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Contents
1.Introduction ................................................................................................................... 4

2.Learning objectives........................................................................................................ 4

3.Methodologies ............................................................................................................... 4

4.History of microbiology ................................................................................................ 5

4.1 Theory of Abiogenesis ............................................................................................ 5

4.2 Theory of Biogenesis .............................................................................................. 5

4.2.1 Major contribution of Louis Pasteur ................................................................ 6

4.2.2 The germ theory of disease .............................................................................. 6

4.2.3 Major achievements of Robert Koch ............................................................... 6

4.2.4 Koch’s postulates: proof of germ theory of disease ......................................... 6

4.2.5 Exceptions to Koch’s postulates ...................................................................... 7

4.3 Classification and Basic Characteristics of Microorganisms.................................. 7

4.4 Eukaryotic cell ........................................................................................................ 8

4.5 Prokaryotic Cell ...................................................................................................... 8

5.Bacteria .......................................................................................................................... 8

5.1 General properties:. ................................................................................................. 8

5.2 Structure of Bacteria .............................................................................................. 9

5.2.1 Cell envelope proper ........................................................................................ 9

5.2.2Cell wall ............................................................................................................ 9

5.2.3 Functions of cell Wall ...................................................................................... 9

5.2.4 Cell membrane ............................................................................................... 10

5.2.5 Function of cell membrane ............................................................................. 10

5.3 Cellular element enclosed with in the cell envelope ............................................. 10

5.3.1 Mesosomes ..................................................................................................... 10

5.3.2 Ribosomes ...................................................................................................... 10

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5.3.3 Polyamines ..................................................................................................... 10

5.3.4 Nuclear apparatus ........................................................................................... 11

5.4 Cellular element external to the cell envelope ...................................................... 11

5.4.1 Glycocalyx (capsule and slime layer) ............................................................ 11

5.4.2 Flagellum ........................................................................................................ 11

5.4.3 Pili (fimbriae) ................................................................................................. 11

5.5 Morphology of bactéria......................................................................................... 12

6.Nutrition of bacteria..................................................................................................... 12

6.1 Autotrophic bacteria ............................................................................................. 13

6.2 Heterotrophic bacteria........................................................................................... 13

6.3 Reproduction in bactéria ....................................................................................... 13

6.3.1Sexual reproduction or genetic recombination................................................ 14

7.Viruses ......................................................................................................................... 15

7.1 General characters of viruses ................................................................................ 15

7.2 How do Virus differ from Bacteria ....................................................................... 15

7.3 Nature of viruses ................................................................................................... 15

7.4 Occurrence ............................................................................................................ 16

7.5 Replication of viruses ........................................................................................... 17

8.The Fungi ..................................................................................................................... 18

8.1 General characteristics of fungi ............................................................................ 18

8.2 The Vegetative body: ............................................................................................ 19

8.3 Nutrition ................................................................................................................ 19

8.4 Growth and reproduction ...................................................................................... 19

8.4.1Asexual reproduction ...................................................................................... 19

8.4.2 Sexual reproduction........................................................................................ 19

9.Applications in Microbiology...................................................................................... 21

9.1 Environmental applications of microorganisms ................................................... 21

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10.Final Thoughts ........................................................................................................... 22

11.References ................................................................................................................. 23
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1.Introduction
Microbiology is a subject which deals with living organisms that are individually too
small to be seen with the naked eye. It considers the microscopic forms of life and deals
about their reproduction, physiology, and participation in the process of nature, helpful
and harmful relationship with other living things, and significance in science and
industry. Microorganisms are the oldest inhabitants of earth they are masters in versality
and adaptability to the changing environment. Microorganisms are relevant to all of us
in a multitude of ways. The influence of microorganism in human life is both beneficial
as well as detrimental also. For example microorganisms are required for the production
of bread, cheese, yogurt, alcohol, wine, beer, antibiotics (e.g. penicillin, streptomycin,
chloromycetin), vaccines, vitamins, enzymes and many more important products.

2.Learning objectives
 Learn differences between gram Bacteria and viruses.
 Learn the differences in biology of prokaryotes and eukaryotes
 Understand the role of microorganisms in our daily routine

3.Methodologies
These job is based on bibliographic review, meantime before that, there was a group
dynamic in order to solidify the content we have acquire.
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4.History of microbiology
Microbiology is the study of living organisms of microscopic size. The term
microbiology was given by French chemist Louis Pasteur (1822-95). The English
naturalist Robert Hooke (1635–1703) was an early microscopes and published the first
book devoted entirely to microscopic observations of microorganisms Hooke prepared
detailed and quite accurate drawings of moulds (fungi) and many other microbes, and
these were the first known description of microorganisms.

