Statistics for Economicc-XI

eerie«: In this series, the er cla«q limit« Ofclaqqeqare include(l

in
example, if obtatned by •tudentQare grouped as:
16-19
7 8 29
Students 14
6
In thie the claes 9 includes 14 students who have secured marks bet_w
Student who has secumd 9 marks is included in the class 5 -- 9 only If the marks
student is 10, then the student is included in the next class i.e. 10 -- 14.
the upper limits 9, 14, 19, 24, 29 of their respective groups are included
series: In this series, the upper class limits of classes are excluded
respective classes. The upper o one c ass In erva is the lower limit of the next
marks obtained by 50 students are grouped as: cl
Marks 5-10 10-15 15-20
No. o Students 7 25-30
14 15 8
In the first class interval we include the students whose marks are 5 or more
10. If the marks secured by a student is 10, then the student is not includedin butIs
the
interval but included in the next class interval i.e. 10—15. first

Thus, upper limits 10, 15, 20, 25, 30 of their respective intervals are excluded.
It should, however, be noted that the frequencies, number of students
in
in both, inclusive and exclusive series, although the class intervals appear this case
to be
Refer Illustration 7 for better understanding.
(c) Mid-value series: When mid-points are given, the are re uired to be
intervals. For example, convertedinto

Marks (Mid-values) 7.5 12.5 17.5 22.5 27.5

In the given case, we find the differencebetween the first and the second
(12.5-7.
mid-
an VI e t e difference by 2, i.e. (5 / 2 = 2.5). The answer, thus obtained, is
subtm
and added the upper class limits of the classesrespe
We get, (7.5 —2.5 = 5) and (7.5 + 2.5 = 10). Thus, the class interval obtained is 5—10.
Inthe
way intervals of all the mid-points can be obtained, i.e. 10—15,15—20, 20—25, 25-30.
Refer Illustration 9 for better understanding.
series: In a frequenc distribution if the lower limit of the first I
upper limit of the as c ass are not ive n nd fre uencvdistribut
For examp e, In t e series given below the terms like 'below' and 'above' are writtenin
and the last class respectively.
Marks Below 10 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30—35 35 and above Tou

No. o Students 7 10 13 18 8 5 3

In such cases, values are put on the basis of constructionof the series.If thegiven
intervals are uniform then, the lower limit of the first class and upper limit of the
interval are decided in such a manner that the magnitude of these two classesareequal
'above'
of other classes. In the above series '5' in place of 'below' and '40' in placeof
to keep the interval same throughout as 5. Thus making the classes as:
5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30-35 64
Marks 3
18 8 5
No. o Students 7 10 13
 large
Generally,open•nd classes are taken to accommodatevery few extremely small or very
of class
valuespresent in the series, which would otherwise require formation of large number
with an
intervals:For example, if 50 observations are to be distributed in an exclusive series
interval of 10 such that all values except two i.e. 25 and 31()lie between the intervals 100 to
150.
Then,to accommodate25, we can take the first class as 'below 1()()'and for the value 310, 'above
150'can be taken as the last class interval in order to avoid constructionof long distribution
and tedious calculations.
As far as possible, open-end classes should be avoided as it is difficult to plot the data
graphically.Also, it makes further mathematical computation difficult as the mid-value which is
used as representativeof the series cannot be accurately determined.

Principles of Grouping
Thereis no hard and fast rule for gr(uupingthe data, but following general principles may be
kept in mind for satisfactory and meaningful classification of data :
(i) It is advisableto have total number of classes between 5 and 15. The preference for the
total number of classes depends on the numbers and figures to be grouped, the magnitude
of the figure and possibility of simplified calculations for further statistical studies.
(ii) Odd figures, for example, 3, 7, 9, 11, 27, 33 etc. should be avoided for class intervals. The
choicefor the class intervals should be either 5 or a multiple of 5. It simplifies our further
statistical calculations.
(iii) Lowerlimit of the class, as far as possible, should be 0 or a multiple of 5.
(iv) For maintaining continuity and correct classes, exclusive method of preparing classes is
adopted.
(v) The class interval should be equal for all classes.
(VI)As far as possible open-end classes should be avoided. For example,
Marks Below 5 5—10 10-15 15—20 Above 20
The first and the last classes are open-end classes. The first class is open at the lower-end
and last class at the upper-end. For statistical calculations the open-ends should be closed.
Maintainingthe regularity of the class intervals we can close these groups as 0—5and
20-25.
(vit) For frequency distribution, we prepare a table having three columns—first for variables,
secondfor 'Tally bars" and the third for the total representing corresponding frequency
each class.
e umulative Series: In sim le series the fre uenc is shown a ainst each value or class,
e in cumulative series the frequencies are ro ressivel totalle The frequencies so obtaine
are calle e cumu five requencies' and written as c.f. The cumulative frequency distribution
can be of two types:
JlY'Less than' CumulativeSeries
(i' ore than' Cumulative Series
See the following illustration:
Continuous Series
Marks 0-10 10—20 20-30 30—-40 40-50 Total
No. of Students 4 8 15 20 13 60
 Cumulative Series

ore
Marks
12
Students
of More than 0
More than 10 60
4
More than 20 56

than
More than 30 48 (6
15 + 20)
than 47 (4 20 + 13) More than 40 33
+ 15 +
I 40 (4
than
students getting less than 10 marks
Of 4
see that and so on.
can marksare 27
than30 students getting more than 0 mark
lesl of are 60
are12, way
th&number
and so on.
same are 48
Inthe than 20 marks series into 'less than' and 'more
the following than,
are
3.convert cum

d' ribution. 110-120 120-130 130-140

100-110
(in t) 10 14k50
Dailvuttges 9 6 7
avrkers (j) 8
No.

Solution.
frequency 'More than'
'Lessthan' cumulative cumulative
distributionof daily wages
distribution of daily freque
wages
Dailywages(in t) No. of workers (f) Daily wages (in
e)
9
Less than 110 More than 100
Less than 120 15 = (9 + 6) More than 110
Less than 130 25 = (15 + 10)
More than 120 31

Less than 140 32 = (25 + 7)

More than 130 25
Less than 150 40 = (32 + 8)
More than 140 15:
Illust Ion4. Convert the
following 'less than'
cumulative frequency
distribution•
Marks (Less than)
5
No. students 10 15
1 20 25
Solution.Simple 12 19
30
Frequency Series 26 30

Marks

5-10
No. o Students
10-15 1

5-20 3-1 = 2
20-25 12—3 = 9
25-30 19-12 = 7
30—35 26-19
Illustr 30—26 = 4
than c ion 5.
convert 40—30 = 10
the
following
more than
values cumulative
(Morethan) frequency distributiU!
Cumulative
Fr 10
120 20
117
30
50
90
 Solution.
Mote than cumulative ftvquencies are
related From the above frequency distribution, we
to the lower class limits therefore, the values
10, 20, 30 etc are the lower limits of the get the less than cumulative frequency
distribution. Accordingly, the simple distribution as follows:
frequency distribution is given below: 'Less than' cumulative frequency distribution.

Class Interval Frequency (f) Values (Less than) Frequency (f)

10-20 (120-117) 3 20 3
20-30 (117-90) = 27 30 (3+27) = 30
30—40 (90-72) = 18 40 (30+18) = 48
40—50 (72-38) = 34 50 (48+34) = 82
50-60 (38-15) = 23 60 (82+23) = 105
60-70 15 70 (105+15) = 120
Illustr on 6. From the table of monthly household expenditure (in ?) on food of 50 households
gi 'e elow:
(a) Prepare appropriate number of class intervals and obtain the frequency distribution of
expenditure.
(b) Find the number of households whose monthly expenditure on food is
(i) less than 2000
(ii) more than 3000
Monthly Household Expenditure (in Rupees) on Food of 50 Households
1904 1559 3473 1735 2760
2041 1612 1753 1855 4439
5090 1085 1823 2346 1523
1211 1360 1110 2152 1183
1218 1315 1105 2628 2712
4228 1812 1264 1183 1171
1007 1180 1953 1137 2048
2025 1583 1324 2621 3676
1397 1832 1962 2177 2575
1293 1365 1146 3222 1396
Solution.
(a) First we need to find the difference between the highest and lowest expenditure on food
Of 50 households.
Difference/ Range = L —S
L = Largest value, and S = Smallest value
L = 5090 and S = 1007

Difference/ Range = 5090 1007 = 4083

(b) Dividing the class interval of 500, we get
4083
= 8.166

Now, we decide 9 classes to include all the given values by preparing a continuous frequency
distribution using the exclusive method (excluding upper limit).
 Frequency
Household Ey•cnditure (R) Frequency (f)
Tally bars
20
1500-2000 Ill 13

2000-2Ä00 6

2500-3m)0 5

3000-3500 Il 2
1
3500-4000
4000-4500 2
4500—5000 0
1
5000-5500
Total 50

(b) (t) Number of households whose monthly expenditure is less than 2000 (i.e., 1000_ 2000)
= 20 + 13 = 33 Households
(it) Number of households whose monthly expenditure is more than 3000(i.e.,3000 5
500)
= 2 + 1 + 2 + 0 + 1 = 6 Households
Illu ation 7. Form a frequency distribution from the following data by inclusive method
ta • 4 as the magnitude of class intervals. Take the lowest class as (10 —13). Also obtainclass
b dries and mid-values.
23 29 22 20 16 10 13 34
31 19
38 33 28 21 15 18 36 24 18 15

12 30 27 23 20 17 32 26 25
18 29 24 19 16 11 22 15 17 10

Solution. Frequency Distribution

Class interval Tall bars Fre uen
10-13 5
14-17 N Ill 8
18-21 N Ill 8
22-25 7
26-29 5
30-33 4
34-37 Il 2
38-41 1
Total 40

Class Boundaries
In the above illustration 10—13,14—17, 18—21, 22—25, 26—29and so on are class limits by inclus ive

method of construction of continuous frequency distribution. We find 'gaps' or discontinuity

between upper limit of a class and lower limit of the next class. For example, we find a "gap
of 1 between the upper limit of the first class 13 and the lower limit of the second class14.The
continuity of the variable of classifieddata is obtained by adjustment in the class intervalthus
converting these 'inclusive type' classes into 'exclusive type' classes.
After the adjustment is made the class limits of this new 'exclusive type' series, so obtained
are termed as class boun aries.
Steps fov adiustntent in class interval:
1. Find the difference between lower limit of
the second class and the upper limit of the first
class, say 14 —13 1
2. Divide the differenceby 2, e -1 = 0.5
2
3. Subtract the value obtained from lower limits of all the classes(—0.5).
4. Add the value obtained to upper limits of all classes (+ 0.5).
After the adjustments in class limits (called, class boundaries) mid-point of each class are
determined, i.e.,
Mid-point = Upper class limit + Lower class limit
2
12+11
m.v. =
2
Now, we get
Class interval mid-values (m.v.) Frequency (f)
9.5-13.5 11.5 5
13.5-17.5 15.5 8
17.5-21.5 19.5 8
21.5-25.5 23.5 7
25.5-29.5 27.5 5
29.5-33.5 31.5 4
33.5-37.5 35.5 2
37.5-41.5 39.5 1

Total 40

tration 8. Prepare a frequency distribution by inclusive method taking class interval of 7

m the following data:
28 17 15 22 29 21 23 18 12 7 2
9 4 6 1 8 3 10 5 20 16 12 8
9 3 36 18 9 2
4 33 21 15
4 13 15 11 9 7
6 32 31 29 18

1 5 32 28 26 24 20 19 25 19 20

Solution. Frequency Distribution (Inclusive Method)

Class Tall bars Fre uen (

1-7 15
8—14 12
15
15-21
10
22-28
29-35 6
2
36-42
Total 60

7—13,14—20
Note. In the above illustration, the class intervals can also be formed as 0—6,
and
so on. Here, 0 and 6 both are included in the first class.
 Illus ation 9. Constntet a frequency distribution from the following data:
lid-palue 15 25 35 45
55
2 7 10 6
3
Solution. In the given illustration, we are given the mid-values of the class intervals
continuous frequency distribution. Of

First, we find the difference between the two mid-values.

i.e., 25 15 10 or 35 -- 25 10
Secondly,divide the differenceby 2
10
2
Now, reduce the mid-value by 5 to obtain the lower limit of the class intervals
and add

Distribution
Mid-value Lower limit Il er limit Class-interval Frequency (f)
15 15 10 15 +5 = 20 10 - 20 2
25 25 -5 = 20 25 + 5 = 30 20 - 30 7
35 35 -5 = 30 35 + 5 = 40 30 - 40 10
45 45 -5 = 40 45 + 5 = 50 40 - 50 6
55 55 _ 5 = 50 55 +5 = 60 50 - 60 3
Ill tration 10. Convert the following 'less than' cumulative frequency series into 'more than,
cum ative frequencydistribution.
ges less than 110 120 130 140 150
No. of Workers 4 16 36 43 48
Solution.
Simple frequency distribution More than cumulative distribution
wages (in c) No. of Workers wages (in e) No. of Workers
100 - 110 4 More than 100 48
110 - 120 12 More than 110 44
120 - 130 20 More than 120 32
130 - 140 7 More than 130 12
140 150 5 More than 140 5

Relative Frequency Distribution

It is sometimes required to show the relative frequency of occurrences rather than actualnumber
of occurrences in each class of frequency distribution. If actual frequencies are expressedasper
cent of the total number of observations, relative frequencies are obtained.
Illustration 11. In a hypothetical sample of 20 individuals the amounts of money witheach
were found to be:
Individual 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Money
(t) 114 108 100 98 106 109 117 119 121 126

Individual 11 12 13 14 15 16 18 19 20

Money (e,) 131 136 143 235

156 169 182 195 207 219
Organise the data in the form of a frequency distribution. Also calculate relative frequencies
 Solution. Frequency Distribution (Excluding upper limit)
Money(t) Tally bars Relative
Frequency (f)
frequency (%)
75-100
1 5
100-125 ml Ill 8 40
125-150 4 20
150-175
2 10
175-200 Il 2 10
200-225
2 10
225-250
1 5
Total 20 100

(Assuming the class interval of 25).

