 .09730 5.0903 5.1876 .98124
2.34 10.381 .09633 5.1425 5.2388 .98161

2.35 10.486 .09537 5.1951 5.2905 .98197

2.36 10.591 .09442 5.2483 5.3427 .98233
2.37 10.697 .09348 5.3020 5.3954 .98267
2.38 10.805 .09255 5.3562 5.4487 .98301
2.39 10.913 .09163 5.4109 5.5026 .98335

2.40 11.023 .09072 5.4662 5.5569 .98367

2 41 11.134 .08982 5.5221 5.6119 .98400
2.42 11.246 .08892 5.5785 5.6674 .98431
2.43 11.359 .08804 5.6354 5.7235 .98462
2.44 11.473 .08716 5.6929 5.7801 .98492

2.45 11.588 .08629 5.7510 5.8373 .98522

2.46 11.705 .08543 5.8097 5.8951 .98551
2.47 11.822 .08458 5.8689 5.9535 .98579
2.48 11.941 .08374 5.9288 6.0125 .98607
2.49 12.061 .08291 5.9892 6.0721 .98635

2.50 12.182 .08208 6.0502 6.1323 .98661

49
 Table 6.20 (Cont'd)
VALUES OF EXPONENTIAL AND HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

X e1 e 1 sinh x cosh x tanh .v

2.50 12.182 .08208 6.0502 6.1323 .98661
2.51 12.305 .08127 6 1118 6.1931 .98688
2.52 12.429 .08046 6.1741 6.2545 .98714
2.53 12.554 .07966 6.2369 6.3166 .98739
2.54 12.680 .07887 6.3004 6.3793 .98764

2.55 12.807 .07808 6.3645 6.4426 .98788

2.56 12.936 .07730 6.4293 6.5066 98812
2.57 13 066 .07654 6.4946 6.5712 98835
2 58 13.197 .07577 6.5607 6.6365 .98858
2.59 13.330 .07502 6.6274 6.7024 .98881

2.60 13.464 .07427 6.6947 6.7690 .98903

2 61 13.599 .07353 6.7628 6.8363 .98924
2.62 13.736 .07280 6.8315 6.9043 98946
2.63 13.874 .07208 6.9008 6.9729 .98966
2.64 14.013 .07136 6.9709 7.0423 .98987

2.65 14.154 .07065 7.0417 7.1123 .99007

2.66 14.296 .06995 7.1132 7.1831 .99026
2.67 14.440 .06925 7.1854 7.2546 .99045
2.68 14.585 .06856 7.2583 7.3268 .99064
2.69 14.732 .06788 7.3319 7.3998 .99083

2.70 14.880 .06721 7 4063 7 4735 .99101

2.71 15 029 .06654 7.4814 7.5479 .99118
2.72 15.180 .06587 7.5572 7 6231 .99136
2.73 15.333 .06522 7.6338 7.6991 .99153
2.74 15.487 .06457 7.7112 7.7758 .99170

2.75 15.643 .06393 7.7894 7.8533 .99186

2.76 15.800 .06329 7.8683 7.9316 .99202
2.77 15.959 .06266 7.9480 8.0106 .99218
2.78 16.119 .06204 8.0285 8.0905 .99233
2.79 16.281 .06142 8.1098 8.1712 .99248

2.80 16.445 .06081 8.1919 8.2527 .99263

2.81 16.610 .06020 8.2749 8.3351 .99278
2.82 16.777 .05961 8.3586 8.4182 .99292
2.83 16 945 .05901 8.4432 8 5022 .99306
2.84 17.116 .05843 8.5287 8.5871 .99320

2.85 17.288 .05784 8.6150 8.6728 99333

2.86 17.462 .05727 8.7021 8.7594 .99346
2.87 17.637 .05670 8.7902 8.8469 .99359
2.88 17.814 .05613 8.8791 8.9352 .99372
2.89 17.993 .05558 8.9689 9.0244 .99384

2.90 18.174 05502 9.0596 9.1146 .99396

2.91 18.357 .05448 9.1512 9.2056 .99408
2 92 18.541 .05393 9.2437 9.2976 .99420
2.93 18.728 .05340 9.3371 9.3905 .99431
2.94 18.916 .05287 9.4315 9.4844 .99443

2.95 19.106 .05234 9.5268 9.5791 .99454

2.96 19.298 .05182 9.6231 9.6749 .99464
2.97 19.492 .05130 9.7203 9.7716 .99475
2.98 19 688 .05079 9.8185 9.8693 .99485
2.99 19.886 .05029 9.9177 9.9680 .99496

3.00 20.086 .04979 10.018 10.068 .99505

50
 Table 6.20 (Cont'd)
VALUES OF EXPONENTIAL AND HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

X ex e x sinh x cosh x tanh x

3.00 20.086 .04979 10.018 10.068 .99505
3.05 21.115 .04736 10.534 10.581 .99552
3.10 22.198 .04505 11.076 11.122 .99595
3.15 23 336 .04285 11.647 11.690 .99633
3.20 24.533 .04076 12.246 12.287 .99668

3.25 25 790 .03877 12.876 12.915 .99700

3.30 27.113 .03688 13.538 13.575 .99728
3.35 28 503 .03508 14.234 14.269 .99754
3.40 29.964 .03337 14.965 14.999 .99777
3.45 31.500 .03175 15.734 15.766 .99799

3.50 33.115 .03020 16.543 16.573 .99818

3 55 34.813 .02872 17.392 17.421 .99835
3.60 36 598 .02732 18.286 18.313 .99851
3.65 38.475 .02599 19.224 19.250 .99865
3.70 40.447 .02472 20.211 20.236 .99878

3.75 42.521 .02352 21.249 21.272 .99889

3.80 44.701 .02237 22.339 22.362 .99900
3.85 46.993 .02128 23.486 23.507 .99909
3.90 49.402 .02024 24.691 24.711 .99918
3.95 51.935 .01925 25.958 25.977 .99926

4.00 54.598 .01832 27.290 27.308 .99933

4.10 60.340 .01657 30.162 30 178 .99945
4.20 66.686 .01500 33 336 33.351 .99955
4.30 73.700 .01357 36.843 36.857 .99963
4.40 81.451 .01227 40.719 40.732 .99970

4.50 90.017 .01111 45.003 45.014 .99975

4.60 99.484 .01005 49.737 49 747 .99980
4.70 109.95 .00910 54.969 54 978 .99983
4.80 121.51 .00823 60.751 60.759 .99986
4.90 134.29 .00745 67.141 67.149 .99989

5.00 148.41 .00674 74.203 74.210 .99991

5.10 164.02 .00610 82.008 82.014 .99993
5.20 181.27 .00552 90.633 90.639 .99994
5.30 200.34 .00499 100.17 100.17 .99995
5.40 221.41 .00452 110.70 110.71 .99996

5.50 244.69 .00409 122.34 122 35 .99997

5.60 270.43 .00370 135.21 135.22 .99997
5.70 298.87 .00335 149.43 149.44 .99998
5.80 330.30 .00303 165.15 165 15 .99998
5.90 365.04 .00274 182.52 182.52 .99998

6.00 403.43 .00248 201.71 201.72 .99999

6.25 518.01 .00193 259.01 259.01 .99999
6.50 665.14 .00150 332.57 332.57 1.0000
6.75 854.06 .00117 427.03 427.03 1.0000
7.00 1096.6 .00091 548.32 548.32 1.0000

7.50 1808.0 .00055 904.02 904.02 1.0000

8.00 2981.0 .00034 1490.5 1490.5 1.0000
8.50 4914.8 .00020 2457.4 2457.4 1.0000
9.00 8103.1 .00012 4051.5 4051.5 1.0000
9.50 13360. .00007 6679.9 6679,9 1.0000

10.00 22026. .00005 11013. 11013. 1.0000

51
 7

TWO- AND THREE-

DIMENSIONAL GRAPHS

7.1 THE STRAIGHT LINE

(0, k)

0 (k, 0) 0

(a) x — k (b) jy = A

(c) y - y0 = -7-J (* - *>),

Xi — ACo
ACl 7^ AC0

52
Sec. 7.2 TWO-DIMENSIONAL GRAPHS
53

7.2 THE CIRCLE

(a) + / = r2
54 TWO-DIMENSIONAL GRAPHS Sec. 7.3

7.3 THE PARABOLA

y

(b) / = 2px
Sec. 7.4 TWO-DIMENSIONAL GRAPHS 55

7.4 THE ELLIPSE

c2 = a2 - b2

c2 = a2 - b2
56 TWO-DIMENSIONAL GRAPHS Sec. 7.5

7.5 THE HYPERBOLA

c2 = a2 + b2 0)10*
crlO)
Sec. 7.5 TWO-DIMENSIONAL GRAPHS 57
y

c2 = a2 + b2 y

y
58 TWO-DIMENSIONAL GRAPHS Sec. 7.6

7.6 THE CUBIC

a + b + c — Va1 + b2 + c2 — ab — ac — be

(b) y = k(x — a)2(x — b)

a+2b
Sec. 7.6 TWO-DIMENSIONAL GRAPHS 59

r<0
(d) y = k(x2 + px + q)(x — c), p2 — 4q < 0
r = p2 + c2 pc — 35
60 TWO-DIMENSIONAL GRAPHS Sec. 7 7

7.7 THE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

(c) y = a tan bx
Sec. 7.7 TWO-DIMENSIONAL GRAPHS 61
62 TWO-DIMENSIONAL GRAPHS Sec. 7.8

7.8 THE INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

y

(c) y = arctan x

(d) y = arccot x
Sec. 7.9 TWO-DIMENSIONAL GRAPHS 63

7.9 THE LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

y

7.10 THE EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

(a) y = a*, a > 0, a ^ 1

64 TWO-DIMENSIONAL GRAPHS Sec. 7.10

(b) y = aebx

(d) y = e-*2
Sec. 7.11 TWO-DIMENSIONAL GRAPHS 65

7.11 THE HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

(d) y = coth x
66 TWO-DIMENSIONAL graphs Sec. 7.12

7.12 THE INVERSE HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

(c) y = tanh-1 x
Sec. 7.12 TWO-DIMENSIONAL GRAPHS 67

(d) y = coth 1 x

(f) y = csch 1 x
68 THREE-DIMENSIONAL GRAPHS Sec. 7.13

7.13 THREE-DIMENSIONAL GRAPHS

(a, 0, 0)^5

x
(b) The Plane
Sec. 7.13 z THREE-DIMENSIONAL GRAPHS 69

z0+C)

(c) The Plane

A(x — x0) + B(y — yo) + C(z — z0) = 0

(d) The Sphere

x2+y2 + z2 = r2
70 THREE-DIMENSIONAL GRAPHS Sec. 7.13
z

z
Sec. 7.13 THREE-DIMENSIONAL GRAPHS 71

(j) Circular Cylinder

O I O 0
x* + y* = r
72 THREE-DIMENSIONAL GRAPHS Sec. 7.13

z
\03

(k) Elliptic Cylinder (1) Parabolic Cylinder

z +r = i
a2^ b2

z
Sec. 7.14 THE CONIC SECTIONS 73

7.14 THE CONIC SECTIONS

The curves whose graphs appear in Secs. 7.2 to 7.5 are known
classically as the conic sections, since each of them is the intersection
of a plane with a circular cone of two nappes. Such a cone appears
in the figure below. On its surface are sketched an ellipse, a parabola,
and a hyperbola, each of which is obtained as the curve in which a
plane cuts the cone.

The common point of the two nappes of the cone is called its
vertex; a line through the vertex lying on the surface of the cone is
called an element of the cone. The line through the vertex which
forms equal angles at the vertex with all elements of the cone is called
the axis of the cone. Let the angle between this line and an element
be called a. Let P be a plane containing the axis of the cone, and
let Q be a plane that intersects P in a line perpendicular to the axis
at an angle /3, with 0^/3^ 90°.
(1) If a < 0 £ 90°:
74 THE CONIC SECTIONS Sec. 7.1 4

(a) If /3 ^ 90° and Q does not contain the vertex, then the
Q and the cone is an ellipse.
intersection of
(b) If ^ ^ 90° and Q does contain the vertex, then the inter¬
section of Q and the cone is a point, called a degenerate
ellipse.
(c) If /3 = 90° and Q does not contain the vertex, then the
intersection of Q and the cone is a circle. Thus, the circle
is a special case of an ellipse.
(d) If /3 = 90° and Q does contain the vertex, then the inter¬
section of Q and the cone is a point, called a degenerate
circle.
(2) If j(3 = a:
(a) If Q does not contain the vertex, then the intersection of
Q and the cone is a parabola.
(b) If Q does contain the vertex, then the intersection of Q
and the cone is a straight line, called a degenerate pa¬
rabola.
The degenerate parabola obtained here is a special case of the
general degenerate parabola, which consists of two parallel lines.
Here, the “parallel” lines are coincident. Although the list of conic
sections in this section is complete, it does not include all second-
degree loci. It omits only the general degenerate parabola and the
null locus, both of which may be obtained as a plane section of a
circular cylinder.
(3) IfO ^ (3 < a:
(a) If Q does not contain the vertex, then the intersection of
Q and the cone is a hyperbola.
(b) If Q does contain the vertex, then the intersection of Q
and the cone is a pair of intersecting straight lines, called
a degenerate hyperbola.
 8
TYPES OF FUNCTIONAL EQUATIONS

The two principal types of functional equations we shall take up are

differential equations and difference equations, defined in Secs. 4.4
and 4.5.

8.1 DERIVATIVES, ANTIDERIVATIVES, AND INDEFINITE

INTEGRALS

The simplest kind of differential equation is Df = g. If f is given

and we want to find g, we take the derivative of f. The basic laws of
differentiation and the derivatives of basic functions are given in
Chap. 9. If g is given, then the general solution for f is the indefinite
integral of g, while any particular solution is an antiderivative of g.
Basic properties of indefinite integrals are given in Chap. 10, which
contains a table of integrals, Table 10.4.

8.2 DEFINITE INTEGRALS

From the fundamental theorem of the integral calculus, the evalu¬

ation of a definite integral

i; {(x) dx
can sometimes be accomplished by first finding an antiderivative F(x)
75
 76 TYPES OF FUNCTIONAL EQUATIONS Sec. 8.3

of f(x). Then

fab f(x) dx = F(b) - F(fl).

When it is possible to find an antiderivative, this procedure is usually

the best way of evaluating the definite integral. Table 10.7 lists some
definite integrals directly; many of these cannot be obtained con¬
veniently by the method of first finding an antiderivative.

8.3 OTHER CLASSES OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

A differential equation of the form

D"f + h^*) D"-Jf + h2(*) Dn-2f + . . .

+ h„_i(x) Df + hn(*)f = g(.v),

where n is a positive integer and hi(*) . . . hn(*) and g(x) are all given
functions, is called a linear differential equation. A differential
equation which cannot be written in this form is called nonlinear.
If each of the functions ht(x) is a constant, the equation is said to be
linear with constant coefficients; these equations are treated in
Chap. 11. The special case in which each ht-(*) = 0 can be handled
by n applications of Table 10.4; a few specific repeated indefinite in¬
tegrals are given directly in Table 10.10. Some more general linear
differential equations are discussed in Chap. 12.
Differential equations can also be classified according to their
order. A general treatment of first- and second-order differential
equations appears in Chap. 12.

8.4 DIFFERENCES, ANTIDIFFERENCES, AND INDEFINITE

FINITE INTEGRALS

The simplest kind of difference equation is Af = g. If f is given

and we want to find g, we find the difference of f. The basic laws of
differences are given in Chap. 13, where a table of differences of basic
functions is given. If g is given, then the general solution for f is the
indefinite finite integral of g, while any particular solution is an anti¬
difference of g. Basic properties of indefinite finite integrals are given
in Chap. 14, and Table 14.2 lists some of these finite integrals.
Sec. 8.5 TYPES OF FUNCTIONAL EQUATIONS 77

8.5 FINITE SUMS

In analogy with the application of the fundamental theorem of

the integral calculus to the evaluation of definite integrals, it is some¬
times possible to evaluate a finite sum with the aid of an antidifference.
b
Thus to evaluate 2 f(x), if we can find a function F(x) such that
a

AF(x) = f(y), then

2 ffx) = F (b + 1) - F(a).
a

Some properties and a table of finite sums appear in Chap. 14.

8.6 OTHER CLASSES OF DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS

For most other classes of difference equations, it is more convenient

to express the equation in terms of the operator E instead of A. Con¬
version from one form to the other can be accomplished by the rela¬
tion E = A + 1 (see Sec. 3.5). A difference equation of the form

E"f + hx(x) En-1f + h2(x) En_2f + . . . + hn-i(x) Ef + h„(x)f = g(x),

is called a linear difference equation. A difference equation which

cannot be written in this form is called nonlinear. If each of the
functions h,(v) is a constant, the equation is said to be linear with
constant coefficients; these equations are treated in Chap. 15. Some
more general linear difference equations are discussed in Chap. 16.
 9
DERIVATIVES

9.1 TABLE: PROPERTIES OF DERIVATIVES

(1) Dcf(.v) = rDf(x) for any real number c.

(2) D[f(*) ± gO)] = Df(x) db Dg(x).

(3) D[fWg(* )] = g(*) Df(x) + {(x) Dg(x).

<*9

g(*) DfW - f(*) Dg(x)

c

(4)
II

gw [g(*) ]2
(5) Df(gW) := ?(g(x)) • Dg(*), where f' =

9.2 TABLE: DERIVATIVES OF BASIC FUNCTIONS

Q

o'

c a real number.
u
II

(1)

(2) Dx = 1.

(3) Dxp = px1,_1, p any real number.

(4) D sin x = COS -V.

(5) D cos x = — sin x

(6) D tan x = sec2 x.

(7) D cot x = — CSC2 X.

(8) D sec * = sec x tan v.

(9) D esc -v = — esc x cot X

78
Sec. 9.2 DERIVATIVES 79

1
(10) D arcsin x =
V1 — x2

-1
(ID D arccos x
V1 — X2

_J_
(12) I) arctan x =
1 + X2

-1
(13) D arccot x =
1 + X2'

1
(14) D arcsec x
xVx2 - 1
-1
(15) I) arccsc x =
xa/x2 — 1

(16) D In x = —
x

(17) D loga X
In a

(18) Dex = ex.

(19) Da1 = ax In a.

(20) D sinh x = cosh x.

(21) D cosh x = sinh x.

(22) D tanh x = sech2 x.

(23) D coth x = — csch2 x.

(24) D sech x = —sech x tanh x.

(25) D csch x = —csch x coth x.

1
(26) D sinh 1 x
a/x2 + 1

1
(27) D cosh 1x
Vx2 - 1

(28) D tanh 1 x = --;

1 — x

(29) D coth 1 X = --;

1 — X'
 DERIVATIVES See. 9.2
80
-1
(30) D sech 1 x
xV1 —
/
x2
-1
(31) D csch 1 a:
M vTT?
I

INTEGRALS

10.1 TABLE: PROPERTIES OF INDEFINITE INTEGRALS

(1) fcf(x) dx — c f f(x) dx, c a real number.

(2) / [f(x) ± g{x)\dx = f f(x) dx ± / g(x) dx.

(3) / f(x) Dg(x) dx = f(x)g(x) - / g(x) Df(x) dx, where g(x)

is any antiderivative of Dg(x).

(4) / f(gO)) Dg (x) dx = F(g(x)) + C, where

f f(x) dx = F(x) + C.

(5) / Df(x) dx = f(x) + C.

(6) D f f(x) dx = f(x).

10.2 TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION

The two basic techniques of integration are substitution and

integration by parts [formulas (4) and (3) of Sec. 10.1]. The former
is by far the more useful technique. According to (4), an integrand
of the form f(g(x)) Dg(x) for certain functions f and g may be
treated as simply f(x), provided that in the result of the integration
x is replaced by g(*)- In order not to confuse the various uses of x
81
82 INTEGRALS Sec. 10.2

in this process, we proceed formally as follows. To integrate a

function h(x):
(1) Attempt to find functions f and g such that

hM = f(g(x)) Dg(x).

(2) Evaluate J f(«) du as if V were ‘x,’ to obtain a result of the

form F(m) + C.
(3) Replace V in this result by g(x).

Example 7. Find J x2e2x8 dx. Let us choose g(x) = 2x3; then

DgO) = 6x2. We may write the integral in the form

| f e2x\6x2) dx,

hence the exponential function is a good choice for f. We evaluate

\f cudu = Uu + C,
so that
f x2e2j3 dx = |e2xS + C.

sin 2x
Example 2. Find dx. Since sin 2.v = 2 sin x cos x, we
1 + COS2 X

2 sin x cos x
shall evaluate dx. We choose g(x) = cos x. Then
1 + cos2 x
Dg(x) = —sin x, and

f 2 sin x cos x , f -2Dg(x) • g(x) ,

J 1 + cos2 X J 1 + [g(x)]2

Now we find

/’
u2 du = — In (1 -f u2) + C.
~2u

J 1 +

Replacing u by cos x,

Jf —
sin 2x
dx = — In (1 + cos2 x) + C.
1 -+
+ COS2 X

Another valuable technique is that of integration by parts, making

use of formula (3) of Sec. 10.1,

f f(x) Dg(x) dx = f(x)g(x) — f g(x) Df(x) dx.

Sec. 1 0.2 INTEGRALS 83

To make good use of this method of finding the indefinite integral of

a function h(x), we must write h(*) as a product of two functions f(x)
and DgW) where it is possible to find the indefinite integral of Dg(x),
and where g 0) DfO) is easier to integrate than the given function.
In many cases, more than one choice of f and Dg can be made;
usually only one of these leads to an essential simplification of the
problem. There are no rules which specify the choices to be made,
but only a little practice is needed to learn to reject most bad choices.

Example 3. Find f xex dx. We choose f(x) = x and Dg(x) = e1.

Then Df(.v) = 1 and g(.y) = ex. Applying formula (3) of Sec. 10.1,
we obtain

f xex dx = .vex — f ex dx = xex — ex + C.

If we had chosen f(*) = ex and Dg(*) = x, then Df(x) = ex and

g(.v) = x2/2 and we would have

J' xex dx = ^x2ex — \ J x2ex dx.