Antony Van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723 G.C.), father of Microbiology, observed

“animalcules” using simple microscope with one lens. He was the first who properly
described the different shapes of bacteria. Although Leeuwenhoek was not concerned
about the origin of micro-organism; many other scientists were searching for an
explanation for spontaneous appearance of living things from decaying meat, stagnating
ponds, fermenting grains and infected wounds.(TORTORA 2016)

On the bases of this observation, two major theories were formulated.

1. Theory of Abiogenesis

2. Theory of Biogenesis

4.1 Theory of Abiogenesis

deals with the theory of spontaneous generation; stating that living things originated
from non-living things.

Aristotle (384-322 BC): The founder of a theory spontaneous generation. He observed

spontaneous existence of fishes from dried ponds, when the pond was filled with rain.
Francesco Redi (1626-1697): He is the scientist who first tried to set an experiment to
disprove spontaneous generation. –

 He put the meat in a bottle and covered it with a gauze.

 He observed that the flies laid eggs from which the maggots developed.
 He said maggots did not developed from meat but from flies egg.

4.2 Theory of Biogenesis

states that life comes from pre-existing life. Louis Pasteur (1822-1895 GC) was the
scientist who disproved the theory of abiogenesis.
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He designed a large curved flask (Pasteur goose neck flask) and placed a sterile growth
broth medium. Air freely moved through the tube; but dust particles were trapped in the
curved portion of flask. Microbial growth in the broth was not seen.

Therefore Pasteur proved that micro-organisms entered to substrates through the air and
micro-organisms did not evolve spontaneously.

4.2.1 Major contribution of Louis Pasteur

 Microbial theory of fermentation
 Principles and practice of sterilization and pasteurization 4 3
 . Control of diseases of silk worms 4.
 Development of vaccines against anthrax and rabies. 5.
 Discovery of streptococci

4.2.2 The germ theory of disease

Robert Koch(1843-1910) was a medical doctor primarily interested in infectious
diseases and, in particular, the clear identification of causative agents of infectious
diseases.

4.2.3 Major achievements of Robert Koch

 Discovery and use of solid medium in bacteriology
 Discovery of causative agents of tuberculosis and cholera.
 Koch’s phenomenon
 Koch’s postulates

4.2.4 Koch’s postulates: proof of germ theory of disease

A microorganism can be accepted as a causative agent of an infectious disease only if
the following conditions are satisfied:

 The micro-organism should be found in every case of the disease and under
conditions which explain the pathological changes and clinical features.
 It should be possible to isolate the causative agent in pure culture from the
lesion.
 When such pure culture is inoculated into appropriate laboratory animal, the
lesion of the disease should be reproduced.
 It should be possible to reisolate the bacterium in pure culture from the lesion
produced in the experimental animal.
 Now a days additional postulate is mentioned
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Specific antibody to the bacterium should be detectable in the serum during the course
of the disease. It has not been possible to fulfil every one of Koch’s postulates, but by
adhering to them as closely as possible, serious errors have been prevented.

4.2.5 Exceptions to Koch’s postulates

 Many healthy people carry pathogens but do not exhibit symptoms of the
disease.
 Some microbes are very difficult or impossible to grow in vitro(in the
laboratory) in artificial media. Eg. Treponema pallidum
 Many species are species specific. Eg. Brucella abortus cause abortion in
animals but no report in humans.
 Certain diseases develop only when an opportunistic pathogen invades
immunocompromised host.

4.3 Classification and Basic Characteristics of Microorganisms

Microorganisms encompass an enormous diversity of microscopic life forms, each with
distinct characteristics. On the basis of their genotypic (genetic) and phenotypic
(observed) proper ties, all organisms are classified into one of three domains – the
Bacteria, Archaea or Eukarya – and numerous examples of microorganisms are found in
all three (Figure 1; Woese et al., 1990)

The comparison of ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA) gene sequences has been
especially important in determining the evolutionary, or phylogenetic, relationships of
organisms.

Although very different on a phylogenetic level, the Bacteria and Archaea (traditionally
called prokaryotes) are structurally similar in that cells of these groups do not typically
contain membrane-bound organelles and, therefore, show a lesser degree of cellular
compartmentalisation than organisms belonging to the Eukarya (the eukaryotes).

Figure 1 Universal phylogenetic tree showing relationships between major lineages of the three
domains of life
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4.4 Eukaryotic cell

Eu- true Karyote- nucleus. The eukaryotic cell has a true membrane bound nucleus,
usually containing multiple chromosomes, a mitotic apparatus, a well defined
endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria.

4.5 Prokaryotic Cell

Pro- primitive Karyote- nucleus. The prokaryotic cell possesses naked DNA with out
associated basic proteins, divides amitotically by binary fission and bounded by a semi
rigid cell wall.