Alterative Solution: The lowest value is 98 and highest is 235.
We take a class interval of 50
and first class is 50—100.
Frequency Distribution of Money

Money (R) Tally bars Relative

Frequency (f)
frequency (%)
50-100 1 5
100-150 12 60
150-200 4 20
200-250 3 15
Total 20 100

Frequency Distribution with Unequal Classes

Data are sometimes given in unequal class intervals. Such series are used when there is great
fluctuation in data. For example:
Set 1
Class 5-10 10-20 20-30 30-50 50-75
Frequency (f) 7 10 15 12 4 3

Loss of Information
Raw data is grouped by making equal or unequal class frequency distribution,say 0—5,5—10,
10—15
or 0—5,5—7,7—12,12—20and so on. By making such classes there is a loss of information
of individual observation. Further, the statistical analysis is based on the mid-points of these
classes without giving any importance to individual observation.For example, suppose class
20—30contains 12 values namely, 20, 21, 22, 22, 24, 26, 27, 27, 28, 28, 29, 29. When such data is
put in a class, then these individual values lose significanceas the frequency '12' is written to
record the number of observations and (they are assumed to be equal to) the mid-point of this
class interval, i.e. 25 instead of their actual values. Since, further statistical calculations are based
on these mid-values, the significance of individual observation is lost

Bivariate Frequency Distribution

We have so far studied frequency istributions involving a single variable. Such frequency
distributions are called 'one way' or univariatefrequencydistributions.Often we come acrossd
composed of measurementsmade on two variables for each individual items. For example
m ay study the weights and heights of group of individuals, the marks obtained by a group
students in two different subjects,ages of husbands and wives for a group of couples,etc.Of
frequency table where two variables have been measured in the same set of items through
classification is as 'bivariatefrequcncydistribution' or 'two-wayfrequency distribution'.
values of each variable are grouped into various classes (not necessarily the
same for each
Illustration 12. Following figures give the ages of 20 newly married couples in
a year. Represent
the data by a frequency distribution (bövariate).

Age of husbands 24 26 27 25 28 24 27 28 25 26
Age of wives 17 18 19 17 20 18 18 19 18 19
Age of husbands 25 26 27 25 26 25 26 26 26
Age of wives 17 18 19 19 20 19 17 20 17 18

Solution. We are given two variables: (i) age of husbands, and (ii) age of
wives. We should
represent the data in the form of a two-wayfrequencydistributionso that we
are able to showthe
ages of husbands and wives simultaneously.
In the given case, we shall represent both, age of husbands and age of wives
in a table. Since
age of husband assumes 5 values, i.e., 24, 25, 26, 27 and 28 years and
age of wives assume
4 values namely 17, 18, 19 and 20 years therefore a table with 4 columns
(age of wives)and
5 rows (representing age of husbands) is drawn.
In the first group, the age of husband is 24 years and that of wife is 17 years,
so we
a tally bar in the cell where the corresponding row and column intersect. Similarly, shallput
we shall
tally bars for all 20 husbands and wives. Thereafter,we shall find the total frequencies put
for each
row and column and note it down in the last column and row respectively.The frequencies
corresponding to each cell (as represented by the tally bar) is written in brackets along
with the
tally bars. Hence, we arrive at the bivariate frequencydistribution.

Bivariate Frequency Distribution showing age of husbands and wives

Age of husbands Age of wives (years)

(years) 17 18 19 20 Total (P
24 (1) (1) 2
25 Ill (3) (1) 5
26 (1) Ill (3) Il (2) 7
(1) Il (2) 4
28 2
Total (f) 5 6 6 3 20
 Illustration 13. The data given below relates to the heights and weights of 20 persons. You
are required to form a two-way frequency table with class interval 62"—64",64"—66"and so on
and 115 to 125 lbs., 125 to 135 lbs. and so on.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Weight
170 135 136 137 148 124 117 128 143 129
(lbs)
Height
70 65 65 64 69 63 65 70 71 62
(inches)

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Weight
163 139 122 134 140 132 120 148 129 152
(lbs)
Height
70 67 63 68 67 69 66 68 67
(inches)

Solution.
Bivariate Frequency Distribution showing height and weight of people
Height (in inches)
62—64 64—66 68-70 70-72 Total (f)
Weight (in lbs.)
115-125 Il (2) (1) 4
125-135 5
135-145 Ill (3) 6
145-155 3
155-165 1
165-175 1
Total (f) 3 4 5 4 4 20

Hints for Revision

• Classification: Classification is grouping of data according to their identity, similarity or resemblances.
• Types of classification: (a) Chronological classification, (b) Geographical classification, (c) Qualitative
classification, and (d) Quantitative classification.
• Series: Series is a logical and systematic arrangement of items into a particular order or sequence
in differentclassified categories.
• Types of Series:
(A) On the basis of general character:
(i) Time series
(ii) Spatial or geographical series
(iii) Condition series
(B) On the basis of construction:
(i) Series of individual observation, (Individual series)
Discrete series
(iil) Continuous series
(Discretevariables are exact or finite and are not normally fractions. Continuousvariables can
be broken down into infinite gradations, i.e., number of fractions from one digit to other digit.)
 PRESENTATION OF DATA
Tabular Presentation
Diagrammatic Presentation
Graphic Presentation

LearningObjectives
After studyingthis unit. the learnerswill be able to:
• Understandand appreciatethe need for tabularand pictorialpresentationof a
given set of data.
• Presentthe data in the formOftables.
• Draw suitable diagrams and graphs to represent a given set of data.

Tabular Presentation

Chapter Outline
• Introduction
• Definition and Objectivesof Tabulation
• Essentials Of a Satisfactory Table
• Parts Ofa Table
• Typesof Table

INTRODUCTION
In social,economicand scientificstudies,an investigator has to collectthe data either by census
organised in a systematic way. Disorderly quantitative
Orsample method. The collected data is then
data is obviouslydifficult to understand.Thedata presentedasbywell a suitable methodis preferable
and interpretation as giving factual information
for one'S own further statistical calculations
to experts and general people.
Thereare four methodsof presentationof data. Theyare:
(O Text presentation,
Semi-tabular presentation,
(iii) Tabularpresentation,and
(it') Pictorial presentation.
 5. Theypresentfactsin minimum
spaceandunnecessary andexplanations
repetition are
avoided.Requiredfigurescanbe locatedmorequickly.
6. Tabulateddata makessummationof variousitemseasy.Further,errorsand omissionscan
also be easily detected.
7. Tabulateddata are good for referencesand they makeit easyto presentthe informationon
graphs and diagrams
ESSENTIALSOF A SATISFACTORY TABLE
Thefollowingare the essentialsOrcharacteristicsof a satisfactorytable:
böttractive: Atableshouldbe attractiveto drawtheattentionof readers.TOmakeit so,care
should be taken in determining its size, proportion of columns and rows, writing of figures,

XManageabIe size: Thesize of the tableshouldbe neither toobignor toosmall.Toomuch

Ofdetails should not be given in a table. If the table is too large, it becomesconfusingto
the eyesand thereis greatdifficultyin following
the linesand columnsat a glance.If
moredetails are to be given, then a numberof small tablesshouldbe preferredto one big
table.
betweenthem
Comparable:Thefactsshouldbe arrangedin a tableas to makecomparison
easy,as comparisonis oneof the chiefobjectivesof tabulation.Whenevernecessaryaverage.
;percentage, proportion, should be given in the table to facilitatecomparison.
z
v 4. Accordingto objective:Atableshouldbe accordingto theobjectiveOfstatisticalinvestigation.
5. Clarity: A table shouldbe so plannedas to makeit easily understandable.It shouldbe
completewithin itself and containall the explanationsnecessaryto makethe meaningof
itemsclear.Unitsof measurementmustbe clearlystatedsuchas •pricein rupees'or 'weight
in kilograms'.
Columns whenit is desiredto facilitate
and rowsshouldbe numbered
referenceto specificparts of a table.
6. Scientificallyprepared:Thetableshouldbe scientificallyprepared.A tableshouldhave a
etc.Certainfigureswhichare
suitable title, propercaptionsand stubs,source,footnotes,
typeor in a 'circle'or a •box'or betweenthick
to be emphasisedshouldbe in distinctive
lines.A tableshouldhavemiscellaneous columns forthe datawhichcannotbe grouped
in the classificationmade.Largenumbersarehard to readand difficultto comparetherefore,
they should be approximatede.g„ up to the nearestCroresor lakhs,etc.
PARTSOF ATABLE
A goodtable is an art. The followingparts mustbe t in all the tables.
1. ble number:A table shouldalwaysbe numberedforidentificationand referencein the
fu
whenevermore an one ta e is le ma be numberedeither at the centre
of ta . Normally,the tablenumberis given
On opa ove e t' e or at the bottom a like 1.2and 2.4are alsoused.In
in terms o compete n
this casefirst digit refersto the chapteror sectionand seconddigit to its order.Forexample,
Table1.2would meansecondtable in first chapteror sectionand Table2.4wouldmean
the fourth table in secondchapteror section.
> Title:Theremaybe a maintitlewrittenin oneOrtwolines,or a catchtitlewrittenttenng
in few
e given a vet e ta e mu
OfiFtitle u the mostprominentof all letteringused in the table.A completetitle
explains(a)natureof data.(b)time periodof data,(c)the fieldto whichthe data are
related,and (d) basis of classificationof data.
TYPES OF TABLES
Statisticaltables can be broadlyclassifiedon the basis of objectiveof investigation.nature of
data (primaryor secondary)for investigation,numberof characteristicscoveredwhile constructing
tables etc. The different types of tables are describedbelow.
TYPES OF TABLE

On the basis ot purpose On baü basa Cmsmxtion

(O General purpose
(io Special C—ex

GeneralPurposeand SpecialPurposeTables
General purpose tables are also called as referenceor repositorytables.This type of table
representsdata in great detail and providesa varietyof informationon the samesubject.These
tablesusually appear in the appendicesof a report.Theycontainmassivestatisticalinformation
whichcan be used for commonpurposewithout referenceto a specificproblem.Government
publicationsgenerally of a nature usedby researchers.
Specialpurposetables canbe called text.summaryor analyticaltables.Suchtablesare small
in size and designed to highlight a particularset of factsin a simple and analyticalform.They
are made to provide the results of analysisin an effectiveway so that one finds it easy to make
and clearrelationships.
comparisons
Originaland DerivativeTables
Original tables are called classifiedtablesor Primarytables.Theycontainstatisticalinformation
in the same form in which they are originally collected.
Derivative tables are derived from original tables.Theyprovide totals, ratios, percentages
tables.
and other statisticalcalculations.Such tablescan even be derived from generalpurpose
Simpleand ComplexTables
shows only one characteristic
Simple or one-way tables (single tabulation) is the simplest table which
and takes the form of frequencytable. for example:
TABLE 1: Markswise Distributionof Students in a School
0-10 10-20 Total
15 12 28 5 60
NO. Students