While this is a correct application of the rule, it is not a useful one,

since the new integral is more complicated than the original.
There are cases in which two or more applications of the process
of integration by parts yield a new integral which is a multiple of the
original one. In some of these cases, we can solve for the integral by
some elementary algebraic manipulations. In case this procedure
results in a particular integral, the indefinite integral can be obtained
by adding an arbitrary constant.

Example 4. We shall apply integration by parts to / ex sin x dx.

Let f(.v) = ex and Dg(*) = sin at; then Df(.v) = ex, g(x) = —cos x,
and

f ex sin x dx = — ex cos x + f ex cos x dx.

Applying the same process to / ex cos x dx, let f(x) = ex and Dg(.t) =
cos x; then Df(,v) = ex, g(*) = sin x, and

f ex cos x dx = ex sin x — f ex sin r dx.

We now have two equations in the unknowns J ex sin x dx and

 84 INTEGRALS Sec. 10.2

J eT cos x dx. If we substitute the expression for J ex cos x dx from the

second equation into the first and solve for / ex sin x dx, we obtain

f sin x dx = %ez (sin x — cos x) + C,

where C was added to obtain the indefinite integral. Solving for the
other integral, we get

f ex cos x dx = ^ex (sin x + cos x) + C.

If an integrand involves x and one of the expressions Va2 — x2,

v a2 + x2, Vx2 — a2, then the integration may often be accomplished
by the replacement of x by a trigonometric function g(x) and by in¬
tegrating an associated expression. In this expression, ‘x’ is replaced
by V in order not to confuse the various uses of‘x.’ Such replacements
are justified by the converse of formula (4) of Sec. 10.1, which holds
if the inverse of g is a function. We have the rule: To evaluate
/ f(x) dx, where f involves one of the above expressions, replace x by
a function of the form g(u), where g is chosen according to the rules
below, and evaluate / f(g(n)) Dg(w) du. In this result, replace V by
g_1(*)- The replacement procedures are given in detail in the follow¬
ing rules:

(1) If f(x) involves x and Va2 - x2, substitute a sin u for x,

a cos u for Va2 — x2, and let Dg(«) = a cos u. After substitution, the
integrated expression is in terms of u. To state it in terms of x, write

arcsin - for u.

x
for sin u,
a

y/a2 — x2
for cos u,
a

to obtain the final result.

(2) If f(x) involves x and Va2 + x2, substitute a tan u for x, a sec u
for Va2 + x2 and let Dg(w) = a sec2 u. After substitution, the in¬
tegrated expression is in terms of u. To state it in terms of x, write
Sec. 10.2 INTEGRALS 85

arctan - for u,
a

X
for tan m,
a

Vfl2 + X2
for sec m.
a

(3) If f(x) involves x and Vx2 — a1 substitute a sec u for x, a tan u

for Vx2 — a2, and let Dg(M) = a sec u tan u. After substitution, the
integrated expression is in terms of u. To state it in terms of x, write

X
arcsec - for u,
a

X
for sec m,
a

Vx2 — a2
tan u.
for
a

In each case, use trigonometric identities to find what expressions

in x replace the trigonometric functions of u in the integrated expres¬
sion.

Example 5. Evaluate

/ V9 — x2 dx

According to formula (1) of Sec. 10.1, let g(w) = 3 sin u. Then

a/9 — 9g2(«) = 3 cos u, and Dg(«) = 3 cos u. Pass to the integral

3 cos u _ . f cos2 u du
J 3 sin u
(3 cos u) du =
J sin u

Integrating by means of Table 10.4, we obtain

cos u + In *tan -
u
+ C.
2

From the trigonometric identities,

tan - — sin (m/2) _ 11 — cos u 1 — COS M

2 cos (m/2) v 1 + cos u sin u

86 INTEGRALS Sec. 10.3

Making the replacements indicated in formula (1) of Sec. 10.2,

V9 - x2
I y/9 — x2 dx
= V9 - x2 + 3 In
3 -
+ C.

10.3 SUGGESTIONS FOR THE USE OF THE TABLE

OF INTEGRALS

A particular order for listing integrals has been used in Tables 10.4
and 10.7, so that the reader will be able to find any integrand quickly
if he knows the order. The order of integrands is as follows: algebraic
functions, trigonometric functions, inverse trigonometric functions,
logarithmic, exponential, and hyperbolic functions. Integrands in¬
volving more than one function will be placed immediately following
whichever function is listed last in this ordering.
In these tables we have adopted the notation that a, b, c, and p
designate real numbers; m and n designate integers. C is an arbitrary
(real) constant.
To integrate a rational function, it is almost always advisable to
perform first a partial fractions decomposition of the integrand (see
Sec. 2.7 and 2.8).
A number of integrals in Table 10.4 are recursion formulas; they
reduce the problem of finding the integral of a function involving an
tt-th power to one involving a lower or more convenient power. After
a sufficient number of applications of these recursion formulas, the in¬
tegrand will be in a form which can be found elsewhere in the tables;
a reference to such an entry will be found following the recursion
formula.

Example 6. Find J sin7 x dx. Use formula (74) of Table 10.4 with
n = 7 to obtain

f sin7 x dx = — y(sin6 x cos * — 6 f sin5**/*).

Using the same formula with n = 5, we find

f sin5 x dx = — ^(sin4 x cos x — 4 f sinz xdx).

Finally, since n is odd, we use formula (72) of Table 10.4 to obtain

Sec. 10.4 INTEGRALS 87

f sin3 x dx = — § cos x(sin2 x + 2) + C.

Combining these results we obtain

sin" x cos x
7 35 35

If an integrand is not found in the table, one should try to make a

substitution which will form an integrand which is in the table. How¬
ever, one should bear in mind that many integrands are of such a
nature that no integral of them can be written in terms of a finite num¬
ber of elementary functions.

10.4 TABLE: INDEFINITE INTEGRALS

Algebraic Functions

' (1) J xp dx 7 7 7 *p+1 + C, \{p ^ -1.

P ~T 1

(2) = In |x| + C.

Algebraic Functions of x and ax + b

(5)
/ —* ^
ax b a
[ax — b In |ax + £>|] + C.

In |ax + b\ -)- --—- -f- C.

ax -f- b

(7) [-xdx = I1 T b 1
+ C.
J (ax +
b)3 a
a2 [_2(ax + b)2 ax b

(8) / x(ax + b)

az(p _|_ j) (ax + ^)7'+1 + C if p 9^ 1, p 9^ 2.

88 INTEGRALS Sec. 10.4

1
(9) /*„ + *).*- xm+1(ax + b)n
m + n + 1

+ nb J xm(ax + b)n~1 dxJ, if m V n V 1 ^ 0.

See (1).

(10) / xm(ax + b)n dx = —--——— \xm(ax + b)n+1

J a(m + n + 1) |_

— mb J xm~l(ax + b)n dx j, if m+n+1 VO.

See (3).

x2dx = 1_
01) | (ax + b)2 — 2b(ax + b) + b2 In |ax + 6|1
ax V b a3
VC.
x2 dx 1
(12) ax -f* b — 2b In |ax + b\-—t—-"| -f- C.
(ax + b)2 a3 ax + b\

(13) J Vax + b dx = ^ ^(ax V b)3 V C.

2Vax + b
(14)
J Vax -f- b

(15) [ xV^r+idx =2(3^ -2t)v/(^ + *)* + c.

J 15 a2

(16)
j Vax + b ix = +b r
Vax + b
See (17) if b > 0; (18) if b < 0.
dx
(17)
/ xVax V b
1
Vb
In
Vax V b — Vb
Vax V b + Vb
+c

VC, if b > 0.

dx
(18)
/ xVax — b
= -^= arctan yj^~-—- + C,
Vb
if b > 0.

(19) J x2Vax + b dx’ = ~~ V(ax + b)3 (15aV - \2abx + M2)

VC.
Sec. 10.4 INTEGRALS 89

(20)
r xn dx <n\/ax + b — nb
xn 1 dx
J ax + b a{2n + 1) _ y'ax + b_
See (14).

dx Vax 4~ b
(21) f-
J xn Vax + b (n ~ l)^”-1

dx
(2n - 3)a f_
(2n — 2)b J xn~iyax + b
See (14).

Algebraic Functions of x and ax2 + b

dx r'V^ db
(22) arctan -— -\- C, if ab > 0.
ax2 + b \/af)

dx 1 b + x y — ab
(23) In + C
ax2 + b 2V — ab b — xy — ab

1 _! xy — ab
tanh + C, if ab < 0.
y — ab

dx 1 ^y~a — yb
(24) In + C, if a > 0, b > 0.
ax2 - b 2 yab x\^a + y b

dx 1 \/l) + xVfl
(25) In + C, ifa > 0, b > 0
— ax2 + b 2 yab yb — xyc

dx 1 dx
(26)
(ax2 + b)m+1 2mb _(ax2 + b)
+ (2m — 1)
{ax2 + b)T

See (23) or (24) if b > 0; (23) if b < 0.

{ax2 + b)p+l
(27) f x{ax2 + b)p dx = — + C, Up ^ -1.
J 2a p + 1

<28) iyh=tn^+b]+a
f x dx —1
(29) + C, if p > 0.
{ax2 + b)p+1 2pa{ax2 + b)p

dx
(30) / — — In + C.
:{axn + b) bn axn + b
90 INTEGRALS Sec. 10.4

(31) /
J
+ b)m dx = ----
xp(axn
nm + p + 1
[xp+l(axn -f- b)r

+ bnm J xp(axn + b)m~l dx\ if m > 0 and nm + p + 1 ^ 0.

See (1).

(32) f Vax2 + b dx = ^ Vax2 + b H-^-= In \xVa + Vax2 + b\

J 2 2 Va
C, if a > 0.

(33) J Vax2 + b dx = ^ Vax2 + b + -arcsin ~fv}

+ C, if a < 0.
Algebraic Functions of x and ax2 + bx + c
X = ax2 -j- bx + c, q = Aac — b2.

r dx 1 lax +A + C^ if q > o.
(34) /— a
J ax2 + bx + c Vq

[ dx 1 lax + b — V-
(35) In + C
J ax2 + bx +c V —q lax + b -f V — q

-^2= tanh-1 2ax±_b + C, if q < 0.

V —q V q —

dx _ lax -f~ b ^ Iflrp— 1 )a [f dx_

dx
(36)
(ax2 + bx + c)n+1 nqXn nq J X*
See (34) if q > 0; (35) if q < 0.

(37) [ Vax' + bx + cdx = 2S1±±VX + S- ( * .

J 4a 8a J Vx

See (38) if a > 0; (39) if a < 0.

dx 1 ,
(38)
/ ,
Vax2 + dx + c
= —7= In
Va
vJ+ xv a • 4
iV a
+ C

if a > 0.

(39) /
dx 1 . — lax — b n ..
arcsin -;=-(- C, 11 a < 0.
Vax2 + bx + c V V— <
Sec. 10.4 INTEGRALS 91

dx 1
(40) In \X\ - b I |
ax2 + bx + c 2a

See (32) if q > 0; (33) if q < 0

Algebraic Functions of x and x2 ± a2

dx
(41)
/ x2 + a2
1 arctan - + C.
a

'x — a
a

(42) [ = f In + C = -- coth-1 - + C.
J x2 — a2 la x + a a a

(43) J Vi2 ± a2 dx = ^[xVx2 ± a2 ± a2 In \x + Vx2 ± a2\] + C.

(44) / = In lx + Vx2 ± a21 + C.
Vx2 ± a:

(45) J xVx2 ± a2 dx = | V(x2 ± a2)3 + C.

(46)
/ Vat2 + a2
dx = Vx2 + a2 — a In
a + Vx2 + a
+ C.

(47)
/ x
x dx
dx = Vx2 — a2 — a arcsec - + C.

(48) Vx2 db a2 + C.
Vx2 ± a2

dx Vx2 + a2 +
(49) / -In + C
xVx2 -f- a2 a a;

= -- sinh-1 - + C.
a M
(/x 1 X I s-i 1 KZ .
(50) / = .-.arcsec - + L = - arccos.-. + G .
kVa:2 — a2 a a

(51) JV (a:2 ± a2)3 dx — |-[2xV(x2 ± a2)3 =t 3a2xVx2 zb

-f- 3a4 In |x + Vx2 ± a2\ ] + C.

<fx ±x
(52)
/ V(x2 ± a2)3 a2Vx2 ±
+ C.

(53) J xV(x2 ± a2)3 rfx = iV(x2 db a2)5 + C.

92 INTEGRALS Sec. 1 0.4

dx -1
(54) + c.
V7{x2 ± a2)3 Vx2 ± a2

Algebraic Functions of x and a2 — x2

dx a + x
(55) +C
a2 — x2 2a a — x

= - tanh 1 - + C.
a a

(56) I ^a2 — x2 dx — \ (^xVa2 — x2 + a2 arcsin -'j + C.

(57) ,— X = arcsin.- + C
Va2 - x2 \a\

= — arccos —|- C.

(58) j" x Va2 — x2 dx = — jV(a2 — *2)3 -(- C.

f Va2 — x2
(59) dx = ^j^2-a in* + v«2-*2 + C.
x

x dx
(60) = - Va2 - x2 + C.
Va2 - *2

dx a -b V a2 — x2
(61) --In +c
*Va2 — x2

= — - cosh 1 - + C.
a \x\

2xV (a2 — x2)3 + 3a2* V,a2 — x2

+ 3a4 arcsin -
\a\
+ c.

+ C.
a2 — x2)3 a2Va2 — x2

(
Sec. 10.4 INTEGRALS 93

(64) J xV^o2 — x2)3 dx = (a1 — x2)5 + C.

(65)
/ x dx
y/ (a2 — x2)3 ''Jed —
+ C.

Other Algebraic Functions

(66) fV2^,X = i[(*-aW2ax-

. x — a
+ a~ aresm + C.
I a\ J

f dx a — x . n
(67) — = arccos-h G.
J V2ax — r2 Ifll

(68) J ■ J x dx = arcsin x — V1 — x2 + C.

Trigonometric Functions

(69) sin x dx — — cos x + C.

\
(70) sin (ox + b) dx =-cos (ox + 6) + C-

(71) [ sin2 (ox + b) dx — ^ — — cos (ox + 6) sin (ox + 6) + C

J 2 2a

x sin 2(qx -|- b)

+ C.
~ 2 4o

(72) J sin3 (ox + b) dx

1
= — — cos (ox + b) [sin2 (ox + 6) + 2] + C.
3o

(73) J sin4 (ax + 6) dx = 3x

8~ _
3 sin 2(ox -f- 6)
16a

sin3 (ax + 6) cos (ox -f- />)

+ c.
4a
94 INTEGRALS Sec. 10.4

(74) / sin'1 (ax + b) dx =- sin" 1 (ax + b) cos (ax + b)

J an

— a(n — 1) J sin"-2 (ax + b) dxJ-

See (73) if n is even; (72) if n is odd.

(75) [ x sin (ax -\- b) dx = — sin (ax -f- b) — - cos (ax + b) + C.

J a2- a

(76) [ x sin2 (ax + b) ix = £ - *-dn 2(ax +

J 4 4a

cos 2 (ax -)- b)

+ C.
8a2

(77) J x2 sin2 (a* + 6) dx = |-sin 2(ax + b)

x cos 2 (ax -|- b)
+ C.
4 a2

(78) J xn sin (ax + b) dx

= —- xn cos (ax + b) — n J .x"-1 cos (ax + b)
See (91) if n is even; (75) if n is odd.

sin ax dx (ax)3 . (ax)5 , ,

(79)
= - 3(37) + 5(5!) C-
’ sin (ax -f- b) dx _ —1 sin (ax -f- b)
(80) -n—1
n — 1

a f cos (ax -f- b) dx

+n — 1 u.n—1
if n > 1.

See (70) if n is even; (86) if n is odd.

dx 1 /ax
/ ax -j-
+ b 7r\
(8!) j- =b sin (ax + b) “ n ta" (-T- ^ V+C
(82) / v71 -f- sin .v dx — ±2 ( sin £ — cos - ) C.

Use + sign if (8n — 1) ^ < x ^ (8« + 3) for some inte¬

ger n; otherwise use — sign.

Sec. 10.4 INTEGRALS 95

(83) — sin x dx ±2 (sin I + cos |) + c.

Use + sign if (8n — 3) < x ^ (8n + 1) ^ for some inte-

ger n; otherwise use — sign.

(84) J sin ax sin bx dx sin (a — b)x

2(a — b)
sin (a + b)x
2(a + b) +
if a1 ^ b\

(85) cos x dx = sin x + C.

/ , l\ j sin (ax + b) „
(86) cos {ax + b) dx = -1-- + C.

1 . v
(87) cos2 (ax + b) dx = — sin (ax + b) cos (ax + b) + - + C.
2a 2

= ~ sin 2(ax + b) + £ + C.
4a 2

(88) cos3 (ax + b) dx = - sin (ax + 6) — ~ sin3 (ax + b) + C

a 3a

(89)
4, , L\ J 3x , 3 sin 2 (ax + 6)
cos4 (ax + A) dx = — H-77-—-
8 16a

, cos3 (ax + A) sin (ax + &) , ^

H ~ + G.
4a

(90) cos" (ax + £) <7x = — cos’1-1 (ax + 6) sin (ax + 6)

na

+ a(n — 1) / cos"-2 (ax + 6) dx

See (89) if n is even; (88) if n is odd.

(91) [ x cos (ax -f- b) dx — -7 cos (ax + b) + - sin (ax -f- 6) + C.

J a2 a

(92)
i x“ . x sin
x cos2 (ax + b) dx = — +
2 (ax -f-
4a
6

cos
)

2 (ax -f- b) „
8a2
96 INTEGRALS Sec. 10.4

(93) J x2 cos2 (ax -f b) dx = sin 2 (ax + b)

, x cos 2 (ax + b) , ^
I . 9 TV-/*
4a2

(94)
/ x" cos (ax + b) dx

xn sin (ax + b) — n / xn 1 sin (ax + 6) dx

See (75) if n is even; (91) if n is odd.

(95) f cosaxdx = ,n H-^ + )^-+...+C.

J x 2 • 2! 4 • 4!

f cos (ax + b) ^ _ —1 cos (ax + 6)

(96)
J xn n — 1 xn_1

a f sin (ax + b)
-n—1
dx, if « > 1.
n — 1 J

See (86) if « is even; (70) if n is odd

(97)
/ dx
1 + cos (ax + 6)

dx
a
\ ax -\- b
+ c.
1 + i ^
(98)
/ , rr
1 — cos (ax -j- b)
—-COt-—-
a 2
-p C.

(99)
/ Vl -j- cos x dx = ± 2 V2 sin + C.

Use + sign if (An — \)tc < x ^ (An -(- 1)7r for some integer
n \ otherwise use — sign.

(100) J VI — cos x dx = ±2v/2 cos ^ + C.

Use sign if (An — 2)ir < x ^ 4«7t for some integer n;
otherwise use — sign.

f , , sin (a — b)x . sin (a + b)x . „

(101) / cos ax cos bx dx = —/---rf- + C,
J 2(a — 6) 2(a + b)
if a2 ^ b2.

(102)
/ • , , cos (a — b)x cos (a + b)x , „
sin ax cos bx dx =-p-v-p-^-\- C,
2(a - 6) 2(a + b) ’
if a2 ^ b2.
Sec. 10.4 INTEGRALS 97

(103) / sin (ax -f b) cos (ax + b) dx = sin2 (ax + b) + C.

J 2a

(104) / sin'' (ax -f b) cos (ax + b) dx = S-- ——^<lX ^ + C,

J a(P + 1)
if p 5^ — 1.

(105) [ sin (ax + b) cosp (ax + b) dx — —cos — ^ax ~j~ ^ -(- £

J a(p + 1)
if p — 1.

(106) J sin2 (ax + b) cos2 (ax + b) dx

= — r^- sin 4(ax + 6) + £ + C.

32a 8

(107) j sin"1 (ax + 6) cos” (ax + 6) i7x

=-—--- sinm_1 (ax + b) cos"+1 (ax + b)

a(?a + a)

— (m — l)a J sin7”-2 (ax + b) cos'1 (ax + b) dx

if m > 0, m + n ^ 0.

See (90) if m is even; (105) if m is odd.

(108)
/sin" (“ + b) cos"(o*+ 4) *
i r.
= —--—- sinm+1 (ax + b) cos" 1 (ax + b)
a(m + n)

+ o, - 0./.«-(« +i) ^ (« + *)*.

if n > 0, m + a ^ 0.
See (74) if a is even; (104) if n is odd.

dx 1
(109) = - In jtan (ax + £)| + C.
sin (ax + b) cos (ax + £) a

«/x _ —1 _
1
(110)
sin" (ax + 6) cos (ax + b) a(n — 1) sin'1-1 (ax + i)

+ J dx
sin" "22 (ax + 6) cos (ax + 6)
if n > 1.

See (128) if n is even; (109) if n is odd.

98 INTEGRALS Sec. 10.4

dx
(111)
sin {ax + b)

dx
+ sin (ax + b) cos" 2 {ax + b)
’ if n > 1.

See (135) if n

sin {ax + b)
(112) dx = + C
cos {ax + b)

1
sec {ax + b) + C.

sin: {ax + b)
(113) dx
cos {ax + b)

_\_ ~
sin {ax + b) — In tiDl!l±A + l + c.
a

cos {ax + b) -1
(114)
sin- {ax + b)
dx = +c

— - esc {ax + b) -f- C.

a

cos2 {ax + b) ax -f- b

(115)
sin {ax + b)
dx = -
a
cos {ax + b) + In tan + c.

(116) tan x dx — —In [cos x| + C = In [sec x! + C.

X

II
l

(117) tan {ax + b) dx =-In [cos {ax + b)\ + C.

a

(118) tan2 {ax + b) dx = - tan {ax + b) — x + C.

a

(119) tan3 {ax + b) dx

= — [tan2 {ax + b) + 2 In [cos {ax + 6)|] + C.

(120) / tan" {ax + b) dx = tan" 1 {ax + b)

a{n — 1)

— J tan"-2 {ax + b) dx, n ^ 2.

See (118) if n is even; (119) if n is odd.

