Unit-1 Topics Covered in this file

Functional Components of Computer

Interconnection of functional components
AKTU PYQs based on Functional Units
Functional Components of a Computer
Computer: A computer is a combination of hardware and software resources which integrate
together and provides various functionalities to the user. Hardware are the physical components
of a computer like the processor, memory devices, monitor, keyboard etc. while software is the
set of programs or instructions that are required by the hardware resources to function properly.
There are a few basic components that aids the working-cycle of a computer i.e. the Input-
Process- Output Cycle and these are called as the functional components of a computer. It needs
certain input, processes that input and produces the desired output. The input unit takes the input,
the central processing unit does the processing of data and the output unit produces the output.
The memory unit holds the data and instructions during the processing.
Digital Computer: A digital computer can be defined as a programmable machine which reads
the binary data passed as instructions, processes this binary data, and displays a calculated digital
output. Therefore, Digital computers are those that work on the digital data.

 Input Unit: The input unit consists of input devices that are attached to the computer. These
devices take input and convert it into binary language that the computer understands. Some of
the common input devices are keyboard, mouse, joystick, scanner etc.
 Central Processing Unit (CPU): Once the information is entered into the computer by the
input device, the processor processes it. The CPU is called the brain of the computer because
it is the control center of the computer. It first fetches instructions from memory and then
interprets them so as to know what is to be done. If required, data is fetched from memory or
input device. Thereafter CPU executes or performs the required computation and then either
stores the output or displays on the output device. The CPU has three main components which
 are responsible for different functions – Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), Control Unit (CU) and
Memory registers
 Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU): The ALU, as its name suggests performs mathematical
calculations and takes logical decisions. Arithmetic calculations include addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division. Logical decisions involve comparison of two data items to see
which one is larger or smaller or equal.
 Control Unit: The Control unit coordinates and controls the data flow in and out of CPU and
also controls all the operations of ALU, memory registers and also input/output units. It is
also responsible for carrying out all the instructions stored in the program. It decodes the
fetched instruction, interprets it and sends control signals to input/output devices until the
required operation is done properly by ALU and memory.
 Memory Registers: A register is a temporary unit of memory in the CPU. These are used to
store the data which is directly used by the processor. Registers can be of different sizes (16
bit, 32 bit, 64 bit and so on) and each register inside the CPU has a specific function like
storing data, storing an instruction, storing address of a location in memory etc. The user
registers can be used by an assembly language programmer for storing operands, intermediate
results etc. Accumulator (ACC) is the main register in the ALU and contains one of the
operands of an operation to be performed in the ALU.
 Memory : Memory attached to the CPU is used for storage of data and instructions and is
called internal memory The internal memory is divided into many storage locations, each of
which can store data or instructions. Each memory location is of the same size and has an
address. With the help of the address, the computer can read any memory location easily
without having to search the entire memory. when a program is executed, it’s data is copied
to the internal memory and is stored in the memory till the end of the execution. The internal
memory is also called the Primary memory or Main memory. This memory is also called as
RAM, i.e. Random Access Memory. The time of access of data is independent of its location
in memory, therefore this memory is also called Random Access memory (RAM).
 Output Unit: The output unit consists of output devices that are attached with the computer.
It converts the binary data coming from CPU to human understandable form. The common
output devices are monitor, printer, plotter etc.

Interconnection between Functional Components

A computer consists of input unit that takes input, a CPU that processes the input and an output
unit that produces output. All these devices communicate with each other through a common
bus. A bus is a transmission path, made of a set of conducting wires over which data or
information in the form of electric signals, is passed from one component to another in a
computer. The bus can be of three types – Address bus, Data bus and Control Bus.
Following figure shows the connection of various functional components:
 The address bus carries the address location of the data or instruction. The data bus carries data
from one component to another and the control bus carries the control signals. The system bus is
the common communication path that carries signals to/from CPU, main memory and
input/output devices. The input/output devices communicate with the system bus through the
controller circuit which helps in managing various input/output devices attached to the computer.

What Is A System Bus?

 A bus is a set of electrical wires (lines) that connects the various hardware components of a
computer system.

 It works as a communication pathway through which information flows from one hardware
component to the other hardware component.

A bus that connects major components (CPU, memory and I/O devices) of a
computer system is called as a System Bus.
Why Do We Need Bus?
 A computer system is made of different components such as memory, ALU, registers etc.
 Each component should be able to communicate with other for proper execution of
instructions and information flow.
 If we try to implement a mesh topology among different components, it would be really
expensive.
 So, we use a common component to connect each necessary component i.e. BUS.

Ques 1 Draw a block diagram of the computer's CPU showing all the basic building blocks
such as program counter, accumulator, address and data registers, instruction register,
control unit etc.; and describe how such an arrangement can work as a computer, if
connected properly to memory, input/output etc.