Doubleor livo-WayTables(DoubleTabulation)
row Orcolumnis divided into two parts.as
In suchtablestwo characteristicsare shownand aillustrationbelow:
we candivide studentsinto boysand girls in the
Distributionof Students in a School
Table 2: Marks and Genderwise
Stuaents
Girls
15
0-10
10-20 10 12
18 10 28
4 5
Total 40 20 60
 Economics—Xi
.Åatistics for composition of population
Table g: Gender
India (2001-2011)
*tution. by Residencein (All figures in mllio,tsj
2011
Total Males females
Residence

361
742
Rural 381 196 181
135
Urban 150 1210
496 1027
531

rce: Census OfIndia 2011

drinking habits in two towns, the
ustration7. In a sample study about coffee
ormation was received:
45% and Male non-coffee drinkers
TownA,'Females were 40%, Total coffee drinkers were

and Female coffee drinkers

Town B: Males were 55%, Male non-coffee drinkers were
15%.
Represent the above data in a tabular form.
Solution. Let us calculate the missing percentages of the above information before represen±,
the data in a tabular form.
TOWN B

Non-c&e Cone Non-co* Coffee Non•cofee Coffee Nm-cofee

drhkers drinkers drinkers drinkers drinkers drinkers drinkers

Table 10: CoffeeDrinking Habits in Towns A and B

(in perter*
TownA
Habits
Females
M ales
Coffee Drinkers 40 5 45 25 15 40
Non-Coffee
Drinkers 20 35 55 30 30
Total 60 40 100 55 45
AlternativeSolution
Table 11: Coffee Drinking Habits in Towns A and
B
(in
TownA
Coffee Non •Coffee
Non •coffee
Drinkers
Drinkers
40 20 60 25 30 55
Females 5 35 40 15 30 45
Total 45 55 40
 Boys

Faculty Genera! EWS Total General EWS Total EWS Total

Category Catesgry Category Category
148 57 235 262 178 440
Humanities 244 179 48 227 685
Total 392 405 1125

Hints for Revision

• Methods of Presentation: Text presentation, Semi-tabular presentation, Tabular presentation and
Pictorial presentation.
• A statistical Table: A statistical table is the process of systematic presentation of data in columns
and rows.
• Objecdves Of Tabulations:
They simplify complex data.
They facilitate comparison.
(ii0 They have lasting impression Without any confusion.
They facilitate computation.
(v) They present facts in minimum space.
Tabulated data makes easy for summation of various items
(vio Tabulated data are good for reference.
• Characterisdcs Of a satisfactory table; (i) Attractive (ii) Manageable size (iii) Comparable
(iv) According to objective (v) Clearity ivi) Scientifically prepared.
• Parts of Table: (i) Table number (ii) Title (m) Captions and stubs (ivi Body of table (v) prefatory
note (vi) Footnotes (vii) Source
• Types Of Table: (i) General purpose tables (ii) Special purpose tables Original tables
(iv) Derivabve tables (v) Simple or single tables Complex tables
 mus on 3. Out of 24500workersin
a
town,13,000are females.Out of total workers
Regularsalaried employees.4,500
Amongstfemales,4,500are regularare Self-ernployed and remainingare casualwage
salaried
are 5,000,then, tabulate the given information. employees.If total Casualwage earners
Solution. Table 6: Number Of workers On the
basis Of employment and gender

Female
Re5y!9eglaried emp 5000 4500
employed
Casual wa earners
4500 5500 Ion
3,000 5000
To
11,500 13,000 243m
Il tration 4. Givenbelowis the informationaboutsaleof
in the years 2018and 2019. smartphonesofbrand Xand Yin
In 2018,out of 5Ä) smartphones sold online, 2,900
were Ofbrand X.The number of smartphones
"soldin retailstoreswas3,700,of which,1500wereof brandY.In 2019,out of a
total12ß)O
smartphonessold, 9,400were sold online.Thesale Ofsmartphonesof brandYfell down to 25m,
Out of which 1000were sold in retail stores.Tabulatethe given information.
Table 7: Sale Oftwo brands Of smartphones
through differentchannels (2018 and 2019)

SalesPlatform 2018 2019

BrandX BrandY Total BrandX BrandY Total
1500 9400 10800 3800 146m
Retail stores 2200 15(X) 3700 1000 2600 3800 2500 6300
Total 5100 2500 12000 14600 6300
Illustration 5. A report from the library of an Arts and Commercecollegerevealedfollowing
informationaboutthe readinghabits of its members.Outof 1,650students,1050weregraduates
and the rest were frompost graduate courses.Amongthe Commercegraduates,185read fiction
and215read non-fictionbooks,while forstudentsfrompost-graduatecourses,thecorresponding
figuresare 59 and 217respectivelyThetotalnumberof non-fictionreaderswas 999Ofwhom
590were graduates.Presentthe givendata in a suitabletable.
Solution. Table g: Reading habit Of college studentsfrom differentcourses
Genres Of bks Posi •egraduafes

Commerce Commerce Arts Total Commerce Arts

Fiction 185 59 132 651
Non -Fiction 192 409 432
Total 650 1050 276 324 974 1650
Illustration6. Accordingto Censusof India Indianpopulationwas approximately1027
millionof which742million lived in rural areasand remainingin urbanareas.Outof 531males,
150lived in urban areas.
In 2011,the Censusreport revealedthat Indian populationhad increasedto 1210million Of
which 586 million were females. Out of 833 people residing in rural areas, 428 was male population.
Drawa tablerepresentingthe informationregardingpopulationin India as per Census
and 2011.
 „%tisHcs for Economics—xl
or Three-WayTable (Treble Tabulation)
are shownand so a row or columnis subdividedinto
suchtablesthreecharacteristics
parts as we candivide boysand girls into SecA and B in our following illustration:
TABLE 3: Distributionof Students in a School According to Marks, Gender and Section
Total

Sec A Sec B SecA sec B Total SecA SecB Total

0—10 6 8 5 2 7 7 15
10-20 10
12 6 18 8 2 10 28

Total 24 16 40 13 7 20 37 23 60
The above table can even be called as manifoldtable,higherordertable or manifoldtabulation
whichwe can increasethe number of characteristics,Viz„more sections,more subjects.etc.
Sucha table is needed when a numberOfcharacteristicsare to be simultaneouslyp
Butas morecharacteristicsare included,the table becomesmorecomplex,and Somay be
to the reader.
If the field Ofinvestigation is not big, the data may not have too many characteristics, tabulabg
canbe doneby hand which is called 'manualtabulation'.But when the field of the investigate
is largeand the data is too massive'mechanical tabulation'
can be resortedto in orderto save
labour and time. Electroniccomputers,for purposesof sorting are particularly helpful
firstlythe dataare in largequantity,secondlywhenthey haveto be storedfor future use
thirdly when the table requirementsare varying.

NUMERICALQUESTIONS
Illustra 1. Out of total numberof 1,750candidates,who applied for a job in an MNC,
es. Out of total applicants,1,400are graduate and others are post graduate. Thenumbe
of e applicantswho are graduate are 850.Tabulate the given information.
Sol ution. Table 4: Number Of applicants in an MNC
on the basis of qualification and gender

Qualification
Female
Graduate
1,400
Post raduate 150
Total 1*000 1,750
Illustr on 2. Out Oftotal numberof students
4,000are boys,Out Oftotalstudents,18,000are appearing for Board examinationinJ
Amo the students who have in Class X and remaining in class
registeredfor Class XIIExamination,5,500are girls. Tabulate
gi information.
Solution. Table S: Number Of students appearing
for
Board Examination on the basis of
class and gender

ClassX 7.500 10.500 18,000

Class 5.500 12,000
14.000 16,000 30D00
 Statistics for Economics—xl
S. tions and stubs (Columnheadin and Rowheadin Headingsand sub-head
givenIQcolumnsan: "OJIedcaptionswhilerowsare identified
captionsshould be as brief as possible.Columns can be numbered according to requiremert
The captionsexplainthe figuresin columnsand stubs clarifythe figures in the
read figures Ofcaptions vertically and stubs horizontally.
'—Body of the table:It containsthe numericalinformation. This is the mostim
table made as comprehensiveas possible keeping in view
PÜ7FÜTnsentation. Thereshouldbe properarrangementof items in columns
rows and irrelevantmattershouldbe excluded.
Items in a tablemay be arrangedin the followingways:(i)alphabetically, (i) geographicauy
(iiJ) chronologically,(iv)conventionally,(v) progressively,and (u) in ascending or descenq
Order.Items of specialsignificance whichare to be emphasiseduponmust be underlined
or writtenin boldletters.
v" Prefatorynote or head note:It is a statement,normallygivenbelow
lairs
contents o e. data in mill ion tons, all data
kilometresetc.
paootnotes: It is placed at the bottomof the table. It is a phrase or a statement which contain
explanations o so e Cl c ms or so ve n
exp at ler Or whichis not clear fromthe heading,title, stubs and caption,
Footnotes can be identifiedby varioussystemsand keys like putting star(S) etc.

@,E etc.) or by using smalllettersand numbers(say1, 2, 3.4 Ora, b, C,d Orsigns (Say

are also necessaryto specifyimportantlimitationsof data. if thereis anyetc.)Footnotes

Some important feature Ofthe wholetable. or to explain
caseof the tabulation te shouldbe rovided
indicatin ace of ublication e edition or. It can
writtenat the bottomof the table.It is usefulto the readerto checkthe figures
and gather
additionalinformation.
STRUCTURE OF TABLE
Table Number
Title
(Head note. if any)

Stub Caption
(Row Heading) (Col Headin Total
Sub-cation Sub-ca Sub-eption

StubEntries
(RowEntries)

Total
88 Statisticsfor Economics—Il
(i) Text Presentation
• A •textpre#ntation•is a descriptiveform of presentationof data written in paragraplu.
not a very effectivemethod.
It is very difficultfor a readerto singleout individualfigure given in a mixedw
• As one is requiredto read the whole paragraph,it becomesdifficult to grasp,
and comparethe data. This type of presentationhas its own importance.It helps the
to comparegivenfiguresalongwithsomeexplanation.Forexample,the telecomm
networkin Indiahas madea veryrapidprogressin recentyears.Whilethe
telephoneconnectionsincreasedfroman extremelylowfigureof less than 2 lakhs in
to over 46 lakhs in 1990-91.therewas around ten-foldincreasein this sphere between
and 2004-05as the numberof landline connectionsincreasedto 4.42crore besides4.5
mobile phones. Thusthe numberof telephonesstood9.7crorein March2m5.With
increasein telephoneconnections,the teledensity(viz.,the numberof telephoneconnect,
per hundred persons) has increasedfrom3.6in 2001to 6.7 in 2005.
(ii)Semi-tabularpresentation
Semi-tabularpresentationis when data is presentedboth throughtables and paragraphs
method is not used often, but is usefulwhen figuresare requiredto be comparedalong
OneOrtwo *ntences of explanation.
(iii)TabularPresentation
Tabularpresentationis a systematicpresentationOfnumericaldata in columnsand
accordancewith some important featuresor characteristics.
(IV)Pictorial Presentation
Pictorialpresentationis a visual formof statisticaldata in diagramsand graphs.
DEFINITION AND OBJECTIVESOF TABULATION
Systematicpresentationof data is one of the most importantconsiderationin statistical
and it is done through the use of tables.A statisticaltable is an arrangementof data in coW
and rows.Tabulationis a process,the outcomeof which are statisticaltables.In brief,tabulate'
is a scientificprocessinvolvingthe presentationof classifieddata in an orderlymanner
bring out their essentialfeaturesand chief characteristics.
rding to H. Secrist,"Tablesare a meansof recording formtheanalysis
in permanent
made through classification and of placing juxtaposition things that gre similar and should com"
According to Tuttle, "A statistical table is the logical listing of related quantitative in
columns and horizontal rows of numbers. with suffcient explanatory and qualifying words,
statement in the form of titles, headings and notes to make clear and full meaning of the data an'
origin."