Sec. 10.4 INTEGRALS 99

(121) jC cot x dx = In |sin

(122) jf cot (ax + b) dx =

(123) j^ cot2 (ax + b) dx =

(124) j^ cot3 (ax -f- b) dx

= — — [cot2 (ax + b) + 2 In [sin (ax + b)\ | + C.

2a

(125) I cot" (ax + b) dx =-—-—— cot"-1 (ax + b)

J «(« - 1)

— / cot’1-2 (a.Y + b) dx, n 2.

See (123) if n is even; (124) if n is odd.

(126) sec x dx = In tan + C = In [sec .v + tan ,v| + C.

(127) sec2 .v dx = tan a; + C.

(128) J sec (ax + b) dx = - In tan ^ + c.

(129) [ sec2 (ax + b) dx = - tan (ax + /;) + C.
J a
(130) [ sec3 (ax + b) dx = — sec (ax + b) tan (ax + b)
J 2a _
ax + h 7r
+ In tan I -- + - C.

1 sin (ax -f- h)

(13t) /«e «■(« + *)*-
a(n — 1) cos" 1 (a.v + b)

n — 2
+ sec'1 2 (ax + b) dx, n ^ 2.

See (129) if n is even; (130) if n is odd.

(132) sec x tan x dx = sec x + C.

100 INTEGRALS Sec. 10.4

(133) esc x dx = In tan - + C = In |csc x — cot xl + C.

2

(134) J esc2 x dx = — cot x + C.

ax + b
/ esc (ax + b) dx = - In tan- + C.
J a 2

(136) j esc2 (ax + b) dx = — - cot (ax + b) + C.

(137) esc3 (ax + b) dx = — esc (ax + b) cot (ax + b)

2a
ax + b
+ In tan + C.

—1 cos (ax + b)
(138) / cscn (ax + b) dx = —;--
J a(n — 1) sin'1-1 (ax + b)

n — 2
+ n — 1
esc" 2 (ax + b) dx, n Si 2.

See (136) if n is even; (137) if n is odd.

(139) / esc x cot x dx = — csc.v + C.

Inverse Trigonometric Functions

(140) / arcsin - dx = x arcsin —f- \ a2 — x2 + C.

(141) / (arcsin ax)2 dx = x(arcsin ax)2 — 2x

+ - V71 — a2x2 arcsin ax + C.

a

(142) J x arcsin ax dx
= [(2a2x2 — 1) arcsin ax + axV 1 — a2x2} + C.

arcsin ax 1 - Vl - a2x2 arcsin ax

(143) dx = a In + C.
ax

(144) / arccos - dx — x arccos - — Va2 — x2 + C.

J a a
Sec. 1 0.4 INTEGRALS 101

(145) / (arccos ax)2 dx = x(arccos ax)2 — 2x

-v 1 — a2x2 arccos ax + C.

(146) arctan - dx = x arctan - — ^ In (a2 + x2) + C.

a a 2

(147) arccot - dx = x arccot - + ~ In (a2 + x2) + C.

a a 2

(148) arcsec - dx = x arcsec '-a In lx + Vx2 — a21 + C.

a a

(149) arccsc - dx = x arccsc —<3 In Iat -j- Vx2 — a21 + C.

a a

Logarithmic Functions

(150) In |x dx — x In lx — x + C.

(151) logn |x| dx = x log0 Ixl — --1- C, if a 5^ 1, a > 0.

In q.

(152) In \ax + b\ dx = ax ^ In \ax + b\ — x + C.

(153) (In \x\)2 dx = x(ln |x|)2 — 2x In |x|

(154) (In |ax + h\)n dx = aX (In |ax + b\)n

— n J (In |ax + b\)n 1 dx.

See (152).

X2 , , X2
(155) x In x dx = — In x — -—\- C.
2 1 1 4

dx
(156) — In jin |x|| + C.
x In jx

In lx| 1
(157) xp In |x| dx = xp+1 + C, if p 9^ —1•
_P + 1 (p + 1)2_

(158) Y ^ dx = —\—r (In |x|)p+l + C, if p 7* — 1.

X p + 1
102 INTEGRALS Sec. 10.4

(159) J sin In |x| dx = ^ [sin In |x| — cos In |x|] + C.

(160) J cos In |x| dx — ^ [sin In |x| + cos In |x| ] + C.

Exponential Functions

(161) J ex dx = ex + C.
(162)
/ eax
eax dx = ~ + C.

(163)
/ _OI

xeax dx — — (ax — 1) + C.

f m , xmeax m f nr , . _
(164) / x ea dx =-/ xm ‘eax w Si 2.
J a a J

See (163).

eax dx ,ii, , (a*)2 , (a*)3 , , ^

(165) - = In * + «* + r—— + ~—+ • • • + C.
x 2 • 2! 3 • 3!

„„ . , , eox(a sin bx — b cos bx) . „

(166)
/ eox sin bx dx = —---- + C.
a2 + b2

eax(a cos bx + b sin bx)

(167) eax cos bx dx = + C.
d2 + b2
dx
(168) = x — In (1 + ex) + C.
1 + ex

dx
(169) 7 — 7- In |oepx + b\ + C, if b 9^ 0, p ^ 0.
aepx b b bp

(170)
/ --7^7- = —7= arctan ( epx a 7 ) + C, if ab > 0.
aepx + be-px pVab V VbJ ' ’

(171)
J
[ eax In |6x| dx = - eax In \bx\ — -
a a J
f — dx.
x

See (165).

(172)
/ ax dx — r~-[- C, if a > 0, a
In a
, bx
9^ 1.

(173)
/ a.bx dx =
b In
+ C, if a > 0, a ^ 1.
Sec. 10.4 INTEGRALS 103

074) + if <1 > 0, a / 1

Hyperbolic Functions

(175) sinh ax tlx — cosh ax -f- C.

<1

(176) I sinh2 ax dx = * sinh 2ax — lv -j- C.

J
(177) cosh ax dx = - sinh ax -J- C.
a

(178) cosh" ax dx = — sinh 2ax + j V +

4(7

(179) tanh ax dx = - In |cosh ax\ -f C.

a

(180) tanh" ax dx = x-tanh ax + C.

a

(181) coth ax dx = - In |sinh ax\ + C.

a

(182) coth" ax dx — x — - coth ax + C.

(183) scch ax dx = - arctan (sinh ax) -f- C.

a

(184) / sech" ax dx = - tanh ax + (7.

J a
(185) / csch ax dx —-In |coth ax + csch ax I + C

= - In tanh a4
a
+ c.

(186)
/ csch2 ax dx =-coth ax + C.
a
(187) sech ax tanh ax dx = — scch ax + C.
a

(188)
/ csch ax coth ax dx —
a
csch ax | C.
104 INTEGRALS Sec. 10.5

10.5 DEFINITE INTEGRALS

Table 10.7 contains some definite integrals, many of which cannot

be obtained by the computation of the antiderivative of the integrand.
Many of these are improper integrals, that is, integrals whose in¬
tervals of integration are infinite or for which the integrand is un¬
defined at an end point of the interval of integration. Provided the
limit exists in each case, we have

/: f(x) dx = f(.r) dx;

If f(,v) is undefined at x = b, then if b > a,

f(x) dx = lim 1 f(.v) dx, where h > 0.

If f(x) is undefined at x = a, then if b > a,

f(x) dx = lim / f(x) dx, where h > 0.

10.6 TABLE: PROPERTIES OF DEFINITE INTEGRALS

c any real number.

(2) / [f(x) ± g(*)] dx = I f(^) dx ±

l
a
g(x) dx.

(3) / f(x) dx = 0.
Sec. 10.7 INTEGRALS 105

10.7 TABLE: DEFINITE INTEGRALS

f " sin x dx f°° COS X dx _ TV

(1)
o x Jo *2
w/2 w/2

(2) sin" x dx = / cos" x dx

1 • 3 • 5 • • • (a — 1) 7r .c
is even
~ 2.4”-6...» 2 ,f"
2 • 4 • 6 • ■ • (a — 1) ,f
— -• li a is odd.
1 • 3 • 5 • • • n

(3) J sin2 nx dx = J/ cos2 nx dx = —

2
00 sin ax ,
/ 00 cm
7r
n v
„
(4) -dx = —» if a > 0,
o -v
= 0, if a = 0,

7T
= — —> if a < 0.
2

(5) sin mx sin nx dx = / cos aix cos ax </x

sin mx cos ax dx = 0, m n.

«> /;; cos ax

+ x2
dx = \ c. loL

(7) cos (x2) dx = f sin (x2) dx = | y/j

Jo
'2 dx arccos a
(8) [' 1 -f « COS x Vi — a2
a2 < 1.
Jo

dx TV
(9) a2 < 1.
10 1 + a cos x V\ — a2

tan x , 7r
(10) -a'x = -•
x 2

(ID ; ^ cos />x dx =

a2 + /r
a > 0.
106 INTEGRALS Sec. 10.8

(12) e ax sin bx dx a > 0.

a2 + b2

V 7r p b2/4a2
(13)
/; e-02*2 cos bx dx = --->
2a
a > 0.

10.8 TABLE: DEFINITE INTEGRALS OF SPECIAL INTEREST

IN PROBABILITY

Let f(x) = - e x,a.

a
8
dd

(la)
II

Jo

(lb) / xi(x) dx = a.
Jo

(lc) [ x2f(x) dx = 2a2.

Jo

Let f(x) =
<rV/27r

(2 a) J f(x) dx = 1.

(2b) 1 xf(x) dx = ix.

(2c) J (x — /x)2i(x) dx =

10.9 ANTIDERIVATIVES OF ORDER n

Given a function g(x), the general solution form of the equation

D"f = g(x) is the sum of a function h(A:) and an expression of the form

C\Xn “h C2X'1 1 -|- . . . Cn—\X + Cn.

The function h(.r) is obtained by integrating successive particular

integrals of g(x), the process continuing for n steps. The function
h(.v) is called the antiderivative of g(x) of order n and is denoted
by LgC*). Algebraic properties of the repeated indefinite integral
are:
Sec. 10.10 INTEGRALS 107

(1) In(cg(*)) = c • I"g(x), c a constant,

and

(2) In[giO) ± g2(x)] = Ingi(x) ± P'gzW.

10.10 TABLE: ANTIDERIVATIVES OF ORDER n

t-V+n
(1) I'‘(xp) = P ^ - 1, —2, — n.
(P + !)(/> + 2) ...(/> + n)

(2) I" (sin ax) = sin a*, if n — 4k.

an
— cos ax
(3) I^sin ax) = > if n — 4k + 1.
a"
— sin ax
(4) I"(sin ax) = > if n — 4k + 2.
an
cos ax
(5) In(sin ax) — if „ = 4k + 3.
an
cos ax
(6) I" (cos ax) = if n = 4k.
an
sin ax
(7) I" (cos ax) = if n = 4k + 1.
an
— cos ax
(8) I" (cos ax) = > if n = 4A; + 2.
a"
— sin ,ax
(9) I" (cos ax) = . if n = 4Jfc + 3.

(10) I»(e") = V-
an
 11
LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
WITH CONSTANT COEFFICIENTS

The general form of such an equation is

D"f(x) + a1D"-1f(x) + . . . + an-iDf(x) + aj(x) = gW,

which we rewrite

[D* + fliD'*-1 + . . . + fln-iD + a„]f(x) = g(x).

The quantity in brackets is a polynomial in D which we shall denote

by p(D). The differential equation now takes the form

[p(D)]fO) = g(x).

If g = 0, the equation is said to be homogeneous. If g ^ 0,

then the homogeneous equation [p(D)]f(.v) = 0 obtained by replac¬
ing g(.v) by 0 is called the reduced equation of the given equation.
If f*(x) is a solution of the given equation, then, for any other
solution ff (jc), the function fi(x) = f*(x) — f*(x) is a solution of its
reduced equation, since

[p(D)](*?(*) - f*(x)) = g(x) - g(x) = 0.

Thus the general solution form (GSF) of the given equation is found
by adding any particular solution (PS) of the given equation to the
108
Sec. 11.1 LINEAR EQUATIONS: CONSTANT COEFFICIENTS 109

general solution form of the reduced equation. There are two major
steps to the solution of the problem:
(1) Find the general solution of the reduced equation.
(2) Find a particular solution for the given equation.

11.1 THE AUXILIARY EQUATION

To obtain the general solution of a homogeneous linear differential

equation with constant coefficients [p(D)]f(x) = 0, we first solve the
auxiliary equation
pO) = 0,

where p(m) is the polynomial in m obtained by replacing D by m in

p(D).

11.2 HOMOGENEOUS EQUATIONS OF FIRST ORDER

The first-order equation takes the form

[p(D)]f(x) = [D — a]f(x) =0, a a real number.

The general solution form is

f(x) = Ceox.

11.3 HOMOGENEOUS EQUATIONS OF SECOND ORDER

The general solution form of the second-order equation [p(D)]f(x)

= 0 is tabulated in Table 11.4 according to the nature of the roots
of the auxiliary equation p(m) = 0.

11.4 TABLE: GENERAL SOLUTION FORMS OF THE LINEAR

HOMOGENEOUS EQUATION OF SECOND ORDER WITH
CONSTANT COEFFICIENTS

Let m\ and m2 be the roots of p(m) = 0.

(1) m\ 9^ m2, both real:

GSF: f(*) = Ciem,x + C2em,x.

 110 LINEAR EQUATIONS: CONSTANT COEFFICIENTS Sec. 11.5

(2) mi = m2:

GSF: f(x) = (Ci + C2x)em'x.

(3) The roots of the auxiliary equation are complex:

mi = a + bi, m2 = a — bi.

GSF: f(x) = eax(Ci sin bx + C2 cos bx),

or f(x) = eaxCi sin (bx + C2),

or f(x) = eaxCi cos (bx + C2),

or f(x) = eax(C1eibx + C2e~ibx).

(Note that Cj and C2 do not stand for the same arbitrary constants in
these four GSF’s.) The equivalence of the first three of these forms
is discussed in Example 8 of Sec. 4.9.
The equivalence of the first three of these forms is discussed in Ex¬
ample 8 of Sec. 4.9.

11.5 EXAMPLES

(1) [D2 + 2D + 5 ]f(at) = 0. We first solve the auxiliary equa¬

tion m2 + 2m + 5 = 0, obtaining m = — 1 dh 2i. Then a = — 1,
b = 2, and the general solution form is

f(x) = e-I(Ci sin 2x + C2 cos 2x).

(2) [D2 — 3D — 4]f = 0. Solving m2 — 3m — 4 = 0, we obtain

mi = —\ and m2 = +4. The general solution form is

f(*) = Cie~x + C2e*x.

(3) [D2 + 6D + 9]f = 0. The roots of m2 + 6m + 9 = 0 are both

— 3. Hence, the general solution form is

f(x) = (Ci + C2x) e~3x.

11.6 HOMOGENEOUS EQUATIONS OF ORDER n

To find the general solution form for the homogeneous equation

of order n, [p(D) ]f = 0, one should first find the roots of the auxiliary
equation p(m) = 0. Let the distinct real roots of this equation be de¬
noted by mx, m2, , mk, and let their multiplicities be ri, r2, ... , rk,
respectively. Let the pairs of distinct complex roots be denoted by
Sec. 11.7 LINEAR EQUATIONS: CONSTANT COEFFICIENTS 111

ak+i ± bk+ii, flfc+2 zb bk+2i, . . . , ak+t zb bk+ii, with multiplicities rk+h

rk+2, . . . , rk+i, respectively. Then the general solution form of the
equation is the sum of the general solution forms of the equations

[(D — my)r']f(x) =0, 1

and

[(D - a,- - byi)r’(D - ay + byi)r,]f(*) =0, k + 1 £j ^ k + /,

where the arbitrary constants appearing in the solutions will be re¬

numbered so that all have different subscripts. These general solution
forms are listed in Table 11.7.

11.7 TABLE: GENERAL SOLUTION FORMS FOR HOMOGENEOUS

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF ORDER n
WITH CONSTANT COEFFICIENTS (See Sec. 11.6)

(1) rrij is real, and ry = 1:

GSF: fy(Y) = Cem,x.

(2) mj is real, and ry > 1:

GSF: fyO) = (Ci + C2x + . . . + Crixr''~1)emiX.

(3) ay zb bji are complex roots, and ry = 1:

GSF: fj{x) — ea,*(Ci sin bjx + C2 cos bjx),

or fy(x) = CieaiX sin (b3-x + C2),

or fy (x) = Cieaix cos {bjX + C2),

or fy(x) = en'x(C\etb,x + C2e ~'b,x).

(4) ay ± bji are complex roots, and ry > 1.

GSF: fy(x) = (Ci + C2x + . . . + Crxr’~l)eaiX sin b,x

+ (Crf+1 + Crj+2x + . . . + C2r(xr,~1)eniX cos b3x.

11.8 EXAMPLE

[D(D — 2)3(D + l)]f = 0. The roots (and their respective multi¬

plicities) of m(m — 2)3(m + 1) = 0 are
112 LINEAR EQUATIONS: CONSTANT COEFFICIENTS Sec. 11.9

mi = 0, rx = 1,

m2 = — 1, r2 = 1,

= 2, r3 = 3.

GSF: f(x) = Ci + C2e~x + (C3 + G\x + C5x2)e2x.

11.9 PARTICULAR SOLUTIONS OF LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS WITH CONSTANT COEFFICIENTS

A particular solution of the equation [p(D)]f(.v) = g(x) can

often be found if one can guess the form such a solution is likely
to take. Table 11.10 lists a number of aids to good guesses for
particular solutions. The constants A and B (with or without sub¬
scripts) are real numbers to be determined by substituting the par¬
ticular solution f*(x) into the given equation. The examples of Sec.
11.12 illustrate how the table is used.
It will appear that it is necessary to check whether certain num¬
bers are roots of the auxiliary equation p(m) = 0. One should recall,
however, that all roots of this equation were obtained in finding the
general solution of the reduced equation. In particular, in each case,
the number in question is a root if and only if g(x) is a solution of the
reduced equation.

11.10 TABLE: PARTICULAR SOLUTIONS OF LINEAR

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS WITH CONSTANT
COEFFICIENTS

(1) g(x) = k, k a real number:

PS: f*(x) = A unless 0 is a root of p(m) = 0;

f*(x) = Axr if 0 is a root of p(wz) = 0 of multiplicity r.

(2) g(x) = X, where X is a polynomial in v of degree s:

PS: f*(x) = Aq + A\X + . . . + Asxs unless 0 is a root of

p (m) = 0;

f*(x) = (A0 + A\x + . . . + Asxs)xT if 0 is a root of

p (m) = 0 of multiplicity r.
Sec. 11.10 LINEAR EQUATIONS: CONSTANT COEFFICIENTS 113

(3) g0) = p sin qx:

PS: f*(*) = A sin qx + B cos qx unless iq is a root of

pO) = 0;

f*(*) = (A sin qx + B cos qx)xr if iq is a root of

p(m) = 0 of multiplicity r.

(4) g(*) = p cos qx:

PS: £*(x) = A sin qx + B cos qx unless iq is a root of

p(m) = 0;

f*(Y) = (A sin qx + B cos qx)xr if iq is a root of

p(m) = 0 of multiplicity r.

(5) g(x) = peqx:

PS: f*(x) = Acqx unless q is a root of p(wi) = 0;

f*(x) = Axreqx if q is a root of p (m) — 0 of multiplicity r.

(6) g(*) = kepx sin qx:

PS: f*{x) — Aepx sin qx + Bepx cos qx unless p + iq is a root

of p (m) = 0;

f*(x) = (Aepx sin qx + Bepx cos qx)xr if p + iq is a root

of p(m) = 0 of multiplicity r.

(7) g(x) = kepx cos qx:

PS: f*(x) = Aepx sin qx + Bepx cos qx unless p + iq is a root

of p (m) = 0;

f*(x) = (Aepx sin qx + Bepx cos qx)xr if p + iq is a root

of p (m) = 0 of multiplicity r.

(8) g(*) = Xe91, where X is a polynomial in x of degree s:

PS: f*(*) = (Ao + A\x + . . . + Asxa)eqx unless q is a root of

pW = 0;

f*(x) = (A0 + A\x + • • • + Aaxs)xreqx if q is a root of

p (m) = 0 of multiplicity r.
114 LINEAR EQUATIONS: CONSTANT COEFFICIENTS Sec. 11.11

(9) g(x) = X sin qx, where X is a polynomial in x of degree s:

PS: f*(.v) = (An + A\X + . . . -j- Ahx’) sin qx

+ (Bo + BiX + • • • + B,x*) cos qx
unless iq is a root of p(m) = 0;

P(*) = (/lo + A\X + . . . + Aux")xr sin qx

+ (Bo + B\X + . . . + B,x‘)xr cos qx
if iq is a root of p(rn) = 0 of multiplicity r.

(10) g(.v) = X cos qx, where X is a polynomial in x of degree 5:

PS: f*(*) = (Ao + A\X + . . . + Ahx*) sin qx

+ (Bn + B\X + . . . + /i„x") cos qx
unless iq is a root of p (m) = 0;

f*(x) = (An + Aix + . . . + Ahx")xr sin qx

+ (Bn + B\x + BHx’)xr cos qx
if iq is a root of p(m) = 0 of multiplicity r.

(11) g(.v) = Xe7’x sin qx, where X is a polynomial in x of degree s:

PS: P(;t) = (An + Aix + . . . + Aaxa)epx sin qx

+ (Bn + B\X + . . . + BKx’)epx cos qx
unless p + iq is a root of p(m) = 0;

f*(*) = (An + A\X + . . . + AHx*)xrepx sin qx

+ (Bo + B\X + . . . + Bax’)xrepx cos qx
if p + iq is a root of p(w) = 0 of multiplicity r.

(12) g(.v) = Xepx cos qx, where X is a polynomial in * of degree s:

PS: f*(A") = (An + A]X + . . . -|- A„xH)epx sin qx

+ (Bn + B\X + . . . + Bax’)epz cos qx
unless p + iq is a root of p(m) = 0;

f*(*) = (An + Aix + . . . + A,x*)xreVT sin qx

+ (Bn + B\X + . . . + Bax’)xrepx cos qx
if p + iq is a root of p(w) = 0 of multiplicity r.