AKTU 2016-17, Marks 7.5

Block Diagram of Computer’s CPU is as follows:
The computer system consists of three parts, that are the

 Central Processing Unit (CPU)

 arithmetic logic unit (ALU)
 control unit (CU).
 Input Devices
 Output Devices.

The set of instruction is in the form of raw data (unprocessed instruction)

Program Counter: A program counter is a register in a computer processor that contains the
address (location) of the instruction being executed at the current time. As each instruction is
fetched, the program counter increases its stored value by 1.
Memory Address Register (MAR): This register holds the address of memory where CPU wants
to read or write data. When the CPU wants to store some data in the memory or reads the data
from the memory, it places the address of the required memory location in the MAR.
Accumulator: The accumulator is a register in which intermediate arithmetic and logical results
are stored.
Instruction Register: Once an instruction is fetched from main memory, it is stored in the
Instruction Register. The control unit takes instruction from this register, decodes and executes it
by sending signals to the appropriate component of the computer to carry out the task.
Control Unit: It decodes the instructions, and controls all the other internal components of the
CPU to make it work.
Arrangement of Computer Processing Unit with Memory, Input/Output:

Ques 2 Explain the functional units of digital systems and their interconnections. AKTU
PYQ
Answer: Functional units are a part of a CPU that performs the operations and calculations called
for by the computer program. A computer consists of five main components namely,
1. Input unit: Input units are used by the computer to read the data.
2. Central Processing Unit: Electronic circuitry within a computer that carries out the
instructions given by a computer program by performing the basic arithmetic, logical, control and
input/output (I/O) operations specified by the instructions.
3. Memory unit/Storage Unit: The Memory unit can be referred to as the storage area in which
programs are kept which are running, and that contains data needed by the running programs
4. Arithmetic & logical unit: It performs arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division and also the logical operations like AND, OR, NOT operations.
5. Control unit (Nerve Center of a computer system): It tells the computer's memory,
arithmetic/logic unit and input and output devices how to respond to a program's instructions.
6. Output unit: As the name suggests, it displays information in a way that the user can
understand.
Ques 7 What is a memory transfer? What are different registers associated for memory
transfer? Discuss.
Memory Transfer:
The transfer of information from a memory word to the outside environment is called a read
operation. The transfer of new information to be stored into the memory is called a write
operation.
Different Registers Associated for Memory Transfer:
The address register (AR) is used to select a memory address, and the data register (DR) is used to
send and receive data. Both these registers are connected to the internal bus.
DR← M[AR]:This is the read operation.
M[AR]<--R1:This is the write operation.

Ques 8 Explain the operation of three state bus buffers and show its use in design of common
bus.

AKTU 2016-17, Marks 15

Tri-State Buffers:
A tri-state buffer is a device that allows you to control when an output signal makes it to the bus.
When the tri-state buffer's control bit is active, the input of the device makes it to the output. This
is when the "valve" is open.
A three-state gate is a digital circuit that exhibits three states. Two of the states are signals
equivalent to logic 1 and 0 as in a conventional gate. The third state is a high-impedance state. The
high-impedance state behaves like an open circuit, which means that the output is disconnected
and does not have a logic significance.

Used in designing Common Bus:

To form a single bus line, all the outputs of the 4 buffers are connected together. The control input
will now decide which of the 4 normal inputs will communicate with the bus line. The decoder is
used to ensure that only one control input is active at a time. Only one buffer would be in active
state at any given interval of time. A bus system can be constructed with three state gates instead
of multiplexer. A three state gate is a digital circuit that exhibits 3 states,2 of the states are signals
equivalent to logic 1 and logic 0, the third state is a high impedance state (behaves like an open
circuit which means that the output is disconnected and does not have a logic significance).

Ques 9 Explain why the single shared bus is so widely used as an interconnection medium in
both sequential and parallel computers. What are its main disadvantages?
Single Shared Bus:
Single Bus Structure: All units are connected to a single bus system.
Sequential Computers: Machine instructions are processed in a sequential manner and computers
adopting this model are popularly called sequential computers
Parallel Computers: Parallel Computer Architecture is the method of organizing all the resources
to maximize the performance and the programmability within the limits given by technology and
the cost at any instance of time.
Disadvantages:
It has limited speed because only two units can participate in a data transfer at any given interval
of time.
Ques 10 What is the benefit of using multiple bus architecture compared to a single bus
architecture?
Benefits of using multiple Bus Architecture are:
1. Reduces propagation delay, because each bus can be shorter.
2. Multiple buses permit several devices to work simultaneously, reducing waiting time spent
and improving the computer's speed.
3. Performance improvements are the main reason for having multiple buses in a computer
design.