Objectives of Tabulati
tistical data arranged in a tabulatedformhave followingimportant
simplify complexi.e„ and the data presentedare easily understood.
2. facilitate comparison due to proper systematic arrangement of statistical data in

ey leave a lasting impressionwithout any confusion.

4. They facilitate computationOfdifferent statisticalmeasuresnamely average•
correlation, etc.
 Cll.AP1

Diagratntnatic Presentation

Chapter Outline
• Introduction
• Importance and Uses of Graphs and Diagrams
• General Rules for Constructing Diagrams
• TY'es of Diagrams
(A) One-dimensionalDiagrams
(B) Pie Diagrams
• Limitations of Diagrammatic Presentation

INTRODUCTION
Data can be presented either in the form of text, tabular, semi-tabular or pictorial
Ordinarily, statistical data is presented in the form of either a table or a chart (Pictorial).
or graphs are more effectivein attracting attention than any of the other methods
of presentat>
A well constructed, simple and attractive chart showing a limited set of
informationis
to understand at a glance. Such presentations can be seen in the financial
reports, in newspate

PICTORIAL PRESENTATION

Diagrammatic Presentation
Graphic Presentation

One-Dimensional Diagrams
(i) SimpleBar Diagram
(ii) Sub-dividedBar Diagram Graphs of Frequency Distribution
(iii) MultipleBar Diagram (i) Line FrequencyGraph
(iv) PercentageBar Diagram (ii) Histogram
(v) BrokenBar Diagram (iii) Frequency Polygon
(vi) DeviationBar Diagram (iv) Smoothed Frequency Curve
(Frequency Curve)
Two-Dimensional Diagrams (v) 'Ogive' or Cumulative FrequencyCurw
(i) Rectangles
(ii) Squares Graphs of Time Series
(iii) Circles and Pie-diagrams (i) One VariableGraphs
(ii) Two or more than two VariableGraphs
Three-Dimensionaj Diagrams (iii) Graphs of DifferentUnits
(i) Cubes (ii) Cylinders (iii) Blocks etc.
Pictogram
Cartograms Or Maps

100
 Diagrammatic Presentation
magazines and journals. Pictorial presentation
requires a great deal of artistic talent and imagination.
Diagrammatic presentation is the most
popular and data
in an attractive way. This type of presentations common for representing the statiqtical
they are more attractive than the figures. are appealing to the mind through the eyes aq
For the purpose of simplifying, an attempt has been
made to discuss some of the important
diagrams in this chapter and some important graphs in
Chapter 7 which are commonly used in presenting
statistical information.

IMPORTANCE AND rysvs or GRAH'S AND HOLMJ

1./They are interesting, attractive and
of the statistical values by graphic impressive: One can study the trend and fluctuations
presentation.A layman who is not interested in going
through the figures, gets the message by
studying the graphs and diagrams. Diagrams are
also used for publicity and propaganda.
2MTheyare the simplest methods of presenting data: The use
of graphs diagrams saves time
and energy of the statistician as well as the layman. One can understand the figures easily
as they make the data simple and intelligible.
y.-They make comparison easy: Comparison from one period to another period or from one
section to another section becomes easy. Thus, diagrams can be used for quick comparisons.
ey have universal utility: Since the figures are made very attractive by the presentation
of graphs and diagrams, theyare popularly used in exhibitions, fairs, journals, newspapers,
board meeting, etc. Diagrams are used particularly to give information to the common
man. They are widely used in economics, social, business and other fields. Diagrams play
an important role in the modern advertisingcampaigns.
5. Graphs are used for finding positional values: Diagramsare not used for statistical
determination of values, however, special type of graphs help in finding positionalvalues
like median, quartiles, mode, etc. This is discussed in the chapter on Measures of Central
Tendencyof this book.

GENERU RULES FOR CONSTRUCTINGDIAGRAMS

n-te construction of a diagram is an art which can be acquired through practice. The diagrammatic
presentation of statistical data can be more advantageous if following general rules are observed:
I •table heading: A suitable heading either on the top of the diagram or just below the
diagram should be provided. A title (in bold letters) conveys main facts depicted by the
diagram. If needed, sub-headings can also be given. Sub-headings must be brief, self
explanatory and clear. The diagram number can be used for identification and for purpose
of reference.
2. S• : The size of the diagram should be neither too big nor too small. It should match with
the size of paper. A diagram should be in the middle of the paper. A diagram should be
attractive, neat and appealing to the eyes, so that people's attention is automatically drawn
towards it.
proportion of width and height: An appropriate proportion should be maintained
between width and height of a diagram. Width is the horizontalline called X-axisand
height is the vertical line called Y-axis.Verticalline should be drawn at the left side and
horizontal line at the bottom of the diagram. Both axes must be 'properlylabelled'.For
xample, 'population' or 'production' on Y-axisand 'years' or 'months' on X-axis.
4. Proper scale: A diagram should be drawn with the help of geometric instruments. A proper
scale should be selected to suit the size of the paper. The scale should as far as possible
be in even numbers or a multiple of 5, 10, 20, 25, 100 etc. The scale should specify the
size of the unit and the data it represents.For example,to measure the productionof
 wheat in million tons' or ,car
NS'heat or cat, we must mention 'production of
'years' or 'months' on X-axis.The 'scale' of
in hundmd (thousand)' on Y-axisand either at the top-right hand
on both X-avisand Y-axisshould be mentioned lcm = 1 lakh or 1
diagram or just below the heading. For example, crore of
and so on.
shown in a diagram, they should
5. Index: NVhenmany items are required to be 'index' must be given for
crossing, etc. An
using different colours, shades, dotting,
and understanding the diagram. id
points relating to the diagram,
FOOtnotesand source notes: In order to clarify some
given to indicate the f
are given at the bottom of the diagram. Source notes are
which data have been obtained.
7. Simplicity: Diagram should be very simple. It must be so simple that even a
does not have knowledgeof mathematicsor statisticscan understand the
much information presented in a diagram will make it confusing. Therefore, it is
to draw several simple diagrams which are more effective than a complexone.

TYPES OF DIAGRAMS
There are various types of geometricforms of diagrams used in practice.Here,
only one Dimensional Diagrams and Pie Diagrams and omit other diagrams as they
in the syllabus for Class XI students.
Let us discuss following two Geometric forms of diagrams:
A. One-dimensional Diagrams S
B. Pie Diagram

A. ONE-DIMENSIONAL DIAGRAMS
One-dimensional diagrams are also called bar diagramswhich are most commonly used in
They are called one-dimensionalbecause the height of the bar is of scale significance
and
the width of the bar. Following are the various types of bar diagrams:
a e bar diagram vkbj<ub-divided bar diagram
ultiple bar diagram (d) Percentage bar diagram
(e) Broken bar diagram (j) Deviation bar diagram
(a) Simple Bar Diagrams: They are very simple to present but only one type of variable:
be presented. A simple bar diagram can be drawn either on horizontal or vertical base.ItISE
for visual comparison of one variable, e.g.,students, prices, production, population, sales,exp.
etc. This diagram can present any information of one category either in years, months, we
etc. or relating to different places, sections or groups. All the bars can be beautified SIN
bya
colour or shading to make them more attractive.
Vertical bars on horizontal base are more commonly used in practice. Bars must be of
thickness and they should be placed at equal distance. While constructing a simplebardiag
the scal s determined on the basis of the highest value in the series.
Il stration 1. Draw a bar diagram to represent the following figures relatingto
c puter software.
2015-16
Years 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15
36500
Export (R in crores) 6500 10,940 17,150 28,350
ram
the Solution.
u.lstb Y
Export of Computer Software
g to th Scale: 1 cm 7,000 crore
Indicate
42000

that so 35000 36,500

•stand 28000 28,350

the IQ
21000
17,150
omplex' it is 14000
One 10.940
7000 6,500

Ice. x
2011-12
rams ere
2012-13 2013-14 2014-15 2015-16
Years

Fig. 1
Alternative solution —Vertical base.
We can present the above information about export of computer software also by vertical base
showing horizontal bars as under:
Fig. 1: Years on X-axis; Value (Rupees in crores) on Y-axis.
Fig. 2: Years on Y-axis; Value (Rupees in crores) on X-axis.
used in Scale: 1 cm = 7,000crores.
cance
art
Export of Computer Software x
Scale: 1 cm = 7,000 crores

2015-16 36,500

of variable 2014-15 28,350

base. Itis
, sales, co

2013-14 17,150
onths,
d by a
2012-13 10,940

?of
2011-12 6,500
par di

7000 14000 21000 28000 35000 42000

expo% Rupees (in crores)

Fig. 2
significantprogress in the
From the above two diagrams we understand that India has made
software export has increased from 6,500
export of computer software over the years. The
2015-16.Thus, the software exports have grown at a
(crores) in 2011-12to 36,500 (crores) in
last four years.
compound growth rate of 50 per cent per year for the
 1 stration 2. Draw a sinnplebar diagram to represent the various figures relatin
lephone connections in India from 2014-15to 2()18-19.
Years 2015-16 2016-17 2017-18
No. of Telephonesubscriptions (in lakh) 9 ,500 10,600 11,900 12,100
Solution.

No. of Telephonesubscriptions (in lakh)

Scale: 1 cm 2000 lakh
'4,000
11,900 12,100
12,000 11,800
10,600
— 10,000 9,500

c 8,000
6,000

4,000

2,000

2014-15 2015-16 2016-17 2017-18 2018-19

Years

Fig. 3
111 ation 3. The following table shows literacy rate of India for the period
1951-2011.
a r diagram to representthe given information.
Years 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011
Literacy Rate (in %) 18.33 28.30 34.45 43.57 52.21 64.83
Source: Census of India, 2011
Solution.

Literacy Rate (in %)

80 Scale: 1 cm = 10 % 74.04
70
64.83
60
52.21
50
2 43.57
40
34.45
30 28.30

20 18.33

10
x
1951 1961 1991 2001 2011
1971 1981
Years
 (b) sub-divided Bar Diagram: These
In
general sub-divided or component bar diagrams are also called 'ComponentBar Diagrams'.
data is to be divided into various parts diagrams are to be used, if the total values of the given
or sub-classes or components. First of all a bar representing
total is drawn, then it is divided into
Different coJours, shades of colours, various parts in proportion to the values given in the data.
divisions of a bar. One should alwayscrossing, dotting or designs can be used to distinguish sub-
the same remember that the various components should be kept in
order in each bar. An 'index' is
to be given alongwith the diagram to explain these
differences.
Ion 4. Draw a suitable diagram to
represent the following information:
Statement of No. of students in each stream
Year Science Commerce Humanities Total
2014 108 82 321 511
2015 131 115 386 632
2016 97 144 352 593
2017 102 70 285 457
2018 75 68 245 388
Solution.
19
No. of students in various stream
Scale: I cm 200 students
Humanities
Commerce
Science
95 J

200
$3

2014 2015 2016

x
2017 2018
Yoars

fig. 5
JjJu ation 5. The percentage distribution of exports of engineeringproducts from India to
destination for two years, 2013-14and 2014-15are given below:

(in percentage)
Year
Region Of Destination
2014-15
Stg, 42 23
West Asia 19 22
Africa 28
Other Regions 23 27
Total 100 100

suitable diagram to repregent the above data.

 suitable to the above data.
Solotion. Sub«iividedbat diagram is
from India
Exports of Engineering Products
S«ale: 1 tm

100 Z other
Africa
C:] west Asia
80 n S.E. Asia

60

20

x
2013-14 2014-15
Years

Fig. 6
(c) Multiple Bar Diagram: Such diagrams are used when a comparison is to be made
two or more variables. The multiple bar diagram representstwo or more sets of
data. Such diagrams are also called CompoundBar Diagrams.The technique of drawing
bar diagrarn is basically same as that of drawing simple bar diagram. In this case,a set
adjacent bars (one for each variable) is drawn. Proper and equal spacing is given betweendiffefi
sets of bars. To distinguish between the differentbars in a set, differentcolours,shades
designs may be used and index to this effectmay be given. The set of bar can alsobedra
vertically.

Illustratio Draw a suitable diagram for the followingdata:

Statement of Deposits in Bank Accounts held by people
in Crores)
Year Current Account Saving Account Term Deposits

2011 108 82 321

2012 131 115 386
2013 97 144 352

2014 102 70 285

2015 75 68 245
 Diagrammatic Presentation

Solution.