11.11 REMARK ON THE EXTENSION OF TABLE 11.10

Suppose that

g(*) = gi(*) + gaW + . . . + gn(x),

where particular solutions for [p(D) |f(.v) = g,(.v) can be found
Sec. 11.12 LINEAR EQUATIONS: CONSTANT COEFFICIENTS 115

in Table 11.10 (or elsewhere). Then a particular solution for

[p(D)]f(v) = g0 l) can be obtained by adding the particular solutions
for each of the equations |p(D)]f(.v) = g,(.v).

11.12 EXAMPLES

(1) [D2 + 2D T 5]f(.v) = 5.v2 + B.v + 6. Since g(.v) is a poly¬

nomial of degree 2, and since 0 is not a root of m2 + 2m + 5 = 0,
formula (2) of Table 11.10 tells us that a particular solution of the
given equation has the form A0 + A\X + /b.v2. Substituting this in the
given equation, we obtain

2 A2 + 2A\ + AAnx + 5d0 + 5A& + 5/12+ = 5.v2 + 8at + 6.

Equating coefficients of like powers of .v,

5/12 = 5,

A A, + 5 Ay = 8,

2 At + 2/1! + 5/l0 = 6.

Solving, we get A2 = l,Al = f, A0 = if. Adding our particular solu¬

tion to the general solution form found in Example 1 of Sec. 11.5, wc
find that the general solution form for the given equation is

f(.v) = e-x(Ci sin 2x + C2 cos 2x) + x2 + $x + if.

(2) [D2 + 6D + 9]f(*) = e_3x. In Example 3 of Sec. 11.5, we

found that —3 is a double root of m2 + 6m + 9 = 0. 1 hus, a par¬
ticular solution, according to (5) of Table 11.10, has the form
f*(.v) = Ax2e~3x. Substituting this for f(.v) in the given equation, wc
get

A(9x2 - \2x +'2)e_31 + 6/1 (— 3.v2 + 2.v)e-Sl + 9^+e"3* = e"3*.

The coefficients of x2e~3x and xe~3x arc both 0. Equating coefficients

of e_3x, we get A — Using this particular solution and the general
solution form found in Example 3 of Sec. 11.5 lor the reduced equa¬
tion, the general solution form for the given equation is

f(.v) = (Ci + C2x)e-3X + iv2e-+

(3) [D2 — 3D - 4]f(.v) = 25 sin 3.v. Since 31 is not a root of

w2 _ 3m _ 4; we use (3) 0f Table 11.10 and find that a particular
116 LINEAR EQUATIONS: CONSTANT COEFFICIENTS Sec. 11.12

solution has the form A sin 3x + B cos 3*. Substituting this for f(.v)
in the given equation, we get

( — 9A + 9B — 4A) sin 3x + ( — 9B — 9A — 4B) cos 3x = 25 sin 3x.

Equating coefficients of sin 3,v and cos 3.v, we get

-9A - 13B = 0,

-13d + 9B = 25.

Solving these two equations together, we find A = —1.3, B = 0.9.

Adding the general solution form of the reduced equation found in
Example 2 of Sec. 11.5 to the particular solution found here, we get

f(x) = Cie J + C2e1x — 1.3 sin 3x + 0.9 cos 3x.

 12
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
OF FIRST AND SECOND ORDER

12.1 FUNCTIONS OF MORE THAN ONE ARGUMENT

A function of more than one argument is a mapping from sets of

real numbers to real numbers. A value of a function of n arguments
is determined by specifying n real numbers, one for each argument.
Functions of more than one argument will be denoted by g or a
capital letter. Arguments, which can be values of functions, will be
denoted by w, x, y, z, . . . , or by the symbols which denote functions.
In particular, if f is a function of a single argument x, we shall fre¬
quently consider a function g(x, f) of the two arguments x and f(x).

12.2 PARTIAL DERIVATIVES

Let F be a function of n arguments Xi, , xn. From this function,

we can form a new function of any one of its arguments (say, x,) by
keeping all the other arguments fixed. If this function has a derivative,
its derivative is called the partial derivative of F with respect to x,-,
written dF/dx,-. In general, dF/dx, can be regarded as a function of
the same n arguments as F, since the values of dF/dx, are determined
not only by x, but also by the other arguments.
117
118 • DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF FIRST AND SECOND ORDER Sec. 12.3

12.3 PARTIAL INTEGRATION

If G is a function for which dG/dxi = F, then G is called a partial

integral of F with respect to xi} written

GOi, . . . ,xn) =/ FOi, dxi.

12.4 EXAMPLES

(1) If F(v, y) = x sin y — y cos x, then

dF , dF
— = sin y + y sin x and — = x cos y — cos x.
d.v " dy

(2) If g(v, f) = v2f - 5f3 + 3x, then

^ = 2xi +3 and - x2 - 15f2.

d.v di

12.5 LINEAR DEPENDENCE AND INDEPENDENCE OF FUNCTIONS

Let fi, f2, . . . , f„ be a set of n functions. If there exists a set of n

constants, kh k2, , kn, not all zero such that the sum

k\{\ -(- k2i2 d- • • • d- kn= 0,

then the functions of the set are said to be linearly dependent. On

the other hand, if the equation

kif\ 4~ k2i2 4- • • • + knin = 0

implies that ki = k2 = . . . kn = 0, then the functions of the set are

said to be linearly independent.
Any set of functions from among the following is a linearly inde¬
pendent set:

A single nonzero constant function;

y Y*2 y3
Aj 2 A ^

e1, e2x, e3x.

c*— x f*— 2x p—3x
c ) c ) c 3

sin v, sin 2v, sin 3v, . . . ;

Sec. 12.6 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF FIRST AND SECOND ORDER 119

cos x, cos 2x, cos 3x, . . . ;

xekl, x2ckx, x3ekx, . . . ;

x sin kx, x2 sin kx, x3 sin kx, . . . ;

x cos kx, x2 cos kx, x3 cos kx, . . . , k any real number, k 9^ 0.

The functions cos 2x, sin2 x, and 4 form an example of a linearly

dependent set of functions, since

— 4 cos 2x — 8 sin2 x -j- 1 -4 = 0.

12.6 USE OF THE INTEGRAL TABLE

In the tables which follow, the procedures which lead to general

solution forms of certain types of differential equations require the
evaluation of one or more integrals. These integrals can often be
found in Table 10.4. The constant C of integration listed with the
formula in that table should be omitted when the integral is used
here, since the formulas given below supply arbitrary constants where
they are needed.

12.7 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF FIRST ORDER

A differential equation of first order expresses a condition to be

satisfied by a function f and its first derivative Df. We call such an
equation linear, i.e., linear Df, it can be written in the form

(1) Df = g(x, f),

where g is a function of at most two arguments x and f. Conversely,

if a differential equation of first order cannot be written in the form
(1) (that is, solved explicitly for Df) then it is a nonlinear equation.
If an equation can be written in the form (1), the technique of
solving it, if one exists, depends on the character of the function g(x, f).
The procedure for using Table 12.9 to solve a linear differential equa¬
tion of first order is:
(1) Solve the equation for Df; that is, write the equation in the
form Df = g(x, f).
(2) Locate the form of the function g(x, f) in the classification list
in Sec. 12.8. This refers to an entry in Table 12.9.
120 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF FIRST AND SECOND ORDER Sec. 12.8

(3) Follow the procedure outlined in the appropriate entry of

Table 12.9 to obtain the general solution form of the equation.

12.8 CLASSIFICATION LIST FOR EQUATIONS OF THE FORM

Df = g(x, f)

(1) g(x, f) is a function of * alone (does not involve f). Write

g(x) for g(x, f). See formula (1) of Table 12.9.
(2) g(x, f) is a function of f alone (does not involve x). Write
g(f) for g(x, f). See formula (2) of Table 12.9.
(3) g(x, f) is the product of a function of x alone and a function
of f alone (separable equation). Write h(x)j(f) for g(x, f). See for¬
mula (3) of Table 12.9.
(4) g(x, f) = u(x) + fv(x), u(x), and v(x) are functions of x
alone (equation linear in f). See formula (4) of Table 12.9.
(5) g(x, f) = f"u(x) + fv(x), u(x), and v(x) are functions of x
alone (Bernoulli equation). See formula (5) of Table 12.9.

(6) g(x, f) = jy where p(tx, tf) = tnp(x, f) and q(tx, tf) =

q(x,i)
<"q(x, f) for some number n (homogeneous equation). See formula (6)
of Table 12.9.
[Note: If p(x, f) and q(x, f) are polynomials in which the sums of
the powers of x and f in each term of both are equal, the equation is
homogeneous. ]

(7) g(x, f) = a'X ^ Cl (linear fractional form). See for-

a-ix + 021 T C2

mula (7) of Table 12.9.

/q\ ( ^ M(x, f) dM , dN n , . .
(8) g(x, f) = "{tf + fa- = ^ (equation in exact

form). See formula (8) of Table 12.9.

Pf*, f) d^
(9) g(x, f) ^ 0.
Q,(x, f) dx

See formula (9) of Table 12.9 for methods of finding a function

Sec. 12.9 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF FIRST AND SECOND ORDER 121

R(*j f), called an integrating factor, so that the equation

P(x, f)R(x, f)
Q/*, f)R(*, f)

is exact. Then apply (8) of Table 12.9. In general, the problem of

finding an integrating factor is just as difficult as solving the differ¬
ential equation itself. Though the entries of formula (9) will yield
an integrating factor in some cases, it is more efficient to try to find
one by inspection before consulting the table.

12.9 TABLE: GENERAL SOLUTION FORMS FOR

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF FIRST ORDER

(1) Equation: Df = g(x).

GSF: f(x) = y g(x) dx + C.

(2) Equation: Df = g(f).

(3) Equation: Df = h(x)j(f).

GSF: /jfj = / HO) dx + C.

(4) Equation: Df = u(x) + fv(x).

Let w(x) = — y v(x) dx.

GSF: f(x) = e~w(x) [J u(x)ew(x) dx + C].

(5) Equation Df = f"u(x) + fv(x).

Let w(x) = (w — l)y v(x) dx.

GSF: f(x) = je~w(x)[(l — n)f u(x)ew(x) dx + CJ}1/(1_n).

(6) Equation:

Df = ^ (homogeneous).
q(*, f)
Let
122 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF FIRST AND SECOND ORDER Sec. 12.9

GSF: f(x) is defined implicidy by

F(*)-InH + Cl where y = f(*).

a\X -(- b\i -f- C\

(7) Equation: Df
a2x -)- b2i -(- Ci
Case 1: ai/a2 = b\/b2.
Let m = a2 + b\ and n = b2ci — bid.
(a) m 9^ 0.
GSF: f(x) is given implicitly by
n In \m(a2x + b2y + c2) + n| = m(b2y — bxx) + C,

where y = f(x).
(b) m — 0.
GSF: f(x) is given implicitly by
(a2x + by -f a)2 = 2 nx + C, where y = f(x).

Case 2: ai/a2 7^ bi/b2.

Let m and n be simultaneous solutions of the linear equations

aim + bin + c\ = 0,
a2m + b2n + c2 = 0.

Let F(») = j {a2 + b2v) dv

+ O2 — b\)v — biv2

GSF: f(x) is defined implicitly by

F _ n^j = In |jc — m\ + C, where y f(x).

(8) Equation:

Df = ^ (exact)
NO, f) ( aCt)’
Let

F0> f) = ~fM(x,{)dx,

GO, f) = ^ / NO, f) di.

GSF: Lise one of the following two equivalent forms

(1) fM{x,i)dx-f [NO, f) + FO, f)] d{ = C.

(2) / NO, f) di -/ [MO, f) + GO, i)]dx = C.

 Sec. 12.9 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF FIRST AND SECOND ORDER 123

(9) Equation of the form

Df
Ojx, f) at ax *

Integrating Factors
dP
(9a) AQ, k a real number.
df dx

IF : R(*,f) = e~kx.
<r> l<o
0^1 *

dP
+

(9b) —k a real number.

II

df X
IF : R(*,f) = xk.
dP
(9c) —k a real number.
df dx

IF: R(x, f) = f*.

dP
(9d) + ^ = — a Q cot ax.
df dx

IF: R(x, f) = sin ax.

dP
(9e) + ^ = a Q tan ax.
df dx

IF: R(*> f) = cos ax.

dP
df dx
(9f) h(x),
Q

where h is a function of the single argument x.

IF: R(*j f) — g — f h(:r) dx

dP ,dQ
df dx
(9g) b(f),
P

where h is a function of the single argument f.

IF: R(*j f) — e-S h(f )dt

dP
df d.v
(9h) h(x + f),
P + Q
 124 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF FIRST AND SECOND ORDER Sec. 12.9

where h is a function of the single argument x + f.

IF: R(x, f) = e--/’hfu)d“,

where u = x + f.

§P dQ
(M) Cl^ _ p = h(* - f),

where h is a function of the single argument x — f.

IF: R(x, f) = e-fb(u)du}

where u = x — f.

§P , dQ

(9j) fr4“h(fa + f)>

where h is a function of the single argument kx + f.

IF: R(x, f) =

where u = kx + f.

dP , dQ

(9k) §rlrh(rf)-
where h is a function of the single argument xf.

IF: R(x, f) = e-fh(u) dii,

where u = xf.

2§P dQ
df dx

m -ihrw- hQ
where h is a function of the single argument f/x.

IF: R(x, f) = e-ShMd*t

whei'e u = f/x.
Sec. 12.10 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF FIRST AND SECOND ORDER 125

(9m) P(*, f) = fhi(xf), and Q(x, f) = xh2(xf),

where hx and h2 are functions of the single argument xf.

IF: R(*>f) = nunxuni

(9n) P(*, f) = axpf + 6f?+1 = (axp + bfq)f,

Q,(*, f) = cxv+1 + dxi9 = (cxp + dfq)x,

where ad ^ be.
Let
c(pb - qa) b(qc - pd)
m
- -• + ad — be
nA — kr “1+

IF: R(*, f) = xmfn.

12.10 EXAMPLES

x - 1
■v2(l - f)‘

Solve for Df, obtaining

(x — l)f
Df = g(*, f)
*2(1 - f)

hWj(f) =

which falls under (3) of Sec. 12.8. Hence, use (3) of Table 12. 9. The
general solution form is

dx + C,

In f - f = In |*| + - + C.
*

(2) 3*Df = 3.vF In ,v + f.

Solve for Df, obtaining

3.vfJ In x + f
Df = g(x, f) f4 In y +
3x 3*
126 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF FIRST AND SECOND ORDER Sec. 12.10

which falls under (5) of Sec. 12.8. Hence, use (5) of Table 12.9. Let

u(x) = In x, v(x) = rU n = 4.
3x
Let

w(x) = 3J ~ dx = f - dx = In

then,

ew(x) _
X

The general solution form is

-1/3
f(x) = ^ — 3 x In x dx + c)]
-1/3
In * — — + C

-1/3
)J
3.vf - 5f2
(3) Df = g(x, f)
X2 - 2.vf

This equation falls under (6) of Sec. 12.8 with n = 2. Hence, use
(6) of Table 12.9 with p(x, f) = 3xf — 5f2 and q(x, f) = x2 — 2xf.
Evaluate

(1 - 2v) dv 1 - 2v
F(v) = dv.
3v — 5v2 — y(l — 2v) J v(2 — 3v)

This integral is evaluated by expressing the integrand as a sum of

simpler fractions, using the technique of partial fractions.

1 - 2v = A + B
v{2 — 3v) v 2 — 3v

1 - 2v = 2A - 3Av + Bv.

A = h B = -i

1 1
Thus, F(») = hr ~ dv
\2v 2(2 - 3v)

= \ In |v| + | In |2 — 3v\.

The solution is given implicitly by the equation

Sec. 12.10 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF FIRST AND SECOND ORDER 127

1
2 + & In 2 - 3 ^ = In |x| + C.

whereby = f(x).
cos x — 2xf
(4) Df = g(x, f) =
x2 — 1

Let M(x, f) = cos a: — 2xf and N(x, f) — x2 — 1. Note that

dM
+ ^ = —2x + 2x = 0.
df ox

Thus, the equation falls under (8) of Sec. 12.8. Its solution is found
in (8) of Table 12.9. Since

/ m (.x, f) dx = sin x — ix2,

F(x, f) = (sin x — ix2) = — x2.

di
The solution can be written

/ M (x, f) dx — J [N(x, f) + F(x, £) ] = sin x — fx2

-/ (x2 - 1 - x2) di

= sin x — fx2 + f = C.
Solving for f,
sin x — C _ sin x + Gj
f(x)
x2 — 1 x2 — 1

(5) 2xf3Df + x3f2Df = x3 + f4.

Solving for Df, we obtain

x3 + f4
Df = g(x, f) =
2xf3 + x3f2'

This differential equation satisfies none of the first eight conditions.

Therefore, we look at (9) of Table 12.9 and seek an integrating factor.
Letting P(x, f) = x3 + f4 and Q_(x, f) = 2xf3 + x3f2, we find that con¬
dition (9f) is satisfied; for

d£
df dx _ 4f3 + 2f3 + 3x2f2
Q 2xf3 + x3f2

_ 3f2(2f + x2) = 3
xf2(2f + x2) x
 128 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF FIRST AND SECOND ORDER Sec. 12.11

is a function of x alone. Thus, e— -T dx = x~3 is an integrating fac¬

tor. Letting M(x, f) = x_3P(x, f) and N(x, f) = x_3Q,(.v, f), we have

Df = M(s, f ) = 1 + f4v~3
N(x, f) 2f3*-2 + f2’

'which is exact. We solve for f by means of (8) of Table 12.9.

/ N(*, f)df = f (2x~2P + P) df = ^ + t

Then, Gfc f, - + f) - -fV-.

The solution may now be written in the implicit form

/ N df - f (M + G) dx = C.

X~~P P /- f4 f3
— + 3 - / a + - ft->) dx = ^ + 3 - * = c,
or 3fJ - 6x3 + 6Cx2 + 2xHz = 0.

12.11 LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF SECOND ORDER

Linear differential equations of second order are written in the

form

(1) [uD2 + vD + w]f = t,

where u, v, w, and t are given functions of x alone. The quadratic

operator polynomials have coefficients which are functions of x. Such
operators are handled in a way analogous to that in which those with
constant coefficients are used.
The general solution of an equation of type (1) depends on the
functions u, v, w, and t.
The entries of Table 12.12 are techniques of solving equations in
this form for various classes of given functions. An equation must first
be written in the above form. Next, it must be classified according to
the types considered in Table 12.12. Finally, the procedure which
leads to a general solution form as outlined in the appropriate entry
of Table 12.12 should be followed.
Sec. 12.12 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF FIRST AND SECOND ORDER 129

Table 12.12 is far from exhaustive. Only the more elementary

types of equations arc considered here.

12.12 TABLE: GENERAL SOLUTION FORMS FOR LINEAR

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF SECOND ORDER

(1) Equation: [D2 + vD -f- w]f = 0, v and w constant functions.

GSF: See Table 11.4.

(2) Equation: [D2 + vD + w]f = 0, v is a polynomial of degree

n, and w is a polynomial of degree n.
Eet r = the greater of m and n. Use the method of undetermined
coefficients to determine constants A0, A\, . . . , Ar-i, Ar, B\, and B2, so
that
u, = A„xr + A\Xr 1 T . . . T Ar-1 T" Ar

and u2 = /Ae/,u

are particular solutions of the equation. This is not always possible.

If it can be done, then ui and u2 are linearly independent.

GSF: f(x) = CiUi(x) + C2u2(x).

(3) Equation: |uD2 + vD + w]f = 0.

Attempt to express uD2 + vD + w as |pD + q][rD + s], with

the factors in that order, and p, q, r, and s functions of x alone. These
functions must satisfy the equations

pr = u,

qr + ps + p • Dr = v,

qs + p • Ds = w.

This cannot always be done. If it can, let

h(x) = —
J
f PW dx.
GSF: Use (4) of Table 12.9 to solve for f(x) the equation

s(x) f
Df = Ci
r(x) ’

where Ci is an arbitrary constant. Call the new arbitrary constant C2.

1 30 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF FIRST AND SECOND ORDER Sec. 12.12

(4) Equation: [D2 + vD + w]f = t, where v, w, and t are func¬

tions of x alone.
Use (1) or (2) above, or good guessing to find a nonzero particular
solution u(x) of the reduced equation [D2 + vD + w]f = 0. Let
H(x) = 2 Du(.v) + v(x)u(x). Use (4) of Table 12.9 to solve for g(x)
tne equation

t(*) HU)
Dg = g>
u(x) u (x)

calling the arbitrary constant C\.

GSF: f(x) = u(x)[f g(x) dx + C2].

(5) Equation: [D2 -f- vD -f w]f = t, where v, w, and t are func¬

tions of x alone (method of variation of parameters).
Use (1) or (2) above or good guessing to find two linearly inde¬
pendent solutions ui(x) and u2(x) of [D2 + vD -f- w]f = 0.
Let W(x) = ui(x) • Du2(x) — u2(x) • Dui(x).

t(x)ui(x)
GSF: f(x) = u2(x) dx + CjJ
W(x)

t(x)u2(x)
dx + C;
" UlW[/ W(x) ■}
(6) Equation: [uD2 + vD + w]f = t, where u, v, w, and t are
functions of x alone, with D2u — Dv + w = 0 (exact equation).
Let H(x) = v(x) — Du(x) and J(x) = f t(x) dx + C\.

GSF: Solve by (4) of Table 12.9 for f(x) the equation

Df - [JW + HWf]-
calling the new arbitrary constant C2.

(7) Equation: [D2 + vD]f = t, where v and t are functions of x

alone.
Use (4) of Table 12.9 to solve for g(x) the equation

Dg = t(x) - v(x)g,

calling the arbitrary constant C\.

GSF: f(x) =/ g(x) dx + C2.

Sec. 12.13 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF FIRST AND SECOND ORDER 1 31

12.13 NONLINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF FIRST ORDER

The nonlinear differential equation of first order can be written

in the form
F (*, f, Df) = 0,
where F is a function of three arguments. In general use of the tech¬
niques of Table 12.14, the argument character of Df is emphasized
by replacing Df wherever it occurs by the single letter p. The tech¬
nique of solving these equations depends on the form of the function F.
The different forms of F considered in Table 12.16 are:

(1) F(*j f, p) is a polynomial of degree n in p. Write

[p - Gi(x, f)][p - G2(x, £)]... [p - G■„(*, f)]

for F(x, f, p) [see (1) of Table 12.14].

(2) F(x, f, p) =0 may be solved for f. Write f = G(x, p) for

F(x, f, p) =0 [see (2) of Table 12.14],

(3) F(x, f, p) =0 may be solved for f and written f = G(x, p) and

G(x, p) = px -f- K(p) (Clairaut’s equation). Write f = px + H(p)
for F(x, f, p) = 0 [see (3) of Table 12.14],
(4) F(*, f, p) =0 may be solved for f and written f = G(x, p)
and G(*, p) = .vH(p) + J(p) (D’Alembert’s equation). Write
f = .vH(p) + J(p) for F(x, f, p) =0 [see (4) of Table 12.14].
(5) F(x, f, p) =0 may be solved for x. Write x = G(f, p) for
F(*, f, p) = 0 [see (5) of Table 12.14],
(6) F(x, f, p) =0 contains no X and may be solved for p. Write
p = G(f) for F(x, f, p) =0 [see (6) of Table 12.14],
(7) F(.v, f, p) =0 contains no f and can be solved for p. Write
p = G(x) for F(*, f, p) =0 [see (7) of Table 12.14].

For some nonlinear differential equations, the general solution

contains functions of two types. Those of the second type are ob¬
tained as limits (or envelopes) of functions of the first type, and are
called singular solutions (abbreviated SS). Clairaut’s equation (3) in
tables 12.13 and 12.14 is an example. For these differential equa¬
tions there is no general solution form.
 132 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF FIRST AND SECOND ORDER Sec. 12.14

12.14 TABLE. GENERAL SOLUTION FORMS OF NONLINEAR

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF FIRST ORDER

(1) Equation:

[p - Gi(*, f)][P - G2(x, f)] . . . [p - G„0, f)] = 0.

Use Table 12.9 to solve for f each of the equations

Df = Gi(x, f), 1 ^ i ^ n,

and write each solution in the form H,(x, f, C) = 0, using the same
arbitrary constant in each solution. This defines f implicitly.

GSF: Hi(x,y, C)U2(x,y, C) . . . Hn(x,y, C) = 0,

where y = f(x).

(2) Equation: f = G(x, p).

Let MO, p) = (d/dx)G(x, p) and N(x, p) = (d/dp)G(x, p). Use
Table 12.9 to solve for p the equation

Dp = p~ P>,
NO, p)
writing the solution in the form H(x, p, C) = 0.

GSF: Eliminate p between the equations

f = G(x, p),
HO, p, C) = 0.
(3) Equation: f = pv + H(p).
Solution form of first type: fO) = Cx + H(C).
SS: Eliminate C between the equations

fO) = Cx + H(C),
x + DH(C) = 0.

(4) Equation: f = *H(p) + J(p).

Let M(p) = and N(p) = ■ Solve for g

P ~ H(p) r p - H(p) 5
by (4) of Table 12.9 the equation
Sec. 12.14 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF FIRST AND SECOND ORDER 1 33

Dg = N(*) + M(*)g,

writing the solution in the form K(x, g, C) = 0

GSF: Eliminate p between the equations

f(x) = *H(p) + J(p),

K(p, x, C) = 0.

(5) Equation: x = G(f, p).

Let M(f, p) = (d/df)G(f, p) and N(f, p) = (d/dp)G(f, p). Solve
for p by the methods of Table 12.9 the equation

Do = 1 ~ pM(*, p)
N(at, p)

writing the solution in the form H(x, p, C) = 0.

GSF: Eliminate p between the equations

x = G(f, p),
H(f, p, C) - 0.

(6) Equation: p = G(f).

GSF: Jir)=x + a
(7) Equation: p = G(x).

GSF: f(x) -/g< x) dx + C.

 13
DIFFERENCES OF FUNCTIONS

Differences of many functions whose domains are nonnegative in¬

tegers may be found by consulting Sec. 13.1 and Table 13.2. The
first of these furnishes formulas for differencing algebraic combinations
of simpler functions; the second furnishes the differences of some basic
functions from which algebraic combinations can be formed. For a
discussion of the factorial function x(n) and the general procedure for
differencing polynomials, see Sec. 5.6.

13.1 TABLE: PROPERTIES OF DIFFERENCES

(1) A(cf(;t)) = cA{(x), c a real number.

(2) A(f(x) zb g(x)) = Af(*) ± Ag(x).
(3) A(f(x) • g(*)) = Ef(x) • Ag(x) + g(*) • Ai(x).
(4) a = tti*) ’ Af(*) — f(x) • Ag(,v)
\g(*)/ g(*) • Eg(.v)

13.2 TABLE: FIRST DIFFERENCES

(1) Ax(n) = nx^-v.

(2) A(ax + 6)(n) = an{ax + £)(n-1).

(3) A--- = -
(x + n- l)M (x +
134
Sec. 13.2 DIFFERENCES OF FUNCTIONS 135

(5) A(x!) = !).

(6) A sin (ax -(- b) = 2 sin ^ cos + b -+-

. a .
= -2 sin - sin yax + b +
1}
sin a
cos (ax + b) cos (ax a + b)

-sin a
sin (ax + b) sin (ax -j- a + b)

2 sin (a/2) sin (ax -f- b + a/2)

cos (ax + b) cos (ax + a + b)

-2 sin (a/2) cos (ax + b ~f~ a/2)

sin (ax + b) sin (ax + a + b)

(12) Ac1 = (c - 1)0*.

(13) A2* = 2X.

(14) Acax+ft = (ca — l)cax+6.

(15) A logc * = logo ^1 +

(16) A logo (ax + b) = logo (1 ~\-3—7

\ ax 0
 14
INDEFINITE FINITE INTEGRALS,
FINITE SUMS, INFINITE SERIES

Indefinite finite integrals of many functions whose domains arc

nonnegative integers may he found by consulting Tallies 14.1 and
14.2. I he first of these lists formulas for finding indefinite finite in¬
tegrals of certain algebraic combinations of simpler functions; the
second furnishes the indefinite finite integrals of some basic fun< lions
from which algebraic combinations can be formed.
A finite sum of a function g(x), defined for nonnegativc integers,
is an expression of the form
i,
f g(*) = g(«0 + g(a + 1) + . . . + g(b), b £ a.

It is sometimes possible to evaluate a finite sum with the aid of an

antidifference of the function being summed (see Sec. H.5). Table 14.4
gives algebraic properties of finite sums, and specific finite sums ap¬
pear in Table 14.4.

14.1 TABLE: ALGEBRAIC PROPERTIES OF INDEFINITE

FINITE INTEGRALS

(1) A '(cf(x)) = cA 'f(x), c a real number.

(2) A '(f(x) dh g(x)) — A 'f(x) ± A 'g(.v).
(3) A-'(f^) • Ag(x)) - f(x) ■ g(x) - A 1 (Kg tv) • Af(.v)).
136
See I 4.2 UNITE INllGRALS, IINIll SUMS, INI INI 11 SI Nil S 137

14.2 TAHLEi INDEFINITE FINITE INTEGRALS

,.(m I I)
(I) A '.v (*o C, » * -1.
n
(H11)
(2) A v 4- l>Vn) ("v 1 .Ml’' + C, « * - i.
a(n i I)

(3) A 1 -f (\ n S I ■
U | ;/ I )' ’ (I u)(\ \ n 2)*"
( X
(4) A ■(')
\H/
i
'V" t
)
1/
1 c.
(5) A *.v(.v!) •v! 4 C.
cos (
(6) A 1 sin (ax I b) > + (7, a ^ 2iik.

sin (ax
(7) A 1 cos (ax + b) ) (’, a y 2nir.

(8) A '(see (ll\ 4 b) see (ax |

a s nn.

(9) A '(esc (ax 1 b) CSC (ilX | 1

a y rnr.
sin (a v | b f- a see (fix I h)
(10) A I C,
cos (ax | b) cos («.v 4“ a + b) 2 sin (</ 2)
a 2//7T,
cos (ax }/>■}• ci/2) CSC (r/.v | b)
(I I) A (7,
sin (ox | b) sin (ax | a f- b) 2 sin («/2)
.•* .’.II IT.

C'1'
(12) A *cJ C\ c y

(13) A >2J' 21 I C.
Ib
I I) A 'c'"1'’ Cy c y \y a y 0.
e“ - l
138 FINITE INTEGRALS, FINITE SUMS, INFINITE SERIES See. 14.3

14.3 TABLE: PROPERTIES OF FINITE SUMS

b b
(1) 2 cg(x) = c2 g(x), c a real number.
a a

(2) 2 [gi(*) =fc gl(x) ] = 2 gi(*) =b 2 g2(*).

a a a

(3) 2 g(x) = g(a).

a

(4) 2 g(x) = 2 g(x) + 2 g(x), a ^ b < c.

a a 6-|-l

14.4 TABLE: FINITE SUMS

(1) 2 c = nc, c a real number.

l

" n(n + 1)
(2)
i ' 2
" 2 = rc(?z + l)(2w + 1)
(3)
i ' 6
" n2(n + l)2
(4)
i 4
v 1 + 2 + . . . + x _ n(n + 3)
(5) Zj
X 4

1 + 22 + . . . + x2 n(4n2 + 15n + 17)

(6)
X 36
1 2n
(7)
1 + 2 + • . . + x n + 1
1 n
(8)
*(* + 1) " n -)- 1

(9) *(.*■!) = (n + 1)! - 1.

(10) 2 (x2 + l)x! = n(n + 1)!.

i

(ID
Sec. 14.5 FINITE INTEGRALS, FINITE SUMS, INFINITE SERIES 139

(12)

(13) V rx = (c" - 1).

c — 1

ncn+1 c(cn - 1)
(14) V xcx —
1 c — 1 (c — l)2

n2cn+1 2ncn+1 c(c + l)(c" — 1)

(15) 2 x2cx
c — 1 (c — l)2 (c - l)3
cp+i
(16) V Qx+P
{cn - 1).
c — 1

ncTl+p+l cp+1(cn
/'P+1 (_
— 1)
(17) 2 xcx+p =
1 C — 1 (e - l)2

" , n2cn+p+1 2ncn+p+l cp+l(c + l)(cn - 1)

(18)
i C c - 1 (c - l)2 + (c - l)3

(19) 2 2X = 2(2n - 1).

i
n ra

(20) 2 caI = —— (c°n - 1).

1 c° - 1

sin ^“—7“ a + s*n 3 a

(21) 2 sin (ax + 6) a 5^ 2mr.
i sin (a/2)

n
sin - a
COS
(1T1° + ^i 2 a 72nir.
(22) 2 cos (ax + b) =
i sin (a/2)

(23) 2 [ ) axb'l_:E = (a + b)n (the binomial theorem),

o W

14.5 INFINITE SERIES

An infinite series defined for a function g(.v) whose domain con-

sists of nonnegative integers is

2 g(*) = lim 2 g(*)-

a n—>« a
 140 FINITE INTEGRALS, FINITE SUMS, INFINITE SERIES Sec. 14.6

We shall consider two problems for such series. The first is to deter¬
mine whether this limit exists; if it does, the series is said to be con¬
vergent. (A series which is not convergent is called divergent.) The
other problem is to evaluate the infinite sum if the series is convergent.
Two types of convergence arise, absolute and conditional. A series
oo oo

2gW is absolutely convergent if 2 |g(*)| is convergent. A con-

a. a

vergent series which is not absolutely convergent is conditionally

convergent.
Table 14.6 lists six tests for convergence or divergence. In some
cases, the test may fail to indicate whether the series converges or di¬
verges; one should then try another test.

14.6 TABLE: TESTS FOR CONVERGENCE OR DIVERGENCE

OF 2 g(x)
a

(1) Term Test

oo

(a) If lim g(x) 5^ 0, then 2 g(x) is divergent.

x—* co a

(b) If lim g(x) = 0, the test fails.

X—► oo

(2) Comparison Test. Let 2 h(x) be a convergent series of positive

a
00

terms and 2 k(x) be a divergent series of positive terms.

a

(a) If there exists a positive integer N such that

g(x)| :£ h(x) whenever x > N,

oo

then 2 g(x) converges absolutely.

a

(b) If there exists a positive integer N such that

g(x) ^ k(x) whenever x > N,

oo
then 2 g(x) diverges.
Sec. 14.6 FINITE INTEGRALS, FINITE SUMS, INFINITE SERIES 141

(c) If there exists a positive integer N such that

|g(x)| k(x) whenever x > N,

then 2 g(x) does not converge absolutely, though it may converge

a

conditionally.

(3) Ratio Test. Let r = lim ^'V ^

*-*- gw
oo
(a) If r < 1, then 2 g{x) converges absolutely.
a

00

(b) If r > 1, then 2 g(x) diverges.

a

(c) If r = 1, the test fails.

(4) Root Test. Let r — lim |g(x)|1/x.

X—► oo

00

(a) If r < 1, then 2 g(*) converges absolutely.

a

00

(b) If r > 1, then 2 g(*) diverges.

a

(c) If r = 1, the test fails.

(5) Integral Test. Let h(x) be a real-valued function such that

h(x) = ;g(*)| for each x in the domain of g. If h(x) has the property
that, for some positive integer N, h(x + c) < h(x) whenever x > N

and c > 0, determine whether lim [b h(x) dx exists, where a > N.

b—> °o a

00

(a) If the limit exists, then 2 g(x) is absolutely convergent.

a

(b) If g(x) is a series of positive terms and the limit fails to

oo

exist, then 2 g(x) is divergent.

(c) If g(x) is not a series of positive terms and the limit fails
oo

to exist, then 2 g(x) is not absolutely convergent, though it may be

a

conditionally convergent.
 142 FINITE INTEGRALS, FINITE SUMS, INFINITE SERIES Sec. 14.7

(6) Alternating Series Test (Leibnitz Test)

Tf there exists a positive integer N such that

(i) the signs of g(x) and g(x + 1) are opposite for every
x > N
(ii) |g(* + 1)1 < |g(*)| for every x > N, and if
(iii) lim g(x) = 0,
2T—>eo
00

then 2 g(x) converges.

14.7 TABLE: INFINITE SERIES

Convergent Series
" ( —l)x_1
(1) Sum
1 X
» (_!),-!
7T
(2) Sum
7 2x — 1 4 '

(3) 2 1 • Sum
i x(x + 1)

^ 1
(4) Sum
i x(x + l)(x + 2)

(5) Sum:
0 x\
“ 1
(6) r > 1.
1 xr

(7) v 1 .
1 1 +*2

(8) 2 1
2 (In x)^1*
00

(9) 2 a*, \a\ < 1. 1

Sum:
0 1 — a
oo

(10) 2 *ax, |a| < 1. a

Sum:
0 (1 - a)2'

2xV, |a|<l. a2 + a
(11) Sum:
(1 - ay'
Sec. 14.8 FINITE INTEGRALS, FINITE SUMS, INFINITE SERIES 143
oo
av
(12) 2a,+p, |a| < 1. Sum:
1 — a
ap+1
(13) 2 X2Lx+v, |fl| < 1. Sum:
0 (1 - aY
av+2 + a7,+l
(14) 2 .vV+p, |a| < 1. Sum:
o (1 - «)3
1
(15) :» r > 1.
"2 x(ln x)

1
(16) > r > 1.
2 x In x (In In x)

Divergent Series
00
1
(17) V
J-J
1 X
00

(18) y
w -» r < 1

1 xr

00

(19) y
IIV
PH

1.

oo

y
1
(20)
l ax -f- b
00

y 1
(21) r ^ 1
2 x (In *)r

00

(??) y 1
Lj , r < 1.
2 x(ln ,v) (In In x)r

14.8 PROBABILITY SUMS

e m
Let g(.v)

(la) 2 gOO = 1.
0
00

(lb) V xg(x) = m.
0
00

(lc) 2 x2g(x) = m + m2
 144 FINITE INTEGRALS, FINITE SUMS, INFINITE SERIES Sec. 14.9

Let g(x) = (1 - /Op1, 0 ^ p < 1.

(2a) 2 g(*) = 1.
o

(2b) 2 xg(x) = —b ■ ■ •
o 1 — p

(2c) 2 *2g(*) = f •
o (1 - j&)2

Let g(x) = ^ p*(l - p)*-*, 0 < p < 1.

(3a) 2 g(x) = 1.
o
00

(3b) 2 *g(*) = np.

o

(3c) 2 *2g(x) = n2p2 + n/>(l — />)•

14.9 ANTIDIFFERENCES OF ORDER n

Antidifferences of order n, denoted by J'!g(*), are listed in Table

14.10. The integrals are particular solutions of equations of the form
A"g = 0. The general solution form of such an equation is

J"g(*) + C0Xn + CiA—1 + . . . + Cn^X + C„.

14.10 TABLE: ANTIDIFFERENCES OF ORDER n

cx (n)
(1) pc = c a real number.
ni
^.(fc+n)
(2) =
(k + n)<'n)

P) j•(« + «<» =. + *)(W,I>.

J an(k + n)<»>
1 (-1)"
(4) J" n ^ k.
{x + k - 1)<« (w - A)M(X + k - n - 1 )<*-»>’

® j* (?)-(,;*>
Sec. 14.10 FINITE INTEGRALS, FINITE SUMS, INFINITE SERIES 145
sin (ax + b — na/2) .r .
(6) J" sin (ax + b) = - . . . .-> ii n = Am, a 7^ 2a7T.
2n sin" (a/2)

,n\ T„ . / . —cos (ax + b — na/2)

(7) J" sin (ax + b) = - \
2n sin" (a/2)
if n = Am + 1, a 7^ 2«7T.

— sin (ax 4- b — na/2)

(8) J" sin (ax + b) =
2" sin" (a/2)
if n = Am + 2, a 7^ 2w7T.

cos (ax + b — na/2)

(9) J" sin (ax + b) =
2" sin" (a/2)
if n = Am + 3, a 7^ 2«7T.

(10) J" cos (ax + b) = cos + b ~ if « = « 2nir.

v J v 7 2" sin" (a/2)

sin (ax + b — na/2)

(11) J" cos (a* + b) =
2" sin" (a/2)
if a = Am + 1, a 7^ 2n7r.

— cos (ax -f b — na/2)

(12) J" cos (ax + 6)
2" sin" (a/2)
if n = 4m -j- 2, a 7^ 2«7T.

— sin (ax + 6 — na/2)

(13) J" cos (ax + b) =
2" sin" (a/2)
if n = 4m + 3, a 7^ 2a7T.

(14) J"c* =
(c ~ 1)*
(15) J"2* = 2*.

(16) J"c“ = 7-
(c° - 1)"
146 FINITE INTEGRALS, FINITE SUMS, INFINITE SERIES Sec. 14.11

14.11 TAYLOR'S SERIES

Certain functions whose domains are real numbers can be written

as infinite power series, called Taylor’s series or Taylor’s expansions,
which may be used to approximate values of these functions for certain
arguments. In general, the Taylor’s expansion of a function docs not
converge over the whole domain of the function. The set of arguments
for which the Taylor’s expansion does converge occupies an interval
ol the real axis. I his interval is called the interval of convergence
of the expansion. I he I aylor’s series for a number of important func¬
tions are listed in I able 14.12, along with their intervals of conver¬
gence.

14.12 TABLE: TAYLOR'S SERIES

1
(1) - 1 =F* + x2=Fx3 +T . . |*| < 1.
1 =b x

(2) (T=^2= 1 ^2* + 3*2=F4*a+T..., \x\ < 1.

(3) Vl +* = 1 + 1* - + -L- 3
2 • 4 2-4-6
1-3-5
2 • 4 • 6 • 8
*4 +- *1 < 1.
1
(4) —- _ i 1 „ , 1 • 3 , 1-3*5,
Vl + X “ “ 2 + 2~4 * ~ 2~'4 • 6 r
, 1 • 3 • 5 • 7 „
+ o—:—~—^
2 • 4 • 6 • 8
*4 - + \x < 1-

(5) (a + *)" = an + nan~xx + — - ~ ^ an~2x2

2!
, n(n - 1 )(n - 2) , ,
i-—-an Jx3 -|- , *2 < a1.
3!
3 B 7
((>) sin x = x — — -f- — — — -)-. . . , for all values of *.

(7) cos * 1 21 4~l ~ 6] ^— •••> f°r values of *.

Sec. 14.12 FINITE INTEGRALS, FINITE SUMS, INFINITE SERIES 147

. AT3 . 2at5 . 1 7x7 . I I / 7r

(8) tan* = * + T+is +3T5 +■ W < 2

1 x3 , 1 3 x5 , 1 3 5 x1
(9) arcsin * = * + 5' 3 + 2 ' 4 ’ 5 + 2 ' 4 ' 6 ' 7 + ' ’ '
Ixl <M.
7r
(10) arccos x = — — arcsin x.
2
(11) arctan x = x — gx3 + £xs — \xn -\— . . . , |x| ^ 1.

(12) In x = (x — 1) — \{x — l)2 + g(* — l)3-f • • • >

0 < x ^ 2.
yU yH

(13) In (1 ± x) = ix — — ± --— ± ~ • • • , —1<i^l

, 1 + X - / . X3 . X6 . X7 . \ ___
(14)
f3-* = 2 (" + 3 +5 + 7 +•• )’ W<1

1 x3 , 1 • 3 xr>
(15) In (x + Vl + x2) = x — - • 7- +
2 3 2-45

1 • 3 • 5 x7
-)-. . . , |x| g 1
2-4-67
2 3
(16) e1 = 1 + x + + • • • , for all values of x.

(17) ,-i> _ 1 — x1 + --—|— . . . , for all values of x.

2! 3!

a , , , (xlna)2 (x In a)3 .
(18) = 1 -f x In a H-—-1-^7-h

for all values of x.

(19) sinh x = x -f + 77 + 77 + • • • , for all values of x.

3! 5! /!

(20) cosh x = 1+^7 + 77 + 77 + ..., for all values of x.

2! 4! 6 !

x" , 2xB 17x7

(21) tanh* = *-- + --3|5 -|— . . . , for all values of x.