Types of Bank Accounts held by people

(Scale: 1 100 crones)

500
Current Account

386 g Savings Account

c 400
352 Torm Deposits
321
300 285
245

200
144
131
108 11 102
97 75 68
100 8

x
2013 2014 2015
2011 2012
Years

India. Present it in
Illustr • n 7. The following table gives data on literacy rates (in %) in
th f of a multiple bar diagram.
(Data in percentage)
1971 1981 1991 2001 2011
Year 1951 1961
29.8 39.2 53.7 65.5
Female Literacy Rate 8.9 15.4 22
46 56.4 64.1 75.3 82.1
Male Literacy Rate 27.2 40.4

Solution.

Literacy rate (in %) of India, 1951—2011 Female Male

90 Scale: 1 cm = 10% 82.1
80 75.3
70 64.1 65.5

60 56.4 53.7
50 40.4 46
39.2
40
29.8
30 27.2
22
20 15.4
10 8.9

1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011

Years

Fig. 8

Illustr n 8. The Indian Sugar Mills Associationreported that Sugar Production during the
first f •ght of December 2001 was about 3,87,000tons, as against 3,78,000tons during the
s fortnight in the year 2000.The off-take of sugar from factories during the first fortnight of
December 2001was 2,83,000tons for internal consumption and 41,000tons for exports
as a
154 000 tons for internal consumption and nil for exports during the same fortnight last
(i) Present the data in a tabular form.
(ii) Suppose you were to present the data in diagrammatic form which of the diagrams
you use and why?
(iii) Present these data diagrammatically.
solution.
(i) Presentation of data in a tabular form:
Sugar Production
(Figure in thousand tons)
Sugar Mills December,2000 December, 2001
Report (First fortnight) (First fortnight)
Production 378 387
Off-take from Mills 154 283
Export Nil 41
Stock 224 63
Source: Indian Sugar Mills Association.
(it) We can use either Sub-divided Bar Diagram or Multiple Bar Diagram to present the
abov
data in diagrammatic form because, the production of sugar in sugar mills is dividedinto
off-take (purchase) from factories for internal consumption, export and stock which
have calculated.
(iii) Diagrammatic presentation of above data by
(a) Sub-divided bar diagram
(b) Multiple Bar diagram

Indian Sugar Mills Association Report

(Fortnight Sugar production, off-take for Internal consumption,
export and stock in Sugar Mills in India
Scale: 1 cm = 50,000tons)

Sub-divided Bar Diagram Multiple Bar Diagram

378 387 400 Stock

350 Off-take

Export
283
250
224

154
150

100 100
63
50 50 41

x
Dec. 2000 Dec. 2001 Dec. 2000 x
(First fortnight) (First fortnight) Dec. 2001
(First fortnight) (First fortnight)
Years
Years
 Diagrammatic Presentation 109
(d) percentage Bar Diagram:
In all the
actual figures. Many times comparison above diagrams, bars have been used to represent the
diagram presented graphically on
of the data is done on a relative basis. Sub-divided bar
are used to highlight the relative percentage basis gives percentage bar diagram. These diagrams
total for each bar is taken as 100importance of the various component parts to the whole. The
and the value of each component is expressed as percentage
of the relative totals. Thus, in
a
viz., 100.The various parts of percentage bar diagram, all the bars will be of the same height,
the bar representing the different components will vary in height
depending on their percentage values
to the total. Division of bar are beautified by using different
colours, shades or lines for different components.
Illustration 9. The following table
shows the percentage share of various types of deposits
with a bank. Present the given informationin a
percentagebar diagram.
(All values in %)
Type of Deposits Years
2015-16 2016-17 2017-18
Current 7 15 11
Savings 43 66
Term 50 19 42
Total share 100 100 100
Solution.
Percentage Bar diagram showing composition of Deposits
Scale: 1 cm = 10%
Current Savings C] Term
Deposits Deposits Deposits
100
90 19
80 42
50
70
60
50
o 40 66
30 47
e 20
10
7 15 11
x
2015-16 2016-17 2017-18
Years

Fig. 10
Illustration 10. Represent the following data by (i) sub-divided bar diagram, and
(it) by sub-divided bar diagram on percentagebasis. Also show the profit and loss.
Factory
A Factory B
Proceeds per Chair

Wages 160 200

Material 120 300
Other Expenses 80 150
Total 360 650
Selling Price 400 600
(+) 40
Profit or Loss (±) (-) 50
 the values are required to be
Solution. To get the percentage bar diagram all price 1000/0.
PetVNntageson the basis of selling price, considering the selling
The percentages are calculated as under:
Diagram)
Percentage Calculation (For Percentage Bar
FactoryA Factory B
Pnvrds Chair
40 33.3
Wages
30 50
Material
Other Expenses 20 25

Total 90 108.3

Selling Price 100 100

Profit or Loss (±) (+) 10 (-) 8.3

% Cost Per Chair & Profit and Loss
Scale: 1 cm = 20%
Factory B
Factory A
100
Y Cost Per Chair & Profit and Loss 25
Scale: 1 cm = 200 20
800 80

600 Facto B o 60 30
50
150
400 Factory A

300
120
200 20 33.3
160
200 -10
x x
-100 Loss Loss
-20

Other Expenses (Z] Material Wages Profit or Loss

Fig. 11
(e) Broken Bar Diagram: Sometimeswe may get a series in which some values maybever
small while some values may be very large. In order to provide adequate and reasonable
to the smaller bars, the larger bars may be broken at the top to gain space.Thevalueofeac
bar is written on the top of the bar.
Illustration 11. Show the followinginformationby a suitablediagram.
Year Number of students (in science)
2013 25
2014 48
2015 375
2016 125
2017 75
2013.It is nec
Solution. Number of students in the year 2()15is 15 times than that of
to break the bar of 2015 to gain space for the smallerbars of the series.
 No. of Stttrlontsin stream
Scalo: 1 cm 2K studonts

200
175
150

125 125

100
75 75

50 48
25
25

2013
x
2014 2015 2016 2017
Years

Fig. 12
Deviation Bar Diagram: Deviation bar diagrams are specially useful to show the net
deviation in different values, i.e., surplus or deficit, profit or loss, net import or export, etc.,
which have both positive and negative values. Net quantities can be calculated in plus and minus
values to plot them on the diagram. Positive values are shown above the base line and negative
values are shown below the base line.
Illustration 12. Show the following data by a suitable diagram.
(Export Import = Balance of Trade)
in Lacs)
Balance of Trade
Year Export Import

2010 30 17
2011 125 115 10
2012 20 39 -19
2013 94 110 -16
—5
2014 120 125

Solution.
Balance of Trade
Scale: 1 cm 5 lacs
25
Surplus
20 17 a Deficit
15
10
10
5
2012 2013 2014
x
2010 2011
8
-10
-15
-16
-20 -19
-25
YEARS

Fig. 13
n. Pie Diagrams
Pie diagram or circular diagram is also called 'pie chart or angular circle diagram'. Th
are very useful in emphasising areas. They are comparatively easier to draw. With
sectors, totals as well as component parts can be exhibited. Circles can be drawn b
their areas proportionate to the values in the given data. The total angle at the centre
2m. Therefore, the diagram is called 'a pie diagram'. is
Pie diagrams are very popularly in practice to show percentage breakdowns
circle into various parts. For example, the entire circle may represent Government by
while different portions of the circle will indicate the expenditure spread over
different
like Agriculture, Industry, Defence, Transport, Education, etc. If the series is divided into h
number of components or the difference among the components is very small, then pie diaal
are less effective
than bar diagram.
Steps for Construction of Pic Diagram
The steps to be followedfor constructionof a pie diagram are:
1. Express each of the component values as a percentage of respective
totals. Pie
prepared on percentage basis insteacfrf absolute (actual) basis. Value basis is
better
helpful for comparison.
2. Since the angle in the centre of the circle is 3600,the total of values
of various parts
to be equal to 3600.It is necessaryto express each part proportionately
in degrees.
1 per cent of the total value is equal to 360 = 3.60, the percentages of
the component
100
will be now converted to degrees by multiplying each of them by 3.6.
The degrees represented by various component parts of a given value can
directly without calculatingtheir percentageto the total value as follows: be
Degree of any Component part = Componentvalue x 3.6
Totalvalue
3. Draw a circle of appropriate size, using compass.Radius may be
decided according
available. However, if two or more sets of data are to be presented simultaneously
f
comparison the radii of the corresponding circles are to be proportional
to the square
of their total magnitudes.
4. After the circleis obtained,draw a radius (preferablyhorizontal).
to begin the largest component sector of a pie diagram at 12
It is common prQ
0'clock position on thecirc
Now, with this radius as the base line draw an angle at the centre with
the help of protrae
[DI, equal to the degree representedby the first component.
The new line drawnatå
centre to form this angle will touch the circumference. The sector
so obtained will represe
the portion of the first component.Now, take this second line as base, and drawanoth
angle at the centre equal to the degree represented by the second componentto givei
sector representing the portion of the second component. Similarly,
all the sectors representi
different component parts can be constructed.
5. Different sectors representing various component parts should be distinguis hed
one another by using different shades, dots, colours, etc. or given explanat0tYj
descriptive labels either inside the sector (if possible) or just outside the circlewith
identification.
 Illustration . Construct a pie diagram
to represent the following data about percentage
break-upo cost of constructionof a house
in Delhi.
Item % Expenditure
Labour 25
Bricks 15
Cement 20
Steel 15
Timber 10
Supervision 15
solution. Before drawing the pie diagram, it is necessary to convert the percentageinto angles
of different degrees. Since the total is 100, 1% is equal to 3.60and, therefore,we multiply each
of the above percentages by 3.60. A circle is drawn and divided into parts according to degrees
of angles at the centre.
Cost of Constructionof A house
Items Degree of component parts Degrees

Labour 25 x 3.6 900 Supervision

15% Labour
Bricks 15 x 3.6 540 25%

Cement 20 x 3.6 720

Bricks
Steel 15 x 3.6 540 15%
Steel
Timber 10 x 3.6 360
15% Timber
10%
Supervision 15 x 3.6 540

Total 3600 Fig. 14

items in percentageduring
Illustrati 4. Following table gives the export of three textile
2016- and 2017-2018.Prepare a pie diagram.
Years
Items 2016-17 2017-18

52.2 41.7
Readymade Garments
19.1 23.3
Cotton Textiles
28.7 35.0
Wollens Textiles
100.0 100.0
Total
rounded off)
Solution. (Degrees of angle are
2017-18
2016-17
Degree of an le
Items Degree o angle
41.7 1500
1880
52.2
Redymade Garments 690 23.3 840
19.1 1260
Cotton Textile 1030 35.0
28.7 3600
Wollen Textile 3600 100.0
Total 100.0
 Export of Textile Items

Readymade

500
880
Cotton 1260
Textile Woolen
Cotton Woolen
Textile Textile textile

2016-17 2017-18

Fig. 15
Illustratio 15. Represent the following data by a pie diagram.
Items of Food Clothing Rent Education Miscellaneous
Exp iture (Including Saving)
Family X (R) 400 250 150 40 160
Family Y R) 640 480 320 100 60
Solution. To construct pie diagram we should get the following calculations on the
360 taken as equal to the total of the values.

Family X Family
Y
Items of Expenditure
Degrees Degrees

1. Food 400 640

x 360 = 1440 x 360:
1000 1600
2. Clothing 250 480
x 360= 90 x 360
1000 1600

3. Rent 150 320

150 x 360= 54 320 x
1000 1600
4. Education 40 40 x 360 = 14.40 100 100 x 360
1000 1600
5. Miscellaneous 160
(Including
160 x 360= 57.60 60 60 x 36
1000 1600
Saving)

Total 1000 360 1600

Square root 31.6 40

Radii of circle are determined in proportion 3.2:4 (31.6:40).