... 1 x3 1 • 3 xB 1 • 3 • 5 x7
(22) sinh x = x — - ■ -—h -7 — — 7-:-7 ^ r • • • >
2 3 2-45 2-4-67
Ixl ^ 1

X3 , X5 . X7
(23) tanh-1 x = x + ^- + ^ + ^ + |x| < 1.
3 j /
 15
LINEAR DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS
WITH CONSTANT COEFFICIENTS

The general form of such an equation is

E"f(x) + <2iE" T(x) + . . . + jEf(x) + <2nf(*) = g(x),

which we rewrite

[E'‘ + fllE"-1 + • • • + an-xE + an]i{x) = g(x).

The expression in brackets is a polynomial in E which we shall denote

by p(E). The difference equation now takes the form

[p(E)]f(x) = gO).

Any equation written in terms of the difference operator A may be

rewritten in terms of E, using the ixlations of Sec. 3.5.
11 g = 0, the equation is said to be homogeneous. If g ^ 0,
then the homogeneous equation [p(E)]f(.v) = 0 obtained by replacing
g(.v) by 0 is called the reduced equation of the given equation.
If f*(x) is a solution of the given equation, then, for any other
solution f*(x), the function fi(x) = ff(x) — f*(x) is a solution of its
reduced equation, since

[P(E) ](f?(*) - £*(*)) = g(x) - g(x) = 0.

Thus, the general solution form of the given equation is found by add-
148
Sec. 15.1 DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS: CONSTANT COEFFICIENTS 149

ing any particular solution of the given equation to the general solu¬
tion form of the reduced equation. There are two major steps to the
solution of the problem:
(1) Finding the general solution of the reduced equation.
(2) Finding a particular solution of the given equation.

15.1 THE AUXILIARY EQUATION

To obtain the general solution of a homogeneous linear difference

equation with constant coefficients [p(E)]f(,v) = 0, we first solve the
auxiliary equation
p(wj) = 0

where p (m) is the polynomial in m obtained by replacing E by m in

p(E).

15.2 HOMOGENEOUS EQUATIONS OF FIRST ORDER

The first-order equation takes the form

[p(E)]f(x) = [E — a]f(x) =0, a a real number.

The general solution form is

f(.r) = Ca1.

15.3 HOMOGENEOUS EQUATIONS OF SECOND ORDER

The general solution form of the second-order equation

[p(E)]f(*) - 0

is tabulated in Table 15.4 according to the nature of the roots of

the auxiliary equation p (m) = 0.

15.4 TABLE: GENERAL SOLUTION FORMS OF THE LINEAR

HOMOGENEOUS EQUATION OF SECOND ORDER WITH
CONSTANT COEFFICIENTS

Let m\ and m2 be the roots of p(m) = 0.

(1) n?i 9^ m2, both real:

GSF: f(x) = Cimf + C2m2*.

150 DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS: CONSTANT COEFFICIENTS Sec. 15.5

(2) mx = m2:

GSF: f(x) = (Ci + C2x)m1I.

(3) The roots of the auxiliary equation are complex: mx = a + bi,

m<i — a bi. Let p = y/a~ -(- b~ and 6 = arctan (b/a).

GSF: f(x) = px(Cx sin xd + C2 cos xd)

or f(x) = Cx(a + bi)1 + C2(a - bi)\

15.5 EXAMPLES

(1) [E T 2E + 5]f = 0. We first solve the auxiliary equation

ni1 + 2m + 5 = 0, obtaining m = — 1 ± 2i. Then a = b = 2,

P ~ ^5, and Q = arctan ( — 2). The general solution form is

f(;r) — (V/5)X(C] sin ^(arctan — 2) -f- C2 cos x(arctan — 2)).

(2) [E2 + 3E — 4]f = 0. Solving m2 + 3m - 4 = 0, we obtain

mi = 1 and m2 = —4. The general solution form is

f(x) = cx( iy + C2( —4)1 = Cx + C2(—4)*.

(3) [E2 + 6E + 9]f = 0. The roots of m2 + 6m + 9 = 0 are

both —3. The general solution form is

f(x) = (Ci + C2x)( — 3)x.

15.6 HOMOGENEOUS EQUATIONS OF ORDER n

To find the general solution form for the homogeneous equation

of order n, [p(E)]f = 0, one should first find the roots of the auxiliary
equation p(m) = 0. Let the distinct real roots of this equation be
denoted by mx, m2, . . . , mk, and let their multiplicities be ri, r2, . . . , rk,
respectively. Let the pairs of distinct complex roots be denoted by
ak+x ± bk+xi, ak+2 ± bk+2i, . . . , ak+lbk+ti, with multiplicities rk+x, rk+2,
• • • j rk+i, respectively. The general solution form of the equation is
the sum of the general solution forms of the equations

[(E - m;)r’]f(T) =0, 1

[(E - ay - byi)r,(E - ay + by0^]f(x) =0, k+ \ ^k + l
Sec. 15.7 DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS: CONSTANT COEFFICIENTS 151

where the arbitrary constants appearing in the solutions will be num¬

bered so that all have different subscripts. These general solution
forms are listed in Table 15.7.

15.7 TABLE: GENERAL SOLUTION FORMS FOR HOMOGENEOUS

DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS OF ORDER n WITH CONSTANT
COEFFICIENTS (See Sec. 15.6)

(1) rrij is real, and ry = 1:

GSF: fj(x) = CraJ.

(2) rrij is real, and ry > 1:

GSF: ij(x) = (Ci + C2x + . . . + Cy*""1)m*.

(3) cij ± bji are complex roots, and ry — 1. Let py = -f- b* and

6j = arctan (bj/aj).

GSF: fy(x) = Pj(Cj sin xdj + C2 cos x9j).

or f)(x) = Ci (ay + bjt)x + C(ay — byz)x.

(4) zb bji are complex roots, and ry > 1. Let py = VaJ + b2 and
dj = arctan (bj/ay).

GSF: fy(x) = (Ci + C2x + . . . + C^’-^p? sin xdj

+ (Cr|+1 + CTi+2x + . . . + C2r,xri~1)pTJ cos xdj

or fj(x) = (Ci + C2x + . . . + Crf*r,-1)(ay + byz)x

+ (Cr,.+ 1 + Crj+2X + • • • C2r,.xr--1)(ay — byt)

15.8 EXAMPLE

[E(E — 2)3(E + l)]f = 0. The roots (and their respective mul¬

tiplicities) of m(m — 2Y(rn + 1) = 0 are

mi = 0, r\ = 1,
m2 = — 1, r2 = 1,

m3 — 2, r3 = 3.

GSF: f(x) = C(0)* + Ci(-l)* + (C2 + C3x + C4x2)2X. Note

that J7i\ makes no contribution to the general solution form of the equa¬
tion. This is because there is no solution for the equation Ef = 0
except the function f(x) = 0.
152 DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS: CONSTANT COEFFICIENTS Sec. 15.9

15.9 PARTICULAR SOLUTIONS OF LINEAR DIFFERENCE

EQUATIONS WITH CONSTANT COEFFICIENTS

A particular solution of the equation |p(E) ]f(x) = g(x) can often

be found if one can guess the form such a solution is likely to take.
Table 15.10 lists a number of aids to good guesses for particular
solutions. The constants A and B (with or without subscripts) arc
real numbers to be determined by substituting the particular so¬
lution f*(x) into the given equation. The examples of Sec. 15.12
will illustrate how the table is used.
It will appear that it is necessary to check whether certain num¬
bers are roots of the auxiliary equation p(m) = 0. One should recall,
however, that all roots of this equation were obtained in finding the
general solution of the reduced equation. In particular, in each case,
the number in question is a root if and only if g(x) is a solution of the
reduced equation.

15.10 TABLE: PARTICULAR SOLUTIONS OF LINEAR

DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS WITH CONSTANT COEFFICIENTS

(1) g(x) = k, k a real number:

PS: f*(x) = A, unless 1 is a root of p(m) = 0;

f*(x) = Axr, if 1 is a root of p(m) = 0 of multiplicity r.

(2) g(x) — X, where X is a polynomial in x of degree s:

PS: f*(x) = A0 + A\x + . . . -+- A„x', unless 1 is a root of

P (m) = 0;

£*(x) = Mo + Aix + . . . + A„x’)xT, if 1 is a root of

p (m) = 0 of multiplicity r.

(3) g(x) = p sin qx:

PS: f*(x) = A sin qx + B cos qx, unless a + hi [with tan q =

Az(b/a)] is a root of p(m) = 0;

f*(x) = (A sin qx + B cos qx)xr, if a hi [with tan q =

±(p/a) \ is a root of p(m) = 0 of multiplicity r.
Sec. 15.11 DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS: CONSTANT COEFFICIENTS 153

(4) g(.v) = /» cos qx:

PS: f*(.v) = .1 sin qx 4 B cos qx, unless a 4 bi [witli tan q =

dt(/> <■/)] is a root of p(w) = 0;

f*(.v) = (.1 sin qx -4* B cos qx)xr, if a 4 bi [with tan q =

±(/> 11) | is a root of p(m) = 0 of multiplicity r.

(5) g(.v) = /'<1 *':

PS: f*(.v) = .lq', unless q is a root of p(m) = 0:

f*(.v) .I v’q-1-, if q is a root of p(m) = 0 of multiplicity r.

(6) g(.v) Xq . where X is a polynomial in \ of degree >:

PS: f*(.v) = (do + .li-v 4* • • • 4 ds.vs)q\ unless q is a root of

p(m) = 0;

f*(.v) = (d„ 4 .1 i.v 4 . . . 4- d5.v*).vrqJ\ if q is a root of

p(m) 0 of multiplicity r.

(7) g(.v) X sin q\\ where X is a polynomial in v of degree s:

PS: f*(.v) = (.lo 4 -hv 4 • • • 4 d«.v®) sin qx 4 (Bo 4 B\X 4

. . . Ikv') cos qx, unless 4 bi [with tan q =
<1

±(/>/ a)] is a root of pu«) 0;

f*(.v) = (do 4 4v 4 • • • 4 .lsv*).vr sin qx 4 (Bo 4 B\X 4

... 4 B*.v*).vr cos qx, if <1 4 bi [with tan q =
±(/> a) | is a root of p(m) = 0 of multiplicity r.

(8) g(.v) X cos qx, where X is a polynomial in v of degree

PS: f*(.v) (.lo 4 -h-V 4 ••• 4 d*.v*) sin qx 4 (Bo 4 B\.x 4

... 4 B*\*) cos qx, unless a 4 bi [with tan q =
±(/> a) | is a root of p(m) = 0:
f*(.v) = (do 4 d|.v 4 ... 4 d,v*).V sin qx 4 (Bo 4 B\.x 4
... 4 Ba*)x' cos qx, if a 4 bi [with tan q ■
±(/> n) ] is a root of p(w) 0 of multiplicity .
1

15.11 REMARK ON THE EXTENSION OF TABLE 15.10

Suppose that g(.v) ■ gi(.v) 4 g.>(v) 4 ... 4 g«(.v), where particular

solutions for |p(E)|f(.v) g,(.v) can he found in l able 15.10 (or else-
154 DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS: CONSTANT COEFFICIENTS Sec. 15.12

where). Then a particular solution for [p(E)]f(x) = g(*) can be ob¬

tained by adding the particular solutions of each of the equations
[p(E)]f(*) = g ,•(*)■

15.12 EXAMPLES

(1) [E2 + 2E + 5]f = 5x2 + 8x + 6. Since g(x) is a polyno¬

mial of degree 2, and since 1 is not a root of m2 + 2m + 5 = 0, for¬
mula (2) of Table 15.10 tells us that a particular solution of the equa¬
tion has the form A0 + Ayx + A2x2. Substituting this in the given
equation, we obtain

(8do T 44i T 6A<i) T (84i T 842)* T 8A2x? = 5*2 T 8* -f- 6.

Equating like powers of x,

842 = 5,

842 -f- SA\ = 8,

6A2 T 4^4x + 84o = 6.

Solving, we get
A — JL
^0 — 3-2,
A — 3
^1 — ■BTj
A
Ai
— g-.
—
5

Adding our particular solution to the general solution form found

in Example 1 of Sec. 15.5, we find that the general solution form for
the given equation is

f(x) = ( v/5)x[Ci sin x(arctan — 2) -f- C2 cos x(arctan — 2) ]

+ ^ 3x A.
8 ^ 8 32

(2) [E2 -f- 6E -f- 9]f = ( — 3)*. In Example 3 of Sec. 15.5, we

found that —3 is a double root of m2 -f- 6rn + 9 = 0. Thus, the par¬
ticular solution according to (5) of Table 15.10 has the form 4*2( —3)1.
Substituting this for f in the given equation, we obtain

4(-3)2(-3)x(*2 + 4* + 4) + 64(-3)(-3)x(*2 + 2* + 1)

+ 94(-3)**2 = ( — 3)*.

The coefficients of x2( — 3)x and *( —3)x are zero. Equating coeffi¬
cients of ( — 3)*, we have 184 = 1, or A = yg. Using this particular
solution and the general solution form found in Example 3 of Sec.
Sec. 15.12 DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS: CONSTANT COEFFICIENTS 155

15.5, the general solution form of the given equation is

f(x) = (G + C2x)( —3)* +

(3) [E — 3]f = 2 sin 2x. Using (3) of Table 15.10, a particular

solution of the equation has the form A sin 2x -)- B cos 2x. Substitut¬
ing this into the equation, we obtain

A sin (2x + 2) + B cos (2x + 2) — 3A sin 2x — 3B cos 2x = 2 sin 2x.

Using the argument sum properties of Sec. 6.4, we obtain

(A cos 2 — B sin 2 — 3A) sin 2x + (A sin 2 + B cos 2 — 3B)

cos 2x = 2 sin 2x.

Equating coefficients of sin 2x and cos 2x and solving for .4 and B, we

get
cos 2 — 3
-0.63, B = c sm2^ = -0.08
5 — cos 2 5 — cos 2

to two decimal places. Since the general solution form of the reduced
equation is C(3)x, the general solution form of the given equation is

f(x) = C(3)x — 0.63 sin 2x — 0.08 cos 2x.

 16
OTHER DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS

(1) Ef(.v) — h(*)f(x) = g(*) (linear first-order equation).

Let H(.v) = h(x) • h(x — 1) . . . h(0). If H(.v) is never 0,

GSF: f(x) = H(x - r A-, jW

HM

If for some nonnegative integers H(x) = 0, one can solve for f(x)
in a domain of nonnegative integers a 5S x ^ b for which H(6c) 9^ 0.
In this case, let Ha(x) = h(x) • h(x — 1) . . . h(a).

GSF: f(x) = Ha(x - 1) A-X + C

Ha(x) ^

(2) f(x) • Ef(x) + af(x) -f- b — 0, a and b real numbers.

Let m be a root of the equation z1 + za + b = 0.
Let h(x) be the general solution form of

m 1
E + h(.v)
m + a m + a

1
GSF: f(x) = + m.
h(,v)

(3) f(x) • Ef(^) + aEf(x) + bf(x) + c = 0, a, b, and c real num¬

bers.
156
 OTHER DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS 157

Case 7: (a b)2 ^ 4c. Let w and n be roots of the equation

z1 — (a — b)z + c — ab = 0
C ryi1 n-E+1
GSF: f(x) = ^-a.
Cm1 + iT
Case 2: (a + b)2 = 4c.
a — b _ a b
GSF: f(x)
2(C + x) T~

(4) p(x)f(x) ■ Ef(x) + q(x)Ef(x) + r(x)f(x) = 0.

Let h(x) be the general solution form of the equation.

EhW + hw = -eM
r(x) r (x)

CSE: fW = ^

(5) E2f(x) + a(x)Ef(x) + b(x)f(x) = c(x). Let v(x) be a par¬

ticular solution of the reduced equation

E2f(x) + a(x)Ef(x) + b(x)f(x) = 0.

This can frequently be found by trial and error. Let p(x) = 1 +

aEv(x)/E2v(x) and q(x) = c/E2v(x).
Let h(x) be the general solution form of the equation Eh(x) +
p(x)h(x) = q(x), and call the arbitrary constant Ci.

GSF: f(x) = A_1h(x) + C2.

(6) a0(Ef(x))n + fli(Ef(x))n_1f(x) + a2(Ef(x))n_2f2(x) +

. . . + anfn(x) = 0.
Solve the equation

aom" + aim’1-1 + . . . + an-Xm + an = 0.

Let the distinct (not necessarily real) roots be denoted mh m2, . . . ,

mk and their multiplicities rh r2, ... , rk. Let

f»(x) = (Ci + C2x -f- . . . + Cr.xT<~1)m{.

GSF: f(x) is given implicitly by

[y ~ fiWlb “ **(*)] . . . [y - f*(x)] = 0,

where y = f(x).
 17

THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM

An important technique in the solution of differential equations is

the use of the Laplace Transform L. This function-function opera¬
tion sends a given function F of non-negative arguments into a new
function f by the rule

i(s) = L[F(/)] = fj dl

If f(s) is the Laplace transform of some function, its inverse is unique.

Using this one-to-one correspondence between functions and their
transformations, we can study a function F by studying its transform
f. Example 17.1 illustrates how this helps to solve differential equa¬
tions.

17.1 EXAMPLE

Solve the differential equation

F" + 3F' + 2F = e-2‘; F(0) = 1, F'(0) = 0.

We obtain the transform:

1
s*f - J + 2>sf - 3 + 2f
s + 2
Solving for f:

s 1
f =
(.r + 1)(^ + 2)
+, 3
(^ + 1)(j + 2)
+ (s + 1)(p + 2)

Using the technique of partial fractions (Sec. 2.7) we find

158
Sec. 17.2 THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM 159

1
f - -£-1---(- —
(j + 1)(j + 2) T (s + l)(f + 2) ^ j + 1 J+2 ' (s + 2)2

Then

F = (-e-‘ + 2e~2') + 3(e“‘ - e'2') + e"1 - e'2' — /e~2<

= 3e-< — 2e~2‘ — te~~‘.

17.2 TABLE: THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM

Transforms Involving an l nknoivn Function

Transform f(s) Function F(t)

(1) f (s) F(/)

(2) Sf(s) - F(0) F'(/)

(3) rf(j) - jF(0) - F'(0) F"(0

(4) snf(s) - S j"-*F(*-1)(0) Fln)(/)

i-i

(5) —f(j) J' F («) dv

s

(6) ££*•)**

(7) afi(s) -f bi>(s) aTi(t) + />F •>(/)

(8) -f '(s) <F(/)

(9) (_l)-f (»)(,) rF (/)

(10) j” f(cr) da ' F(0

(ID f(j - a) ea'F(0

F(/ — a)
1 if / > a
*-*>

(12)
a
1
<->
n

\0 if / < a

(13) fi(s)U(s) j’’ Y\(t — ?/)Fj(w) c/« =

j"' Fi(«)F2(< — i/) </m

160 THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM See. 17.2

Transforms Involving Kronen Functions Only

Transform f(.r) Function F (/)

(14)

(15) t
r
rt—l
1_
(16)
sn (n - 1)!

n\
(17) rn-fl
r

«al
(18)
s — a

1
(19) a b — (e-«
(s - a) (s ~ b) a — b

s 1
(20) a 7^ h , (ae"‘
(■a — a){s — b) a — b

1
(21) teat
is - ay
n—i
1
(22)
(s — a)n (« - 1)!
a
(23) sin at
s'1 + a1

s
(24) cos at
s'- + a2

a
(25) sinh at
s — a1

s
(26) cosh at
s2 - a2

2 as
(27) t sin at
{s2 + a2)2

s2 - fl2
(28) t cos at
(s2 + a2)2

1
(29) (sin at — at cos at)
+ a2)2 2 a3
Sec. 17.2 THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM 161

Transform f(j) Function F (/)

s 1 , .
(30) — (sin at + at cos at)
(s2 + «2)2 la

las
(31) t sinh at
{s2 ~ a2)2
s*2 +
1
a~2
(32) t cosh at
a2 - «2)2

(33) ' 2 - 1
--7 - sin (X
•
ati — -
1 ■
sin
(.? + a*)(s* + b*)’ J b- — a~ \a b

(34) J 72 _z
--; (cos at — cos bt)
(j2 + a2)(i2 + Ff ' “ — a-
h
(35) ent sin bt
(s - a)2 + b'1

s — a
(36) eat cos bt
(s - a)2 + b2

e~ka (0 if 0 < t < k

(37) F (/)
s ’ll if k < t
e~ka f0 if 0 < t < k
(38)
p2
F«)
\t — k if k < t
 Table

SQUARE ROOTS AND RECIPROCALS (Numbers 1-999)

1000 1000 1000

No.
Square X No. Square X No. Square X
Root Recioroca! Root Reciprocal Root Reciprocal

1 1.0000 1000.000 50 7.0711 20.0000 100 10.0000 10.0000

2 1.4142 500.000 51 7.1414 19.6078 101 10.0499 9.90099
3 1.7321 333.333 52 7.2111 19.2308 102 10.0995 9.80392
4 2.0000 250.000 53 7.2801 18.8679 103 10.1489 9.70874
5 2.2361 200.000 54 7.3485 18.5185 104 10.1980 9.61538

6 2.4495 166.667 55 7.4162 18.1818 105 10.2470 9.52381

7 2.6458 142.857 56 7.4833 17.8571 106 10.2956 9.43396
8 2.8284 125.000 57 7.5498 17.5439 107 10.3441 9.34579
9 3.0000 111.111 58 7.6158 17.2414 108 10.3923 9.25926
10 3.1623 100.000 59 7.6811 16.9492 109 10.4403 9.17431

11 3.3166 90.9091 60 7.7460 16.6667 110 10.4881 9.09091

12 3.4641 83.3333 61 7.8102 16.3934 111 10.5357 9.00901
13 3.6056 76.9231 62 7.8740 16.1290 112 10.5830 8.92857
14 3.7417 71.4286 63 7.9373 15.8730 113 10.6301 8.84956
15 3.8730 66.6667 64 8.0000 15.6250 114 10.6771 8.77193

16 4.0000 62.5000 65 8.0623 15.3846 115 10.7238 8.69565

17 4.1231 58.8235 66 8.1240 15.1515 116 10.7703 8.62069
18 4.2426 55.5556 67 8.1854 14.9254 117 10.8167 8.54701
19 4.3589 52.6316 68 8.2462 14.7059 118 10.8628 8.47458
20 4.4721 50.0000 69 8.3066 14.4928 119 10.9087 8.40336

21 4.5826 47.6190 70 8.3666 14.2857 120 10.9545 8.33333

22 4.6904 45.4545 71 8.4261 14.0845 121 11.0000 8.26446
23 4.7958 43.4783 72 8.4853 13.8889 122 11.0454 8.19672
24 4.8990 41 .6667 73 8.5440 13.6986 123 11.0905 8.13008
25 5.0000 40.0000 74 8.6023 13.5135 124 11.1355 8.06452

26 5.0990 38.4615 75 8.6603 13.3333 125 11 .1803 8.00000

27 5.1962 37.0370 76 8.7178 13.1579 126 11.2250 7.93651
28 5.2915 35.7143 77 8.7750 12.9870 127 11.2694 7.87402
29 5.3852 34.4828 78 8.8318 12.8205 128 11.3137 7.81250
30 5.4772 33.3333 79 8.8882 12.6582 129 11.3578 7.75194

31 5.5678 32.2581 80 8.9443 12.5000 130 11 .4018 7.69231

32 5.6569 31.2500 81 9.0000 12.3457 131 11.4455 7.63359
33 5.7446 30.3030 82 9.0554 12.1951 132 11.4891 7.57576
34 5.8310 29.4118 83 9.1104 12.0482 133 11 .5326 7.51880
35 5.9161 28.5714 84 9.1652 11.9048 134 11.5758 7.46269

36 6.0000 27.7778 85 9.2195 11.7647 135 11.6190 7.40741

37 6.0828 27.0270 86 9.2736 11.6279 136 11.6619 7.35294
38 6.1644 26.3158 87 9.3274 11.4943 137 11.7047 7.29927
39 6.2450 25.6410 88 9.3808 11.3636 138 11.7473 7.24638
40 6.3246 25.0000 89 9.4340 11.2360 139 11.7898 7.19424

41 6.4031 24.3902 90 9.4868 11.1111 140 11.8322 7.14286

42 6.4807 23.8095 91 9.5394 10.9890 141 11.8743 7.09220
43 6.5574 23.2558 92 9.5917 10.8696 142 11.9164 7.04225
44 6.6332 22.7273 93 9.6437 10.7527 143 11.9583 6.99301
45 6.7082 22.2222 94 9.6954 10.6383 144 12.0000 6.94444
6.7823 21.7391 95 9.7468 10.5263
46 145 12.0416 6.89655
6.8557 21.2766 96 9.7980 10.4167 12.0830
47 146 6.84932
48 6.9282 20.8333 97 9.8489 10.3093 12.1244
147 6.80272
7.0000 20.4082 98 9.8995 10.2041
49 148 12.1655 6.75676
99 9.9499 10.1010 149 12.2066 6.71141

162
 Table

SQUARE ROOTS AND RECIPROCALS (Cont’d)

Square
1000 Square
1000 Square 1000
X No. Root X „ X
No. Root No. Root
Reciprocal Reciprocal Reciprocal

150 12.2474 6.66667 200 14.1421 5.00000 250 15.8114 4.00000

151 12.2882 6.62252 201 14.1774 4.97512 251 15.8430 3.98406
152 12.3288 6.57895 202 14.2127 4.95050 252 15.8745 3.96825
153 12.3693 6.53595 203 14.2478 4.92611 253 15.9060 3.95257
154 12.4097 6.49351 204 14.2829 4.90196 254 15.9374 3.93701

155 12.4499 6.45161 205 14.3178 4.87805 .255 15.9687 3.92157

156 12.4900 6.41026 206 14.3527 4.85437 256 16.0000 3.90625
157 12.5300 6.36943 207 14.3875 4.83092 257 16.0312 3.89105
158 12.5698 6.32911 208 14.4222 4.80769 258 16.0624 3.87597
159 12.6095 6.28931 209 14.4568 4.78469 259 16.0935 3.86100

160 12.6491 6.25000 210 14.4914 4.76190 260 16.1245 3.84615

161 12.6886 6.21118 211 14.5258 4.73934 261 16.1555 3.83142
162 12.7279 6.17284 212 14.5602 4.71698 262 16.1864 3.81679
163 12.7671 6.13497 213 14.5945 4.69484 263 16.2173 3.80228
164 12.8062 6.09756 214 14.6287 4.67290 264 16.2481 3.78788

165 12.8452 6.06061 215 14.6629 4.65116 265 16.2788 3.77358

166 12.8841 6.02410 216 14.6969 4.62963 266 16.3095 3.75940
167 12.9228 5.98802 217 14.7309 4.60829 267 16.3401 3.74532
168 12.9615 5.95238 218 14.7648 4.58716 268 16.3707 3.73134
169 13.0000 5.91716 219 14.7986 4.56621 269 16.4012 3.71747

170 13.0384 5.88235 220 14.8324 4.54545 270 16.4317 3.70370

171 13.0767 5.84795 221 14.8661 4.52489 271 16.4621 3.69004
172 13.1149 5.81395 222 14.8997 4.50450 272 16.4924 3.67647
173 13.1529 5.78035 223 14.9332 4.48430 273 16.5227 3.66300
174 13.1909 5.74713 224 14.9666 4.46429 274 16.5529 3.64964

175 13.2288 5.71429 225 15.0000 4.44444 275 16.5831 3.63636

176 13.2665 5.68182 226 15.0333 4.42478 276 16.6132 3.62319
177 13.3041 5.64972 227 15.0665 4.40529 277 16.6433 3.61011
178 13.3417 5.61798 228 15.0997 4.38596 278 16.6733 3.59712
179 13.3791 5.58659 229 15.1327 4.36681 279 16.7033 3.58423

180 13.4164 5.55556 230 15.1658 4.34783 280 16.7332 3.57143

181 13.4536 5.52486 231 15.1987 4.32900 281 16.7631 3.55872
182 13.4907 5.49451 232 15.2315 4.31034 282 16.7929 3.54610
183 13.5277 5.46448 233 15.2643 4.29185 283 16.8226 3.53357
184 13.5647 5.43478 234 15.2971 4.27350 284 16.8523 3.52113

185 13.6015 5.40541 235 15.3297 4.25532 285 16.8819 3.50877

186 13.6382 5.37634 236 15.3623 4.23729 286 16.9115 3.49650
187 13.6748 5.34759 237 15.3948 4.21941 287 16.9411 3.48432
188 13.7113 5.31915 238 15.4272 4.20168 288 16.9706 3.47222
189 13.7477 5.29101 239 15.4596 4.18410 289 17.0000 3.46021

190 13.7840 5.26316 240 15.4919 4.16667 290 17.0294 3.44828

191 13.8203 5.23560 241 15.5242 4.14938 291 17.0587 3.43643
192 13.8564 5.20833 242 15.5563 4.13223 292 17.0880 3.42466
193 13.8924 5.18135 243 15.5885 4.11523 293 17.1172 3.41297
194 13.9284 5.15464 244 15.6205 4.09836 294 17.1464 3.40136

195 13.9642 5.12821 245 15.6525 4.08163 295 17.1756 3.38983

196 14.0000 5.10204 246 15.6844 4.06504 296 17.2047 3.37838
197 14.0357 5.07614 247 15.7162 4.04858 297 17.2337 3.36700
198 14.0712 5.05051 248 15.7480 4.03226 298 17.2627 3.35570
199 14.1067 5.02513 249 15.7797 4.01606 299 17.2916 3.34448

163
 Table

SQUARE ROOTS AND RECIPROCALS (Confd)

Square 1000 1000 Square 1000

No. Square
Root X No. Root X No. Root X
Reciprocal Reciprocal Reciprocal

300 17.3205 3.33333 350 18.7083 2.85714 400 20.0000 2.50000

301 17.3494 3.32226 351 18.7350 2.84900 401 20.0250 2.49377
302 17.3781 3.31126 352 18.7617 2.84091 402 20.0499 2.48756
303 17.4069 3.30033 353 18.7883 2.83286 403 20.0749 2.48139
304 17.4356 3.28947 354 18.8149 2.82486 404 20.0998 2.47525

305 17.4642 3.27869 355 18.8414 2.81690 405 20.1246 2.46914

306 17.4929 3.26(797 356 18.8680 2.80899 406 20.1494 2.46305
307 17.5214 3.25733 357 18.8944 2.80112 407 20.1742 2.45700
308 17.5499 3.24675 358 18.9209 2.79330 408 20.1990 2.45098
309 17.5784 3.23625 359 18.9473 2.78552 409 20.2237 2.44499

310 17.6068 3.22581 360 18.9737 2.77778 410 20.2485 2.43902

311 17.6352 3.21543 361 19.0000 2.77008 411 20.2731 2.43309
312 17.6635 3.20513 362 19.0263 2.76243 412 20.2978 2.42718
313 17.6918 3.19489 363 19.0526 2.75482 413 20.3224 2.42131
314 17.7200 3.18471 364 19.0788 2.74725 414 20.3470 2.41546

315 17.7482 365 19.1050 2.73973 415 20.3715 2.40964

3.17460
316 17.7764 366 19.1311 2.73224 416 20.3961 2.40385
3.16456
317 17.8045 367 19.1572 2.72480 417 20.4206 2.39808
3.15457
318 17.8326 368 19.1833 2.71739 418 20.4450 2.39234
3.14465
369 19.2094 2.71003 419 20.4695 2.38663
319 17.8606 3.13480
370 19.2354 2.70270 420 20.4939 2.38095
320 17.8885 3.12500
371 19.2614 2.69542 421 20.5183 2.37530
321 17.9165 3.11526
372 19.2873 2.68817 422 20.5426 2.36967
322 17.9444 3.10559 20.5670
373 19.3132 2.68097 423 2.36407
323 17.9722 3.09598 20.5913
374 19.3391 2.67380 424 2.35849
324 18.0000 3.08642
375 19.3649 2.66676 425 20.6155 2.35294
325 18.0278 3.07692 20.6398 2.34742
376 19.3907 2.65957 426
326 18.0555 3.06749 20.6640 2.34192
377 19.4165 2.65252 427
327 18.0831 3.05810 20.6882 2.33645
378 19.4422 2.64550 428
328 18.1108 3.04878 20.7123 2.33100
379 19.4679 2.63852 429
329 18.1384 3.03951
380 19.4936 2.63158 430 20.7364 2.32558
330 18.1659 3.03030 381 2.62467 431 20.7605 2.32019
19.5192
331 18.1934 3.02115 382 2.61780 432 20.7846 2.31481
19.5448
332 18.2209 3.01205 383 19.5704 2.61097 433 20.8087 2.30947
333 18.2483 3.00300 384 19.5959 2.60417 434 20.8327 2.30415
334 18.2757 2.99401
335 19.6214 2.59740 435 20.8567 2.29885
335 18.3030 2.98507 386 19.6469 2.59067 436 20.8806 2.29358
336 18.3303 2.97619 387 19.6723 2.58398 437 20.9045 2.28833
337 18.3576 2.96736 388 19.6977 2.57732 438 20.9284 2.28311
338 18.3848 2.95858 389 19.7231 2.57069 439 20.9523 2.27790
339 18.4120 2.94985
390 19.7484 2.56410 440 20.9762 2.27273
340 18.4391 2.94118 391 19.7737 2.55754 441 21.0000 2.26757
341 18.4662 2.93255 392 19.7990 2.55102 442 21.0238 2.26244
342 18.4932 2.92398 393 19.8242 2.54453 443 21.0476 2.25734
343 18.5203 2.91545 394 19.8494 2.53807 444 21 .0713 2.25225
344 18.5472 2.90698
395 19.8746 2.53165 445 21.0950 2.24719
345 18.5742 2.89855 396 19.8997 2.52525 446 21.1187 2.24215
346 18.6011 2.89017 397 19.9249 2.51889 447 21.1424 2.23714
347 18.6279 2.88184 398 19.9499 2.51256 448 21 .1660 2.23214
348 18.6548 2.87356 399 19.9750 2.50627 449 21.1896 2.22717
349 18.6815 2.86533

164
 Table

SQUARE ROOTS AND RECIPROCALS (Confd)

Square 1000 Square 1000 Square

No. 1000
Root X No. Root X No. Root _ X
Reciprocal Reciprocal Reciprocal

450 21.2132 2.22222 500 22.3607 2.00000 550 23.4521 1.81818

451 21.2368 2.21729 501 22.3830 1.99601 551 23.4734 1.81488
452 21.2603 2.21239 502 22.4054 1.99203 552 23.4947 1.81159
453 21.2838 2.20751 503 22.4277 1.98807 553 23.5160 1.80832
454 21.3073 2.20264 504 22.4499 1.98413 554 23.5372 1.80505
455 21.3307 2.19780 505 22.4722 1.98020 555 23.5584 1.80180
456 21.3542 2.19298 506 22.4944 1.97628 556 23.5797 1.79856
457 21.3776 2.18818 507 22.5167 1.97239 557 23.6008 1.79533
458 21.4009 2.18341 508 22.5389 1.96850 558 23.6220 1.79211
459 21.4243 2.17865 509 22.5610 1.96464 559 23.6432 1.78891
460 21.4476 2.17391 510 22.5832 1 .96078 560 23.6643 1.78571
461 21.4709 2.16920 511 22.6053 1.95695 561 23.6854 1.78253
462 21.4942 2.16450 512 22.6274
21.5174 1.95312 562 23.7065 1.77936
463 2.15983 513 22.6495
21.5407 1.94932 563 23.7276 1.77620
464 2.15517 514 22.6716 1.94553 564 23.7487 1.77305
465 21.5639 2.15054 515 22.6936 1.94175 565 23.7697 1.76991
466 21.5870 2.14592 516 22.7156
21.6102 1.93798 566 23.7908 1.76678
467 2.14133 517 22.7376 1.93424 567 23.8118 1.76367
468 21.6333 2 13675 518 22.7596 1.93050 568 23.8328 1.76056
469 21.6564 2.13220 519 22.7816 1.92678 569 23.8537 1.75747
470 21.6795 2.12766 520 22.8035 1.92308 570 23.8747 1.75439
471 21.7025 2.12314 521 22.8254 1.91939 571 23.8956 1.75131
472 21.7256 2.11864 522 22.8473 1.91571 572 23.9165 1.74825
473 21.7486 2.11416 523 22.8692 1.91205 573 23.9374 1.74520
474 21.7715 2.10970 524 22.8910 1.90840 574 23.9583 1.74216
475 21.7945 2.10526 22.9129
525 1.90476
476 21.8174 2.10084 22.9347 575 23.9792 1.73913
526 1.90114
477 21.8403 2.09644 22.9565 576 24.0000 1.73611
527 1.89753
478 21.8632 2.09205 22.9783 577 24.0208 1.73310
528 1.89394
479 21.8861 2.08768 23.0000 578 24.0416 1.73010
529 1.89036 579 24.0624 1.72712
480 21.9089 2.08333 530 23.0217
21.9317 2,07900 1.88679 580 24.0832 1.72414
481 531 23.0434 1 .88324
482 21.9545 2.07469 23.0651 581 24.1039 1 .72117
532 1.87970
483 21.9773 2.07039 23.0868 582 24.1247 1.71821
533 1.87617
484 22.0000 2.06612 23.1084 583 24.1454 1.71527
534 1.87266 584 24.1661 1 .71233
485 22.0227 2 06186 23.1301
535 1.86916
486 22.0454 2.05761 23.1517 585 24.1868 1.70940
536 1.86567
487 22 0681 2 05339 23.1733 586 24.2074 1.70648
537 1.86220
488 22.0907 2.04918 23.1948 587 24.2281 1.70358
538 1.85874
489 22.1133 2.04499 23.2164 588 24.2487 1.70068
539 1.85529 589 24.2693 1.69779
490 22.1359 2.04082 23.2379
540 1.85185
491 22.1585 2.03666 23.2594 590 24.2899 1.69492
541 1.84843
492 22.1811 2.03252 23.2809 591 24.3105 1.69205
542 1.84502
493 22.2036 2.02840 23.3024 592 24.3311 1 .68919
543 1.84162
494 22 2261 2.02429 23.3238 593 24.3516 1.68634
544 1 .83824
594 24.3721 1.68350
495 22.2486 2.02020 23.3452
545 1.83486
496 22.2711 2.01613 23.3666 595 24.3926 1.68067
546 1.83150
497 22.2935 2.01207 23.3880 596 24.4131 1.67785
547 1.82815
498 22.3159 2.00803 23.4094 597 24.4336 1 .67504
548 1.82482
499 22.3383 2,00401 23.4307 598 24.4540 1.67224
549 1.82149
599 24.4745 1.66945

165
 Table

SQUARE ROOTS AND RECIPROCALS (Confd)

Square 1000 Square 1000 Square 1000

No. Root X No.
Root X No. X
Root
Reciprocal Reciprocal Reciprocal

600 24.4949 1.66667 650 25.4951 1.53846 700 26.4575 1.42857

601 24.5153 1.66389 651 25.5147 1.53610 701 26.4764 1.42653
602 24.5357 1.66113 652 25.5343 1 .53374 702 26.4953 1.42450
603 24.5561 1.65837 653 25.5539 1 .53139 703 26.5141 1 .42248
604 24.5764 1.65563 654 25.5734 1 .52905 704 26.5330 1.42045

605 24.5967 1.65289 655 25.5930 1 .52672 705 26.5518 1.41844

606 24.6171 1.65017 656 25.6125 1.52439 706 26.5707 1.41643
607 24.6374 1.64745 657 25.6320 1.52207 707 26.5895 1.41443
608 24.6577 1.64474 658 25.6515 1.51976 708 26.6083 1.41243
609 24.6779 1.64204 659 25.6710 1.51745 709 26.6271 1 .'41044

610 24.6982 1.63934 660 25.6905 1.51515 710 26.6458 1.40845

611 24.7184 1.63666 661 25.7099 1.51286 711 26.6646 1.40647
612 24.7386 1.63399 662 25.7294 1.51057 712 26.6833 1.40449
613 24.7588 1.63132 663 25.7488 1.50830 713 26.7021 1.40252
614 24.7790 1.62866 664 25.7682 1.50602 714 26.7208 1.40056

615 24.7992 1.62602 665 25.7876 1.50376 715 26.7395 1.39860

616 24.8193 1.62338 666 25.8070 1.50150 716 26.7582 1.39665
617 24.8395 1.62075 667 25.8263 1.49925 717 26.7769 1.39470
618 24.8596 1 .61812 668 25.8457 1.49701 718 26.7955 1.39276
619 24.8797 1.61551 669 25.8650 1.49477 719 26.8142 1.39082

620 24.8998 1.61290 670 25.8844 1.49254 720 26.8328 1.38889

621 24.9199 1.61031 671 25.9037 1.49031 721 26.8514 1.38696
622 24.9399 1.60772 672 25.9230 1.48810 722 26.8701 1.38504
623 24.9600 1.60514 673 25.9422 1.48588 723 26.8887 1.38313
624 24.9800 1.60256 674 25.9615 1.48368 724 26.9072 1.38122

625 25.0000 1.60000 675 25.9808 1.48148 725 26.9258 1.37931

626 25.0200 1 .59744 676 26.0000 1.47929 726 26.9444 1.37741
627 25.0400 1.59490 677 26.0192 1.47710 727 26.9629 1.37552
628 25.0599 1.59236 678 26.0384 1.47493 728 26.9815 1.37363
629 25.0799 1.58983 679 26.0576 1.47275 729 27.0000 1.37174

630 25.0998 1.58730 680 26.0768 1.47059 730 27.0185 1.36986

631 25.1197 1.58479 681 26.0960 1.46843 731 27.0370 1.36799
632 25.1396 1.58228 682 26.1151 1.46628 732 27.0555 1.36612
633 25.1595 1.57978 683 26.1343 1.46413 733 27.0740 1.36426
634 25.1794 1.57729 684 26.1534 1.46199 734 27.0924 1.36240

635 25.1992 1.57480 685 26.1725 1.45985 735 27.1109 1.36054

636 25.2190 1.57233 686 26.1916 1.45773 736 27.1293 1,35870
637 25.2389 1.56986 687 26.2107 1.45560 737 27.1477 1.35685
638 25.2587 1.56740 688 26.2298 1.45349 738 27.1662 1.35501
639 25.2784 1.56495 689 26.2488 1.45138 739 27.1846 1.35318

640 25.2982 1.56250 690 26.2679 1.44928 740 27 2029 1.35135

641 25.3180 1.56006 691 26.2869 1.44718 741 27.2213 1.34953
642 25.3377 1.55763 692 26.3059 1 .44509 742 27 2397 1.34771
643 25.3574 1.55521 693 26.3249 1.44300 743 27 2580 1.34590
644 25.3772 1.55280 694 26.3439 1.44092 744 27.2764 1.34409

645 25.3969 1.55039 695 26.3629 1.43885 745 27.2947 1.34228

646 25.4165 1.54799 696 26.3818 1.43678 746 27.3130 1.34048
647 25.4362 1.54560 697 26.4008 1.43472 747 27.3313 1.33869
648 25.4558 1.54321 698 26.4197 1.43266 748 27.3496 1.33690
649 25.4755 1.54083 699 26.4386 1.43062 749 27.3679 1.33511

166
 Table

SQUARE ROOTS AND RECIPROCALS (Cont’d)

Square 1000 Square 1000 1000

No. X No. No. Square
Root Root X Root „ X
Reciprocal Reciprocal Reciprocal

750 27.3861 1.33333 800 28.2843 1.25000 850 29.1548 1.17647

751 27.4044 1.33156 801 28.3019 1.24844 851 29.1719 1 .17509
752 27.4226 1.32979 802 28.3196 1.24688 852 29.1890 1.17371
753 27.4408 1.32802 803 28.3373 1.24533 853 29.2062 1.17233
754 27.4591 1.32626 804 28.3549 1.24378 854 29.2233 1 .17096