Therefore the radii of circle accordingto availabilityof space are:
32 = 1.6 cm
Family X: Radius —= 2
4
Family Y: Radius — 2
= 2 cm
 Expenditure of Family X and Y

Food
Clothing
Rent
Education
Miscellaneous

Family X Family Y

Fig. 16

LIMITATIONS OF DIAGRAMMATICPRESENTATION
Diagrams are useful for visual presentation of data but they cannot be a substitute for classification
or tabulation. In order to avoid wrong interpretation of diagrams, the followingpoints must be
remembered:
1. Diagrams cannot show a large number of fact at a time, their capacity to give information
is limited. Otherwise the diagrams would become, too complex and fail in their basic
functionof 'easy and at a glance' presentation.
2. Diagrams can show only approximate values, precise differences, especially very small and
very large differencesbetween two sets of facts are not possible to show in diagrams.
3. Diagrams as a means of drawing conclusions,can be misused for propaganda. Diagrams
do not give new meaning to a set of facts. As such when not supported by tables etc. they
can misrepresent facts.
No single diagram is suitable for all practical situations. The choice of a particular diagram
for visual presentation of a given set of data depends upon the nature of data and the objectof
presentation.Therefore,it should be made with utmost care and caution. A well constructed
simpleand attractive diagram showing a limited set of informationis easier to understand at a
glance;such presentations can be seen in financial reports in newspapers, magazines and journals.

Hints for Revision

• Types of Pictorial Presentation:
(a) Diagrammatic Presentation (b) Graphic Presentation
• Importance and uses of Graphs and Diagrams:
(a) They are interesting, attractive and impressive.
(b) They are the simplest method of presentingdata.
(c) They make comparison easy.
(d) They have universal utility.
(e) Graphs are used for finding positional values.
(f) Graphs and diagrams are used in financial reports, in newspapers, magazines and journals.
• General rules for constructing diagrams:
Following rules are required to be followed:
(a) Suitable heading, (b) size, (c) appropriate proportion of width and height (d) proper scale,
(e) scale measurement and index, (f) footnotes and source notes, (g) simplicity
 Graphic Presentation

Chapter Outline
• Construction of Graphs
• Graphs of Frequency Distribution
(A) Line Frequency Graph (B) Histogram
(C) Frequency Polygon (D) Frequency Curve
(E) Cumulative Frequency Curve (Ogive)
• Graphs of Time Series
(A) General Rules to Construct a Line Graph (B) One Variable Graphs
(C) Two or More than Two Variable Graphs (D) Graphs of Different Units

Graphic presentation gives a visual effect. It is used in research work for visual presentation
and analysis of the data. The graphic method enables us to present the statistical data in a simple
clear and effective manner. Graphs serve:
(a) as a method of presentation;and
(b) as a tool of analysis.
There are many varieties of graphs. A suitable graph should be selected keeping in viewthe
data under study and the purpose for which the graph is constructed.Broadly,graphscan
divided into two types:
(a) Graphs of FrequencyDistribution
(b) Graphs of Time Series (Line Graphs)

Types of Graphs

Frequency Distribution Graphs Time Series Graphs

(Used to express frequency (Used to express variables with
distribution in the form of discrete or referenceto a specific time period)
continuous series)

CONSTRUCTION OF GRAPHS
Students are always advised to use a graph paper to plot the data for this type of presentatien•
It is necessary to remember the basic rules of graphic presentation which are discussed as under
with reference to Fig. 1.
1. Division of Graph Paper: Normally,there are ten equal parts of an inch or centimetre
shown on a graph by horizontal and vertical lines. The graph paper is divided intofour
equal

parts called quadrants by drawing two intersectinglines perpendicularto each other.

122
 The point at which the
lines intersect
called point of origin 'O' which is
value. Distances represents zero
and upward from the origin towards the right OUADRANT-I
those measumd towards the
are positive, and
left and downward
X-axisand Y-axis:It is
vertical line as Y-axis customary to call
(Ordinate), shown
and horizontal line as X-axis as YY'
as XX'. Both the lines are (Abscissa), shown
known as coordinates
axes. (See Fig. 1). +2.

Quadrants: Graph paper is ABSCISSA

equal parts called quadrants. divided into four
Quadrant l: Area in YOX,
where both the QUADRANT-IN
values of X and Y are positive. QUADRANT-IV
Quadrant Il: Area in YOX',
where Y is
positive and X is negative.
Quadrant111:Area in ROY',
wher&both the values of X and Y
Quadrant IV: Area in XOY', where are negative.
X is positive and Y is negative.
In Business Economic and Statistics,
we use Quadrant I, i.e., YOX.
2. Use of Axes and Quadrants: We
use the graph to present the data of different
economicand business statistics the sciences.In
values may be of time, relationship,frequencies,
Sometimes, two variables are related in a etc.
the other. For example, the amount of way that changesin one depend upon changesin
electricity bill depends on the use of electricitywhich is
recorded by electric metre. The value which
changes by itself is called independent variable and
it is shown on X-axis. While, value which is
dependent on the
variable and is shown on Y-axis.In the above example,units first value is called dependent
values) will be taken on X-axis and that of values of
of metre reading (Independent
electricitybill (Dependentvalues) on Y-axis.
Similarly, in case of graphs of frequency distribution, X-axis represents the
variables and Y-axis
represents the frequencies.
It is important to decide a convenient scale for both the axis in order to accommodate complete
data on the graph paper. The scale for Y-axisshould begin with zero. The scale for X-axis,
however, need not begin with zero. For example, in case of time series graph, where time is
denoted on X-axis the scale may begin from the first period of time (year,month or week).
3. Like diagrams, a suitable and comprehensivetitle indicating the facts presentedby the
graph should be assigned.
4. Numbers can be assigned to the graphs for future reference.
5. Plot the values on the graph paper in such a manner that each point correspondsto the
value of the independent variable on the X-axisand the value of dependent variable on the
Y-axis.

GRAPHS OF FREQUENCYDISTRIBUTION
Example: Frequency distribution can be presented on graph. We should take mid-values of class-
intervals and plot them on X-axis and frequencieson Y-axis.Wheneverscale entries on the
horizontal axis require a lot of space such that X-axis is unnecessarily elongated, then particular
124 Statistics for Economics-Xt
unrequired portion of the scale may be omitted. "Thigunrequired portion can be
scale break, that is, by the use of 'kinkedline' in graphic preqentation Gee Fig. 2). In
a kinked line is used to reduce the gap between zero and the minimum valuo on tho

Frequency Graph
O.'S cm ? 10 on X axis
O.IS cm 10 Workers on Yoxiq

80
70

40
30

10
x
100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170
Wages (in Rupees)

Fig. 2
Following are the various types of frequency distribution graphs:
(a) Line Frequency Graph
(b) Histogram
(c) Frequency Polygon
(d) Frequency Curve or Smoothed Frequency Curve
(e) Cumulative FrequencyCurve or 'Ogive'

( LINE FREQUENCYGRAPH
e can present discrete variables with their frequencies (frequency
array) on graph byline
frequency raph where length of the line represents the frequency of
that variable on which
line is d wn.
ustration 1. Draw a Line Frequency Graph of the following data:
Height in inches 60 61 62 63 64 65 66
No. of Students (f) 90 80 120 140 132 70 40

Method
1. Take the variables under study (Heights in inches) on X-axis.
2. Take the frequencies (No. of students) on Y-axis.
3. Draw a vertical line on each value equal to the length of the
correspondingfrequency
4. Both the axis must be clearly labelled and scale of measurement must be clearlyshown'
X-axis can convenientlybe determinedaccordingto the need of the problem.Wecanhave
three alternatives of X-axis. Considering the above illustration we can either:
(a) use a kinked line,
(b) start from 59"
(c) start from 60" (use thick line to read the data properly). See the graphs given below•
 Solution. Heights of Students

(A) Using kinked line

Scale: 1 cm Frequency 20 qtudents on Yois
1 cm 1" on X axis

140

120

100

80

60
z

20

x
o 60 61 62 63 64 65 66
Height (in inches)

Fig. 3

(B) Starting From 59" (X-axis) (C) Starting From 60"

Scale: 1 cm = Frequency 20 Students on Y-axis Scale: 1 cm = Frequency 20 Students on Y-axis
1 cm = 1" on X-axis 1 cm = 1" on X-axis

140
140
120
120
z 100 100

80
80

60 o 60
o

20 20
x x
59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 60 61 62 63 64 65 66
Height (in inches) Height (in inches)

Fig. 5

(B) HISTOGRAM
Histogram is a rectangular graph of a continuous series,in which each rectangular bar grapb
representsthe class interval with fre u i a two-dimensionaldia a
a requency histogram.
In a histogram,each rectangle is drawn adjacentto the other in order to give a continuous
image.The length of each rectangle shows the frequencyof the class and breadth represents size
of a class-interval. Therefore, total area covered by the histogram represents total of frequencies.

Casesof Constructing Histogram

(1) Histogram of Equal Class Intervals
(it) Histogram when Mid-points are given
 (iii) Histogram of Unequal Class intervals
(it') Histogram when class intervals are given by Inclusive Method.
(i) Histogr• of Equal Class Intervals
Illus ation 2. Present the data given in the table below in a Histogram.
Marks 0-10 10-20 20-30 30—40 40-50 50-60 60-70
Frequency (f) 4 10 16 22 20 18 8 70N8()

Method
1. Take variables under study (Marks) on X-axis.
2. Take frequencies on Y-axis.
3. Make rectangles joining each other, representing each class with its corresponding fre
4. Both the axis must be clearly labelled (and the scale of measurement should be clearlyquency
sho
Solution.
In the above illustration, class interval is 10 for all the classes and the frequencies are
diffe
from one class to the other.
Therefore, the area of the rectangle for each class can be decided (class interval
frequency). class

Histogram
Scale: 1 cm = 10 Marks on X-axis
24 1 cm = frequency 4 on Y-axis
22
20
20
18
16
16

12
10

8 8

4
4
2

O
x
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Marks

Fig. 6

Class frequency
Class (Marks) Area for each class
0—10 4 10 x 4 = 40
10—20 10 10 x 10 = 100
20-30 16 10 x 16 = 160
30-40 22 10 x 22 220
40-50 18 10 x 18 = 180
50-60 2 10 x 2 = 20
Total fre uenc = 72 Total Area = 720
 we that the area of each
rectangle is 10 times the
the factor '10' is the Constant of Thus,
Proportionality and the total frequencyof the class interval.
to the total frequency (i.e., 10 x 72 720). area under histogram is proportional

(ii) Ilisto •nnv. ave given

ation 3. Construct a
histogram
students of a school in a Board from the following distribution of total marks obtained
Examination.
Marks (Mid-points) 150 160 170 180 190 200
No. of Students (f) 8 10 25 12 7 3
Method
1. Ascertain the upper and lower
class limits of different classes from the given mid-points.
2. Take variables under study (Marks)on X-axis.
3. Take given frequencies (No. of Students) on Y-axis.
4. Join the rectangular bars to each other. Each
bar represents class with frequency.
5. Both the axis should be clearly labelled
and the scale of the measurement should be clearly
shown.
Ascertainment of lower and upper limits: First calculate
the difference between second and
first mid-point i.e., 160 —150 = 10
Then, divide the difference by 2, i.e., 10/2 = 5
The quotient 5 is subtracted and added to the 1st mid-point. Thus,
we get lower and upper
limit of the first class, i.e., 150 —5 = 145 as lower limit and 150 + 5 = 155 as upper limit. Thus,
the class decided is 145 to 155.
Usingthe same method we get the classes of other mid-pointsas under:
Marks 145-155 155-165 165-175 175-185 185-195 195-205
No. of Students 8 10 25 12 7 3
Now,we can convenientlydetermine X-axisby any of the three ways:
(a) Using kinked line, (b) Starting from 145 marks, and (c) Starting from 135 marks. See the
Figs. below:
Solution.

Histogram Kinked Line Method Histogram X-Axis—Startingfrom 145 Marks

Scale: 1 cm = 10 Marks on X-axis
30 1 cm = 5 Students on Y-axis Scale: 1 cm = 10 Marks on X-axis
25
30 1 cm = 5 Students on Y-axis
25 25
25

20

12 12
10 10
d 10 8 7
z 10 8 7

5 3 5 3

x
145 155 165 175 185 195 205 215 x 145 155 165 175 185 195 205
Marks Marks
 Histogram X-Axis—Starting from 135 Marks
Scale: 1 cm 10 Marks on X-axis
1 cm S Students on Y-axis
30
25
25

20

15
12
z 10 8
10
7

5 3

x
135 145 155 165 175 185 195 205 215
Marks

Fig. 9

(iii) Histo of Unequal Class Intervals

Illustr ion 4. Represent the following data by means of histogram.

D •l wagesR) 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30—40 40—60

No. of Workers (f) 7 19 28 15 12 12 8

Solution.
Note. Since the class intervals are unequal, frequenciesmust be adjusted, otherwise
histogram would give a misleadingpicture.