755 27.4773 1.32450 805 28.3725 1.24224 855 29.2404 1.16959

756 27.4955 1.32275 806 28.3901 1.24069 856 29.2575 1 .16822
757 27.5136 1.32100 807 28.4077 1.23916 857 29.2746 1.16686
758 27.5318 1.31926 808 28.4253 1.23762 858 29.2916 1 .16550
759 27.5500 1.31752 809 28.4429 1.23609 859 29.3087 1.16414

760 27.5681 1.31579 810 28.4605 1.23457 860 29.3258 1.16279

761 27.5862 1.31406 811 28.4781 1.23305 861 29.3428 1 .16144
762 27.6043 1.31234 812 28.4956 1.23153 862 29.3598 1.16009
763 27.6225 1.31062 813 28.5132 1.23001 863 29.3769 1.15875
764 27.6405 1.30890 814 28.5307 1.22850 864 29.3939 1.15741

765 27.6586 1.30719 815 28.5482 1.22699 865 29.4109 1 .15607

766 27.6767 1.30548 816 28.5657 1.22549 866 29.4279 1.15473
767 27.6948 1.30378 817 28.5832 1.22399 867 29.4449 1.15340
768 27.7128 1.30208 818 28.6007 1.22249 868 29.4618 1.15207
769 27.7308 1.30039 819 28.6182 1.22100 869 29.4788 1.15075

770 27.7489 1.29870 820 28.6356 1.21951 870 29.4958 1.14943

771 27.7669 1.29702 821 28.6531 1.21803 871 29.5127 1.14811
772 27.7849 1.29534 822 28.6705 1.21655 872 29.5296 1 .14679
773 27.8029 1.29366 823 28.6880 1.21507 873 29.5466 1 .14548
774 27.8209 1.29199 824 28.7054 1.21359 874 29.5635 1.14416

775 27.8388 1.29032 825 28.7228 1.21212 875 29.5804 1 .14286

776 27.8568 1.28866 826 28.7402 1.21065 876 29.5973 1.14155
777 27.8747 1.28700 827 28.7576 1.20919 877 29.6142 1.14025
778 27.8927 1.28535 828 28.7750 1 .20773 878 29.6311 1.13895
779 27.9106 1.28370 829 28.7924 1.20627 879 29.6479 1.13766

780 27.9285 1.28205 830 28.8097 1.20482 880 29.6648 1.13636

781 27.9464 1.28041 831 28.8271 1.20337 881 29.6816 1.13507
782 27.9643 1.27877 832 28.8444 1.20192 882 29.6965 1.13379
783 27.9821 1.27714 833 28.8617 1.20048 883 29.7153 1.13250
784 28.0000 1.27551 834 28.8791 1.19904 884 29.7321 1.13122

785 28.0179 1.27389 835 28.8964 1.19760 885 29.7489 1.12994

786 28.0357 1.27226 836 28.9137 1.19617 886 29.7658 1 .12867
787 28.0535 1.27065 837 28.9310 1.19474 887 29.7825 1.12740
788 28.0713 1.26904 838 28.9482 1.19332 888 29.7993 1.12613
789 28.0891 1.26743 839 28.9655 1.19190 889 29.8161 1.12486

790 28.1069 1.26582 840 28.9828 1.19048 890 29.8329 1 .12360

791 28.1247 1.26422 841 29.0000 1.18906 891 29.8496 1.12233
792 28.1425 1.26263 842 29.0172 1.18765 892 29.8664 1.12108
793 28.1603 1.26103 843 29.0345 1.18624 893 29.8831 1.11982
794 28.1780 1.25945 844 29.0517 1.18483 894 29.8998 1.11857

795 28.1957 1.25786 845 29.0689 1.18343 895 29.9166 1.11732

796 28.2135 1.25628 846 29.0861 1.18203 896 29.9333 1.11607
797 28.2312 1.25471 847 29.1033 1.18064 897 29.9500 1.11483
798 28.2489 1.25313 848 29.1204 1.17925 898 29.9666 1.11359
799 28.2666 1.25156 849 29.1376 1.17786 899 29.9833 1.11235

167
 Table

SQUARE ROOTS AND RECIPROCALS (Confd)

Square 1000 Square 1000

No. Root X No. X
Reciprocal Root
Reciprocal

900 30.0000 1.11111 950 30.8221 1.05263

901 30.0167 1 .10988 951 30.8383 1.05152
902 30.0333 1.10865 952 30.8545 1.05042
903 30.0500 1.10742 953 30.8707 1.04932
904 30.0666 1.10619 954 30.8869 1.04822
905 30.0832 1.10497 955 30.9031 1.04712
906 30.0998 1.10375 956 30.9192 1.04603
907 30.1164 1.10254 957 30.9354 1.04493
908 30.1330 1.10132 958 30.9516 1.04384
909 30.1496 1.10011 959 30.9677 1.04275
910 30.1662 1.09890 960 30.9839 1.04167
911 30.1828 1.09769 961 31.0000 1.04058
912 30.1993 1.09649 962 31.0161 1.03950
913 30.2159 1.09529 963 31.0322 1.03842
914 30.2324 1.09409 964 31.0483 1.03734
915 30.2490 1.09290 965 31.0644 1.03627
916 30.2655 1.09170 966 31.0805 1.03520
917 30.2820 1.09051 967 31.0966 1.03413
918 30.2985 1.08932 968 31.1127 1.03306
919 30.3150 1.08814 969 31.1288 1.03199
920 30.3315 1.08696 970 31.1448 1.03093
921 30.3480 1.08578 971 31.1609 1.02987
922 30.3645 1.08460 972 31.1769 1.02881
923 30.3809 1.08342 973 31.1929 1.02775
924 30.3974 1.08225 974 31.2090 1.02669
925 30.4138 1.08108 975 31.2250 1.02564
926 30.4302 1.07991 976 31.2410 1.02459
927 30.4467 1.07875 977 ,31.2570 1.02354
928 30.4631 1.07759 978 31.2730 1.02249
929 30.4795 1.07643 979 31.2890 1.02145
930 30.4959 1.07527 980 31.3050 1.02041
931 30.5123 1.07411 981 31.3209 1.01937
932 30.5287 1.07296 982 31.3369 1.01833
933 30.5450 1 .07181 983 31.3528 1.01729
934 30.5614 1.07066 984 31.3688 1.01626
935 30.5778 1.06952 985 31.3847 1.01523
936 30.5941 1.06838 986 31.4006 1.01420
937 30.6105 1.06724 987 31.4166 1.01317
938 30.6268 1.06610 988 31.4325 1.01215
939 30.6431 1.06496 989 31.4484 1.01112
940 30.6594 1.06383 990 31.4643 1.01010
941 30.6757 1.06270 991 31.4802 1.00908
942 30.6920 1.06157 992 31.4960 1.00806
943 30.7083 1.06045 993 31.5119 1.00705
944 30.7246 1.05932 994 31.5278 1.00604
945 30.7409 1.05820 995 31.5436 1.00503
946 30.7571 1.05708 996 31.5595 1.00402
947 30.7734 1.05597 997 31.5753 1.00301
948 30.7896 1.05485 998 31.5911 1 00200
949 30.8058 1.05374 999 31.6070 1.00100

168
 INDEX

A trapezoid
triangle
Algebraic function, 4 Argument:
definition of, 7 functions of more than one argument,
integrals of, 87 117
Alternating series, 141 of a function, 1
test for convergence of, 141 Auxiliary equation:
Antiderivative: difference equations, 149
definition of, 13 differential equations, 109
of nth order, table, 107
Antidifference:
definition of, 14 B
of nth order, table, 144
Arbitrary constants, use of, 14 Base of logarithms, 37
Arc of a circle, length of (inside front cover) Bernoulli differential equation, 120, 121
Arccosecant, definition of, 36 Binomial coefficients:
Arcosine: definition of, 19
definition of, 36 table of values of, 20
graph of, 62 Boundary conditions, 17
Arccotangent:
definition of, 36
graph of, 62 C
Arcsecant, definition of, 36
Arcsine: Circle:
definition of, 36 arc length of (inside front cover)
graph of, 62 area of (inside front cover)
Arctangent: circumference of (inside front cover)
definition of, 36 graph of, 53
graph of, 62 sector area of (inside front cover)
Area of (see inside front cover for items Circumference (see inside front cover for
below): items below):
circle circle
ellipse ellipse
parallelogram Clairaut differential equation, 131, 132
rectangle Classification list, differential equation:
right circular cone first-order linear, 120
right circular cylinder first-order nonlinear, 131
sector of circle Coefficients, binomial (see Binomial coeffi¬
sphere cients)

169
170 INDEX
Comparison test for convergence, 140 antiderivative, 13
Composition of functions, 3 antidifference, 14
Conditions, boundary (see Boundary condi¬ base of logarithms, 37
tions) binomial coefficients, 19
Cone, right circular: derivative, 9
area of lateral surface of (inside front difference, 10
cover) exponential function, 43
graph of, 73 factorial function, 18
volume of (inside front cover) function, 1
Conic sections, 73 functional equation, 12
Constant coefficients: homogeneous difference equation, 148
linear difference equations with, 148 homogeneous differential equation, 108
linear differential equations with, 108 hyperbolic function, 43
Constants, arbitrary (see Arbitrary con¬ indefinite finite integral, 14
stants) indefinite integral, 13
Constants, table of important (inside front logarithmic function, 37
cover) polynomial, 4
Convergence and divergence, tests for, 140 prime polynomial, 4
Convergence of infinite series, 139 rational function, 5
Convergent series, sums of, 142 reduced difference equations, 148
Cosecant: reduced differential equation, 108
definition of, 25 transcendental function, 24
graph of, 61 translate, 9
Cosine: Degree of polynomials, 4
definition of, 25 Degrees-radians, 30
graph of, 60 Dependence, linear, of functions, 118
Cotangent: Derivative D, definition of, 9
definition of, 25 Derivatives, partial, 117
graph of, 61 Derivatives, table of, 78
Cubic functions, graphs of, 58 Difference A:
Cylinder: definition of, 10
elliptic, graph of, 72 relation to translate, 10
hyperbolic, graph of, 72 table of, 134
parabolic, graph of, 72 Difference equation, 13
Cylinder, right circular: auxiliary equation, 149
area of lateral surface of (inside front homogeneous, 148
cover) linear, 77
graph of, 71 linear with constant coefficients, 148
volume of (inside front cover) auxiliary equation, 149
first-order homogeneous, table of solu¬
tions, 149
D homogeneous, 148
miscellaneous, table of solutions, 156
D’Alembert differential equation, 131, 132 nth order homogeneous, table of solu¬
D, derivative, definition of, 9 tions, 151
Definite integrals, 75 operator polynomials, 10, 148
improper integrals, 104 order, 13
probability integrals, 106 particular solution, 152
properties of, 104 particular solution forms, table of, 152
table of, 105 reduced equation, 148
Definition of: second-order homogeneous, table of
algebraic functions, 7 solutions, 149
 INDEX 171
nonlinear, 77 Equations:
order, 13 auxiliary, difference equation, 149
reduced, 148 auxiliary, differential equation, 109
Differential equation, 12 difference (see Difference equation)
auxiliary equation, 109 differential (see Differential equation)
homogeneous, 108 functional (see Functional equations)
linear, 76 graphs of functions and, 52
linear first-order, 117, 119 homogeneous difference, 151
classification list, 120 homogeneous differential, 108
integrating factors, 123 reduced difference, 148
table of general solutions, 121 reduced differential, 108
linear second-order, table of solutions, Euler’s constant (inside front cover)
129 Evaluating indefinite integrals, techniques
linear with constant coefficients, 76, 108 for, 81
auxiliary equations, 109 Exact differential equation:
nth order homogeneous, table of solu¬ first-order, 120, 122
tions, 111 second-order, 130
operator polynomials, 10, 108 Explicitly defined functions, 16
order, 12 Exponential function:
particular solutions, 112 definition of, 43
particular solution forms, table of, 112 graphs of, 63
reduced equation, 108 integrals of, 102
second-order homogeneous, table of properties of, 43
solutions, 109 Extending table of particular solution forms
nonlinear, 76 of:
nonlinear first-order: linear difference equations, 153
classification list, 131 linear differential equations, 114
table of general solutions, 132
order, 12
reduced, 108 F
Divergence of infinite scries, 139
tests for, 140 Factorial function:
Domain of: definition of, 18
function, 1 table of values of, 19
inverse hyperbolic functions, 43 Factorial powers, 20
inverse trigonometric functions, 36 relation to ordinary powers, 21
Factors, integrating, 121
table of, 123
of polynomials, 5
E
multiplicity of, 5
Finite integrals, indefinite (see Indefinite
finite integrals)
definition of, 37 Finite sums, 77, 136
value of, 37, inside front cover properties of, 138
E, translate, definition of, 9 table of, 138
Ellipse: First-order differential equations:
area of (inside front cover) linear (see Differential equations, linear
circumference of (inside front cover) first-order)
graph of, 55 nonlinear (see Differential equations,
Ellipsoid, 69 nonlinear)
Elliptic cylinder, 72 Fractions, partial, decomposition of ra¬
Elliptic paraboloid, 70 tional functions into, 5
 172 INDEX
Functional equations, 12 derivative, 9
arbitrary constants, use of, 14 difference, 10
boundary conditions, 17 indefinite finite integral, 14
definition of, 12 indefinite integral, 13
difference equations, 13 operator polynomials, 10
differential equations, 12 partial derivatives, 117
general solution form of, 12 partial integrals, 118
general solution of, 12 translate, 9
particular solution of, 12
types of, 75
Functions, 1 G
algebraic definitions of, 4, 7
binomial coefficients, 19 y (inside front cover)
table of values of, 20 General solution, 12
composition of, 3 General solution form, 12
definition of, 1 General solution forms, table of:
domain of, 1 difference equations (see Difference equa¬
factorial, definition of, 18 tions)
table of values of, 19 differential equations (see Differential
factorial powers, 20 equations)
graphs of, 52 Graphs of functions, 52
hyperbolic, definition, 43 three-dimensional linear, 68
inverses of, 43 three-dimensional quadratic, 69
properties of, 44 two-dimensional cubic, 58
table of values of, 45 two-dimensional linear, 52
implicitly defined, 16 two-dimensional quadratic, 53
inverses of, 8 GSF, 108
inverses of hyperbolic, 43
inverses of trigonometric, 36
linear dependence and independence of, H
118
logarithmic, definition of, 37 Flomogeneous:
properties of, 37 difference equation (see Difference equa¬
table of values of, 39 tion)
of more than one argument, 117 differential equation (see Differential
polynomial, definition of, 4 equation)
degree of, 4 Hyperbola, 56
range of, 1 Hyperbolic cylinder, 72
rational, definition of, 5 Hyperbolic functions:
partial fractions, decomposition of, 5 graphs of, 65
transcendental, 24 integrals of, 103
trigonometric, 24 inverses of, 43
graphs of, 60 properties of, 44
integrals of, 93 table of values, 45
inverses of, 36 Hyperbolic paraboloid, 70
properties of, 25 Hyperboloid, 71
table of integrals of, 93
table of values of, 28
Function-function operations, 9 I
antiderivative, 13
antidifference, 14 Implicitly defined functions, 16
arbitrary constants, use of, 14 Improper integrals, 104
 INDEX 173
Indefinite finite integrals:
definition of, 14 M
properties of, 136
table of, 137 Multiplicity of:
Indefinite integrals: a factor of a polynomial, 5
definition of, 13 a root of auxiliary equation, 110, 150
properties of, 81
table, suggestions for use, 86
N
table of, 87
techniques for evaluating, 81
Nonhomogeneous linear differential equa¬
Independence, linear, 118
tion (see Differential equation, linear,
Infinite series:
nonhomogeneous)
convergence of, 139
Nonlinear difference equation (see Differ¬
divergence of, 139
ence equation, nonlinear)
probability sums, 143
Nonlinear differential equation (see Differ¬
table of, 142
ential equation, nonlinear)
Taylor’s series, 146
Nonlinear first-order differential equation
tests for convergence and divergence, 140
(see Differential equation, nonlinear
Integrals, definite (see Definite integrals)
first-order)
Integrals, indefinite (see Indefinite inte¬
nth order difference equation (see Differ¬
grals)
ence equation)
Integrals, indefinite finite (see Indefinite
nth order differential equation (see Differen¬
finite integrals)
tial equation)
Integrals, partial, 118
Numbers, Stirling, 21
Integrals for probability, table of, 106
first kind, table of, 22
Integral test for convergence, 141
second kind, table of, 23
Integrating factors, 121; table of, 123
use of, 21
Interval of convergence, Taylor’s series, 146
Inverses of:
O
functions, 8
hyperbolic functions, 43 Operations, function-function (see Func¬
trigonometric functions, 36 tion-function operations)
Operator polynomials, 10, 108, 148
L Order of:
difference equations, 13
Laplace transform, 158 differential equations, 12
Length of arc of a circle (inside front cover)
Line, graph of: P
two dimensions, 52
three dimensions, 68 Parabola, graph of, 54
Linear dependence, 118 Parabolic cylinder, graph of, 72
Linear difference equations (see Difference Paraboloid, elliptic, 70
equations, linear) hyperbolic, 70
Linear differential equations (see Differen¬ Parallelepiped, rectangular, volume of (in¬
tial equations, linear) side front cover)
Linear fractional differential equation, 120, Parallelogram, area of (inside front cover)
122 Parameters, variation of, 130
Linear independence, 118 Partial derivatives, 117
Logarithmic functions: Partial fractions decomposition, 5
integrals of, 101 Partial integration, 118
properties of, 37 Particular solutions:
tables of values of, 39 of functional equations, 12
 174 INDEX
of difference equations, Sector of a circle, area of (inside front cover)
linear, table of, 152 Separable differential equation, 120, 121
extension of, 153 Series, infinite, 139
of differential equations, alternating, 142
linear, table of, 112 convergence of, 139
extension of, 115 divergence of, 139
7r (inside front cover) power series, 146
Plane, graph of, 68 table of, 142
Polynomials, 4 Taylor’s series, 146
degree of, 4 interval of convergence, 146
factors of, 4 table of, 146
multiplicity of, 4 tests for convergence and divergence, 140
operator, 10, 108, 148 Sine, definition of, 25
prime, definition of, 4 graph of, 60
Powers, factorial, 20 Singular solution, 131
Power series, 146 Solution form, general (see General solution
Probability integrals, table of, 106 form)
Probability sums, table of, 143 Solution, general:
Properties of: of difference equations (see Difference
definite integrals, 104 equations, general solution of)
exponential functions, 43 of differential equations (see Differential
finite sums, 138 equations, general solution of)
hyperbolic functions, 43 of functional equations (see Functional
indefinite finite integrals, 136 equations, general solution of)
indefinite integrals, 81 Solution, particular:
logarithmic functions, 37 of difference equations (see Difference
trigonometric functions, 25 equations, particular solution of)
PS, 108 of differential equations (see Differential
Pyramid, volume of (inside front cover) equations, particular solution of)
of functional equations (see Functional
R equations, particular solution of)
Solution, singular, 131
Radian, table of degrees and, 30 Sphere, area of surface of (inside front cover)
Range: graph of, 69

of a function, definition of, 1 volume of (inside front cover)

of inverse hyperbolic functions, 43 Square root, 162

SS, 131
of inverse trigonometric functions, 36
Rational functions, definition of, 5 Stirling numbers, 21

partial fractions decomposition of, 5 first kind, table of, 22

Ratio test for convergence, 141 second kind, table of, 23
Reciprocal, 162 use of, 21

Rectangle, area of (inside front cover) Stirling’s formula, 18

Reduced difference equation, 148 Sums, finite, 77, 136

Reduced differential equation, 108 probability, 143

Root test for convergence, 141 properties of, 138
table of, 138

S
T
Secant, definition of, 25
graph of, 61 Table:
Sections, conic, graphs of, 53 binomial coefficients, 20
 INDEX 175
definite integrals, 105 trigonometric functions, values of, 28, 31
derivatives, 78 Tangent, definition of, 25
differences, 134 graph of, 60
difference equations: Taylor’s series, 146
linear, with constant coefficients, first interval of convergence, 146
and second-order, homogeneous, table of, 146
general solution form, 149 Techniques for evaluating indefinite inte¬
nth order, homogeneous, general so¬ grals, 81
lution form, 151 Tests for convergence and divergence of
particular solutions, 152 infinite series, 140
miscellaneous, 156 Transcendental functions, definition of, 24
differential equations: Transform, Laplace, 158
linear, with constant coefficients, first- Translate E, definition of, 9
and second-order, homogeneous, relation to difference, 11
general solution form, 109 Trapezoid, area of (inside front cover)
nth order, homogeneous, general so¬ Triangle, area of (inside front cover)
lution form, 111 Trigonometric functions, definition of, 24
particular solutions, 112 graphs of, 60
linear first-order, general solution form, integrals of, 93
121 inverses of, 36
integrating factors for, 123 properties of, 25
with constant coefficients, homo¬ table of integrals of, 93
geneous, general solution form, table of values of, 28, 31
111 Types of functional equations, 12, 75
linear second-order, general solution
form, 129
nonlinear, first-order, 132 U
factorial function, values of, 19
finite sums, 138 Use of arbitrary constants, 14
hyperbolic functions, values of, 44 Use of Stirling numbers, 21
important constants (inside front cover) Use of table of indefinite integrals, sugges¬
indefinite finite integrals, 137 tions for, 86
indefinite integrals, 87
infinite series, 142
integrating factors for linear first-order y
differential equations, 123
inverses of trigonometric functions, 36 Variation of parameters, 130
Laplace transform, 158 Volume of (see inside front cover for items
logarithmic functions, values of, 39 below):
probability integrals, 106 pyramid
probability sums, 143 rectangular parallelepiped
Stirling numbers, first kind, 22 right circular cone
Stirling numbers, second kind, 23 right circular cylinder
Taylor’s series, 146 sphere
 21370
9A Cogan, Edward Jack
300 Handbook of calculus,
C6 difference and differential
1963 equations. 2d ed.

1 rent

University
Date Due
 QA 300 C6 1963
£°93P' Edward Jack. 1925- 010101 000
l im°Pi of calculus, differen

0 1 63 0078955 3
TRENT UNIVERSITY

QA300 .C6 1963

Cogan, Edward Jack

Handbook of caleu las, difference

and differential equations

DATE ISSUED TO 9 1 770