Method
1. Note the classes which have the lowest class interval.
2. Do not adjust the frequenciesof the lowest classes.
3. Calculate 'Adjustment Factor' for the class to be adjusted.
Adjustment Factor for any class = Class interval (width) of the class
Lowest class interval
4. Frequencies of other classes are adjusted in accordancewith the lowest class interval
frequencies of the concerned classes are adjusted by dividing them with the Adjustff
Factor for that class. For example, if the size of a class interval is 4 times the sizeOf
smallest class interval in the series, the frequency of that class will be divided by
5. Adjusted frequencies (frequency density) will decide the heights of each rectangli
histogram but widths will be according to class limits.
6. The frequencies of minimum class intervals on which the frequencies of Othercla
adjusted will not be changed.
7. Both axis should be clearly labelled and the scale of the measurement shouldbe
shown.
 Graphic Presentation 129
Thus, the adjusted frequencies are:
paily Wages Frequency Adjustments Adjusted Frequency
(f)

10-15 7 7

15-20 19 19

20-25 28 28

25-30 15 15

10 5x12
12 6
10

12 20 3
20

60-80 8 20 .. 5x8 2
20

Histogram
Scale: 0.5 cm = 5 on X-axis
1 cm = 5 Workers on Y-axis
8

28

25
otherwise tif
20 19

15
15

z
10
7
6
5
3
2

71. 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 x
Daily Wages in Rupees
of±
Fig. 10

(it') Histogram• Vhen Class Intervals are given by Inclusive Method

Illustr • n 5. Construct the histogram of the following data:

rks 10-14 15—19 25-29 30—34

Students (f) 5 17 25 32 13 6
 Solution.
Note: Since the class intervals are given by inclusive method (where lower and
a re included in each class), it is necessary to adjust the lower and upper limits of th I. upper

join the rectangles for getting the correct histogram.

Adjustment: Find the difference between lower limit of second class and upper limit
class (10 9 1). This diffetvnce will be divided by 2 (1 2 0.5). Now, subtract 0.5
limit and add 0.5 to upper limit of class. We get adjusted class (4.5 -- 9.5) and so on.

Adjusted Class Limits

Marks 4.5—9.5 9.5-14.5 14.5-19.5 19.5-24.5 24.5-29.5
Students (t) 29
5 17 25 32 13
6

Histogram
Scale: 1 cm 5 Marks on X-axis
1 cm = 10 Students on Y-axis
40
32
c 30 25

o 20 17
13
z
10 6
5

9.5
x
4.5 14.5 19.5 24.5 29.5 34.5
Marks

Fig. 11

Comparison between Histogram and Bar Diagram

1. A Histogram is two-dimensional, taking into consideration both, length and width
bar. Bar diagram is one-dimensionaland takes into account only the length ofthe bc
ignoring the width.
2. While constructing a histogram, the bars are drawn adjacent to each other. In case
diagrams, proper space is given between the bars.
3. Histogram can be drawn only for continuous variables. Bar diagram can be drawn f
discrete variables (frequencydistribution) and non-frequency type variables.

(C) FREQUENCY POLYGON

A frequency polygon is another method of representing a frequency distribution. It canbe
by two ways:
(i) With histogram
(ii) Without histogram.
(i) Frequency Polygon: With Histogram
Illustratio . Draw a frequency polygon of the following distribution of students
marks in examination.
60-70
Marks 10-20 20-30 30—40 40-50 50-60
4
No. of Students ( 5 12 15 22 14
ctltod
I. Draw a suitable lÄOÅtogram keeping in view all the
baqicprincipleq.
2. Mark the mid-points of the upper hori70ntal
side of each rectangle.
3. Join these mid-points of the adjacent rectangles of the
histogram by straight lines.
4. Ends of frequency polygon should preferably be extended to
of classes at both the base line and joined at the
mid-point ends.
5. Both axis should be clearly labelled and the scale of the measurementshould be clearly
shown.
solution. While drawing the frequency polygon, we observe that some area which was initially
20vet-edthe histogram has now been excluded while, some area which was not under histogram
has been included under frequency polygon. This dotted area (see Fig. 12) which was under
histogrambut is not covered under the frequency polygon is excluded from the area of frequency
polygon. However, the shaded area 'bas been included under the polygon. This area was not
under histogram initially. Thus, there is always some area included under the frequencypolygon
while some of the area is excluded from histogram. Both the sides (first and last points on
extremeends) of the frequency polygon are extended to meet the X-axis,at the mid-pointsof
immediately preceding and succeeding class intervals, assuming that the classeshave zero
frequency. This ensures that, the total area excludedfrom the histogramis equal to the area included
under frequency polygon.
when a comparison
It may be noted that a frequency polygon is more suitable than a histogram
is possible to draw more than
has to be made between two or more frequency distributions as it
one frequencypolygon on a graph.

Histogram and Frequency Polygon

Scale: 1 cm = 10 Marks on X-axis
1 cm = 5 Students on Y-axis

25

20 Histogram

c
15
Frequency Polygon

10
z
5
x
60 70 80
30 50
10 20
Marks

Fig. 12

as under:
frequencypolygon without histogram
we can get the
Taking the same illustration,
Method or mid-points.
on the basis of class interval
either be decided
2. Scale of X-axis can
132 Statistics for Economics-Xl
corresponding to their
i. the pointe plotted fov the tnid points
linee. We will get the same obtained by the first method (i.e., with h. Y

M'd points
12 22
No. Students

Solution. frequency Polygon

Ccale: cm 10 Marks on
cm • Students on

28

24

20

16

12

x
5 15 25 35 45 55 65 75 85
Marks

Fig. 13
Illustrati 7. You are given the following marks secured by 25 students in an examina
28 30 32 35 36 36 40 41 43 44 45
48 49 52 53 54 56 56 58 61 62 65 68
Prepare a frequency distribution taking class-intervals as 20—29,30—39etc. Draw a frequk
polygon for the data classified.

Solution. Frequency Distribution of Marks

Marks Tally Bars No. of Students (f)

20-29 Il 2
30-39 5
40-49
hulli 8
50-59
6
60-69
4

Total 25
Before preparing frequency polygon, we first adjust
the lower and upper limit Ofthe
by exclusive method, i.e.,

Marks 19.5-29.5 29.5-39.5 39.5—49.5 49.5—59.5 59.6-

Students 2 5
8 6
 Frequency Polygon
Scale: t cm
to on
cm Student on Y

6
5

9.5 19.5 29.5 39.5 49.5 59.5 69.5 79.5

Marks

Fig. 14
Illustrat• 8. We have the following data on daily expenditureon food (in rupees)for
30h olds in a locality:
115 159 196 205 212 223 256 271 310 129
335 169 184 034 245 241 265 298 144 135
172 173 229 243 220 238 278 243 220 238
(a) Obtain a frequency distribution using class intervals:
100-150, 150-200, 200-250, 250-300 and 300-350
(b) Draw a frequency polygon.
What per cent spend more
(c) What per cent of the households spend less than 250per day?
than 200 per month?
Solution. (a) Frequency Distribution
No. of households
Monthly Expenditure Tally Bars
on Food (R)
4
100-150
6
150-200
13
200-250
5
250-300
2

300-350 30
Total
 Frequency Polygon
Scale: 1 cm 50 on X-axis
1 cm 2 Householdson Y-axis

14

12

10

6
z
4

x
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
o
Expenditure in Rupees

Fig. 15
(c) Out of 30 households, 23 spend less than 250. Hence, 76.6%spend less than 250
day.
20 households out of 30 spend more than 200. Hence 66.67%spend more than 200

day.

(D) FREQUENCY CURVE OR SMOOTHED FREQUENCY CURVE

A frequency curve is plotted by joining
Frequency Curve
the mid-points of all the tops of a
Scale: 1 cm = 50 on X-axis
histogram by smooth curve and not by 14 1 cm = 2 Households on Y-axis
straight lines. Therefore, it is also known
as a 'Smoothed FrequencyCurve'. It is 12
drawn generally by free hand through
the various points of the polygon in such 10
a way that the area included is just the
8
same as that of the polygon. Smoothing o
the frequency polygon is required to be 0 6
done carefully to get correct results. The z
frequency curve may not necessarily pass 4
through all points of frequency polygon
2
but it should pass through them as
closely as possible. Frequency curve
drawn with care shows neither more nor o 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
less area of the rectangles of the Expenditure in Rupees
histogram. One should first draw a Fig. 16
frequency polygon to get a smoothed
frequency curve. Let us illustrate by constructinghistogram for the data given in Illustratio
Thus, we observe that:
(i) The area under the obtained frequency curve over any class interval is proportional to

frequency in that class interval.

(ii) The total area under the frequencycurve is proportional to the total frequency
 Graphic Presentation
FREQUENCY CURVE (OGIVE)
CUMULATIVE frequencies on a
(E) frequency curve is obtained by plotting cumulative
Ogiveor a cumulative
graph.
there are two types of cumulative frequencydistributions namely, 'less than' and 'more
Since
cumulative frequencies,we can therefore obtain an Ogive or cumulative frequency curve
than' two methods:
graph paper by
on the method
(a) 'Less than'
method
(b) 'More than'
illustrations:
Letus under nd both the methods with the help of the following
examination.
Illu trat• n 9. Following data represents marks obtained by 50 students in an
'more than' Ogive for the following data:
Drawa ' ess than' Ogive and a
0—10 10-20 20-30 30—40 40—50 50-60 60-70
Marks
4 4 7 12 8 5
10
No. of Students
than' and
solution.The first step is to construct a cumulative frequency distribution of 'Less
the graphs.
'Morethan' type and then draw
with the upper
(i)Wecan calculatecumulative frequenciesby 'less than method', i.e.,starting
example, the number of
limitsof the classes and proceeding further by adding frequencies. For
and so on.
studentsobtaining marks less than 10 is 4; less than 20 is 8; less than 30 is 15;
starting with the
(ii)Wecan also calculate cumulative frequenciesby 'more than method', i.e., of each class.
frequency
lowerlimits of the classes and from the total frequency.We deduct themarks more than 0 is 50;
Forexample,in above illustration, the number of students obtaining
more than 10 is 46; more than 20 is 42; and so on.
Cumulative Frequency Distribution
Marks No. of Students (c.f.) Marks No. of Students (c.f.)
4 More than 0 50
Less than 10
Less than 20 8 More than 10 46

Less than 30 15 More than 20 42

Less than 40 25 More than 30 35

Less than 50 37 More than 40 25

Less than 60 45 More than 50 13

Less than 70 50 More than 60 5

Method
1. Calculatethe cumulative frequenciesof the given frequencieseither by 'less than method'
or 'more than method'.
2. Takethe variables under study on X-axis.
3. Take calculated cumulative frequencies on Y-axis.
4. Plot the various points and join them to get a smooth freehand curve (i.e.,Ogive or Cumulative
FrequencyCurve). We get a rising curve in case of 'less than method' and declining curve
in case of 'more than method', when the above cumulative frequencies are plotted on the
graph paper.
Boththe axis should be clearly labelled and the scale of the measurement should be clearly
shown.
 Economics—Xt
136 Il!! Statistics for
(Cumulative Frequency Curve)
Solution. 'Ogive on Graph Paper
By 'More than' mothod
By Tess than' method Scale: 1 cm 10 Marks on
Scale: 1 cm to Marks
on '(mis 1 cm 10 Students on
1 cm 10 Students on Y-axis
60
60 50 46
50 42
50
45 35
40
37
30 o 25
20
20
25 z 13
z 10
15
10
5
4 8
x 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Marks
Marks
Fig. 18
Fig. 17
method
By 'Less than' and 'More than'
Scale: 1 cm = 10 Marks on X-axis
1 cm = 10 Students on Y-axis
60

50
Less than method
40

30
o
z 20
1 More than Method
10
1

Median
x
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Marks

Fig. 19
Note: If we draw a perpendicular from the point of intersection of 'less than' and 'more
Ogives we get the value of median (on the X-axis).The median in this case is 40.
Illustr Ion 10. Draw a cumulative frequency curve for the following distribution of
95 w ers.
ekl Wa es (in R) 100-109 110-119 120-129 130-139 140—149 150

Workers ( 7 13 15 32 20

Method
l.Adjust the lower and upper limits of the classes.
2. Calculate the cumulative frequencies.
3. Use either kinked line method or start X-axis from 99.5
or 89.5.
4. On X-axis take weekly wages in rupees and on Y-axis
take cumulative frequendi
5. Plot the various points and join them to get Ogive
curve.
6. Both the axis should be clearlylabelled and scale
of the measurement should
shown.
 11/1 137
Graphic Presentation

limits and calculation of cumulative by than method.

Adjustmentof class
Weekly t('ages Number of workers Cumulative frequency

99.5—109.5 7 7
109.5-1195 13 20
119.5-129.5 15 35
129.5-139.5 32 67
139.5—149.5 20 87
95
149.5-159.5 8

Ogive (Less than Method)

Scale: 1 cm 10 on X-axis
1 cm 20 Workerson Y-axis
100

80 Less than method

e
60

40
z6
20

x
99.5 109.5 119.5 129.5 139.5 149.5 159.5 169.5
Weekly Wages (in C)

Fig. 20
Illustration Draw 'Less than' and 'More than' Ogive curve from the following
data and
indicat e value of the median.
5—10 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30-35 35--40
Marks
13 12 10 14 9
Number Students ( 7 10 20

Solution.
Todraw 'Less than' and 'More than' Ogive curve on the graph paper, we calculate cumulative
frequenciesas under:
Number of Cumulative Cumulative
Marks Students Frequency Frequency
(Less than) c.. (More than) c..
7 95
0-5 7
5—10 10 17 88
10-15 20 37 78
58
15-20 13
20-25 12 62 45
25-30 10 72 33
30-35 14 86 23
9 95 9
35-40
 'less than and More than' Ogivo
t cm S Mnrkgon X
1 cm 20 Students on Y-axis

100

Legg than method

80

60

40

20
Median = 20 More than method

x
o 5 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Marks

Fig. 21
If we draw a perpendicularon X-axisfrom the intersectingpoint of 'less
than' Ogive, we get the value of 'median'. Median in this case is 20.
than' and
Therefore, the numb
students who got marks more than and less than this value are the same.

GRAPHS OF TIME SERIES

When the value of a variable is arranged over a period of
time (e.g.,years, months, weeks,
etc.) it is termed as a time series. Presentationof this type of
informationcorresponding
given time period by line or curve on the graph paper is known as
a time series graph.These
graphs are also known as line graphs or historigram, or
arithmetic line graph. It
understanding the trend and analysingchangein the variableover a helps in

period of time.
GENERAL RULES TO CONSTRUCTA LINE GRAPH
1. As time (year, month, week) can never be negative
(i.e.,in minus figures), there is no
of using Quadrant Il and Ill.
2. Year, month or week, according to the given
problem, is taken on X-axis.Propertitlesshould
be given to X-axisand Y-axis.
3. Start Y-axis with zero and fix the scales for both the
axis. For example, every 1 cm onY-axis
may represent an equal gap of 50 students. While, every 1
cm on X-axismay representi
gap between 2009 and 2010.X-axis can start either from
2008 or 2009 (See Fig. 22).
4. The pair values will give different points when plotted
on the graph paper. Forexamp le
values corresponding to time factor are:

Years 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

No. of
Students 50 150 100 150 200
200 225

The dots obtained through the pair values are joined by straight
or historigram (See Fig. 22). line. This is called linegraph
 Time series graph showing no. of
«tudentsin a school (200905)
Scale: t cm • SOStudents on Y

300

250
25
2
2
Ibo
150

100
100
50

x
2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Years

Fig. 22
5. It is not advisable to use crosses or circles on the graph paper for matched values of X and
Y.Use dots such that they would merge with the thickline (line graph). Join the dots by
a straight line and not by a curve.
6. If more than one variables are plotted on the same graph, differenttype of lines should be
used to differentiate graph of each variable, e.g., dotted line, thick line, dashed line etc.
7. Lettersused in the graph should be horizontal as far as possible.
8. Every graph must have a suitable title.
9. An indexshould be given to show the scales and meaning of different lines.
Some of the line graphs with reference to the use of false base line are given below :

TYPES OF TIME SERIES GRAPHS

Timeseriesgraph may be of two types:
(1)One variable graph
(ii) Twoor more than two variable graphs.
(A) ONE VARIABLE GRAPH
Whenvalues of only one variable are shown with respect to a given time period it is called one
variablegraph. The various points are joined with a straight line such that the distance between
the points shows changes in the variable over time and the height of the points from the base
line of the graph indicates the magnitude.
Illustration 12. Present the following data showing number of students enrolled in a Kendriya
Vidyalayaon the graph paper:
Kendriya Vidyalaya
Year 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15 2015-16 2016-17 2017-18
No. o Students 120 400 567 490 760 834 750
 studv (students)s
X-axis and Vaxiss
seat with referen«•to its value and

Studentsin Kendrip (2011.18)

t Y•es

x
231-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15 2015-16 2016-17 2017-18

Fig. 23
mtlat is a False Base Line?
Students are advised to use false base line accordingto need of the problem.Keeping
in
fundamentals of time series graphs that, the time factor in equal gap of time (years,
or days) should be taken on X-axisand can start from any period of time whereasY-axis
be for variables under study and it always starts from the point of origin, i.e.,zero.
the difference zero and smallestvalue of variable is large, Y-axiscan be broken
according to our requirements,by using False Base Line.
Illustration No. 13. The number of students is more than one thousand in eachyear,
changes in magütudes from one year to another are in hundreds. If we start the scaleon
with the difference of say 100or 200 or 500,we might be using small space to get a line
and wasting too much of the space of graph paper. In this case, line graph may be geometrié
accurate but statistical study of trend and comparisonof two or more variablesmig ht \
misleading. Whenever scale entries on the vertical axis require a lot of space so that
unnecessarily elongated, then a particular unrequired portion of the scale may be omitted
can be indicated by a scale break or zig-zagline, that is the use of False BaseLinein
presentation (See Fig. 24).
Illustration 13. The followingtable shows the total number of students in a Govt•
SO
Secondary School.Present the followinginformationon the graph paper.
Government Senior Secondary School

Year 2011 2012 2013 2017

2014 2015 2016
1120 1380 1675
No of Students 1587 1490 1760 1734
 ptvsent the data ptopet•lv l?nlse I Aneis here.
Time Series graph chowing Students in a Govt. Senior Soc..
School between 2011 and 201?
Scale: cm t" 200 Students on Y

1600

1400

1200

1000
False base
line x
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
Years

Fig. 24

THAN TWO VARIABLE GRAPHS

(B)nvo OR MORE to a given period
two or more than two variables are simultaneously shown with respect 'different units'.
of on agraph then the variables may be measured in 'same units' or in
the cases.
Letus discuss both
units
CaseI: uhen two or more than two variables are measured in same provided all the
paper,
Whentwo or more than two variableshave to be shown on the graph Y-axisis prepared to plot
variablesare in the same unit of measurement, one common scale for two or more values are
givenvalues. It is advisable to use different types of line whenever
thick line, etc. One graph may be
shownon the same graph, e.g., a dotted line, a broken line, arepresenting various lines is to be
usedto plot maximum 5 to 6 variables at a time. The index
shownon the graph paper.
growth rates (percentage
Illustration14. The following table shows the estimated sectoral real
changesover the previous year) in GDP at factor cost.
(Data in percentage)
Agriculture and Industry Services
Year
allied sectors
(2) (3) (4)
(1)
5.0 9.2 7.0
2011-12
2012-13 - 0.9 11.8 10.3
9.6 6.0 7.1
2013-14
1.9 5.9 9.0
2014-15
72 4.0 8.3
2015-16
0.8 6.9 8.2
2016-17
data as multiple time series graph.
sectors in the economy
given illustrati«r. we will plot three curves representing different
 of lines. The time (years) will be taken
the help of three differenttypes
growth rates on Y-axis respectively.

EstimatedSectoral Growth Rate in GDP at Factor

Time series graph showing

12
Agriculture and
10 Industry allied
Services

CD

6 o
Years

Fig. 25

Case 11:When two variables are measured in different units

GRAPHS OF DIFFERENT UNITS
When two values are given into two differentunits, we will have two
take one scale on the left and the other on the right side of the graph differentscales.We
paper.
average values of the given two different groups are plotted in the middle As far as
of Y-axisfor
presentation and comparison. The line joining these points is called Average Line.
Illustration 15. Present the following figures showing quantity and value of
ExportofTea
graph.
Year Quantity Value
(in, '000 tons) in crores)
2008-09 9 300
2009-10 10 596
2010-11 12 782
2011-12 11 900
2012-13 14 762
2013-14 15 640
Solution.
In the given illustration, both the variables are in different units therefore, we will hav€
scales. One scale for quantity of tea (in '000 tons) and the other for value of trade (e in
on either sides of graph paper. The time variable (year) is recorded on X-axis.
To facilitate comparison we draw the average line by marking the average value Of
bot

variables on their respective scales and joining these points with a straight line. For this put
we shall first calculate the average of both variables.
 Graphic Presentation

Quantity : 12 Approximately 9 + 10
Average of 12 11 15
6

Average of Value 695 Approximately 300 + 596 + 782 900 762 + 640
6

Time Series Graph showing Export of

Tea in Quantity
and Value (2008-2014)
Scale: 1 cm Quantity 3
thousand Tons
on Y-axis: 1 cm Value
in 150 crore

21

Quantity
18
Rupees
-......B.....-

15

12
c

c
0 6

2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14

Year

Fig. 26
Two figures of graphic presentation are shown below to understand time series graph.

Union Budget: Deficit Trends

Budget 2018-19

Deficit Trends Percentageof GDP

Index of Industrial
Production (IIP)
(April-Oct. 2010) 6.5
6.0
Fiscal • 5.8
ON THE REBOUND Deficit 52 4.8 4.9
16 16.64 IIP Growth 4.5 4.5 4.4
in 2010 Revenue
Deficit 3.2 3.6 3.5 3.5
12 Effective
3.1 3.2 3.3
Revenue 2.9
10.8 Deficit 2.5 2.6
2.6 3.2 2.5
2.7 2.1 2.2
Primary 1.9
Deficit 1.5 1.5
1.8 1.8 1.1 1.2
1.0
4 7.17 0.9 0.7
0.7
4.39 0.4 0.4 0.3
0.1

2008-2009-2010- 2011- 2012- 2013-2014-2015- 2016- 2017- 2017- 2018-

Apr Jun May Jul Aug Sept Oct 12 13 14 15 16 17
Source: Central Statistics Office

Fig. 27
 ptx•sentation
vitations of graphic are as follows:
graphic presentation
limitationsof of facts at a time. They can present only a limited
large number
Graphs cannot show
of quantitative information. to give false presentation of statistical
by people
2' Graphs can be misused
advertisement ot propoganda. of scale may lead to significantch
in the measurement
3, A small change or error misleading results. ange
shape of graph thereby,giving understanding of quantitative factsb
drawn to facilitate
4. Graphs are generally as far as analysis of data is concerned
use to statisticians
public and are of little

Hints for Revision

a visual effect. It is usedin
• Uses of Graphic Presentation:Graphicpresentationgives
enables us to present Statistical
work for visual presentationand analysis of data. It
simple, clear and effectiveform. in

• Line FrequencyGraph: It is a discretevariablesgraphs, in which length of the line represent

the frequency of that variable on which the line is drawn.
• Histogram: Histogramis a rectangularbar diagram of a continuous series in which rectangular
bars presents the class interval with frequency.It is a two-dimensional diagram.
• Types of Continuousfrequencygraphs
(a) Histogram (b) Frequency Polygon
(c) Frequency curve or smoothed frequency curve (d) Cumulative Frequency curveor
• Types of FrequencyCurves:
(a) Normal Curve (Unimodal bi-modal), (b) Positively Skewed Curve,
(c) Negatively Skewed Curve, (d) J-shaped Curve,
(e) Reverse J-shaped Curve, (j) U-shaped Curve,
(g) Mixed Curve.
• Types of series graph: Time series graph are of the following types —
(a) One variable graph
(b) Two or more than two variable graph: (i) Graphs in same unit; (ii) Graphs in differentl

EXERCISES
I. Objective 'IYpe Questions
A. Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)
Q.I. Time series graphs are also known as
(a) line graphs (b) arithmetic line graphs
(c) both (a) and (b) (d) none
Q.2. Graphic presentation of cumulative frequency distribution is called
(a) frequency polygon (b) histogram
(c) ogive (d) none