Features Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell

size 1μm 10μm
Nuclear membrane Absent Presente
chromosome single Multiple
nucleolus Absent Presente
Citoplasmic ribosomes 70s 80s
Mitochondria Absent Present
Endoplasmic reticulum Absent Presente
Lysosome Absent Present
Table 1. The distinguishing features between Eukaryotic cell and Prokaryotic cell

5.Bacteria
The word bacterium (Gk. Bakterion = little rod) originally applied by microscopists for
rod shaped organism, belonging to the lowest order of the plant life or "microscopic
unicellular plants without chlorophyll that reproduce by fission".

Antony Von Leuvenhoek (1632 - 1723), the dutch dry goods merchant of Holland, is
credited with the discovery of bacteria. He observed bacteria in the scum of teeth with
the help of microscope constructed by himself. He named them as "tiny animalcules". In
1695 he published his work "The secrets of nature discovered by Antony Van
Leeuvenhoek" for this discovery he has been called as "Father of Bacteriology".

5.1 General properties:.

 Typical prokaryotic cell
 Contain both DNA and RNA
 Most grow in artificial media
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 Replicate by binary fission

 Almost all contain rigid cell wall
 Sensitive to antimicrobial agent

5.2 Structure of Bacteria

Bacterial structure is considered at three levels. 1.

 Cell envelope proper: Cell wall and cell membrane.

 Cellular element enclosed with in the cell envelope: Mesosomes, ribosomes,
nuclear apparatus, polyamies and cytoplasmic granules.
 Cellular element external to the cell envelope: Flagellum, Pilus and Glycocalyx

Figure 2Generalized diagram of a bacterium

5.2.1 Cell envelope proper

5.2.2Cell wall
Multi layered structure and constitutes about 20% of the bacterial dry weight. Average
thickness is 0.15-0.5 μm. Young and rapidly growing bacteria has thin cell wall but old
and slowly dividing bacteria has thick cell wall. It is composed of N-acetyl Muramic
acid and N-acetyl Glucosamine back bones cross linked with peptide chain and
pentaglycine bridge.(MONICA 1984)

5.2.3 Functions of cell Wall

 Provides shape to the bacterium
 Gives rigidity to the organism
 Protects from environment 4.
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 Provides staining characteristics to the bacterium

 Contains receptor sites for phages/complements
 Site of action of antibody and colicin 7.

5.2.4 Cell membrane

Also named as cell membrane or cytoplasmic membrane It is a delicate trilaminar unit
membrane . It accounts for 30% of the dry weight of bacterial cell. It is composed of
60% protein, 20-30% lipids and 10-20% carbohydrate.

5.2.5 Function of cell membrane

 Regulates the transport of nutrients and waste products into and out of the cell.
 Synthesis of cell wall components
 Assists DNA replication
 Secrets proteins
 Carries on electron transport system
 Captures energy in the form of ATP

5.3 Cellular element enclosed with in the cell envelope

5.3.1 Mesosomes
Convoluted invagination of cytoplasmic membrane often at sites of septum formation. It
is involved in DNA segregation during cell division and respiratory enzyme activity.

5.3.2 Ribosomes
Cytoplasmic particles which are the sites of protein synthesis. It is composed of
RNA(70%) and proteins(30%) and constitutes 90% of the RNA and 40% of the total
protein.

5.3.3 Polyamines
They are of three types: .

 Putrescin .
 Spermidine .
 Spermine It is found in association with bacterial DNA, ribosomes and cell
membrane.
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5.3.4 Nuclear apparatus

Well defined nucleus and nuclear membrane , discrete chromosome and mitotic
apparatus are not present in bacteria ; so nuclear region of bacteria is named as nuclear
body, nuclear apparatus and nucleoid.

Besides nuclear apparatus, bacteria may have extra chromosomal genetic material
named as plasmids.

5.4 Cellular element external to the cell envelope

5.4.1 Glycocalyx (capsule and slime layer)

Capsule is gel firmly adherent to cell envelope. Slime is gel easily washed off from cell
envelope. All bacteria have at least a thin slime layer. Capsule is composed of
polysaccharide and protein(D-Glutamate of Bacillus anthracis)

Features of capsule 1.

 Usually weakly antigenic.

 Not necessary for viability.
 Endows virulence.
 Protects from phagocytosis.
 Capsulated strains are invariably non-motile.
 Visualized by negative staining and capsule staining.
 Detected by quellung phenomenon.

5.4.2 Flagellum
It is the organ of locomotion in bacterial cell and consists of thee parts. These are .The
filament

 The hook .
 The basal body

basal body and hook are embedded in the cell surface while the filament is free on the
surface of bacterial cell.

The location of flagella varies in various bacteria. The bacteria which lack flagella are
referred as atrichous e.g. Diptheria bacilli and many cocciviz. Lactobacillus and
Pasturella. The number and position of the attachments of the flagella on the bacterial
wall vary according to the species.

5.4.3 Pili (fimbriae)

It is hair like structure composed of protein (pilin)

Two types (Based on function) .

 Common pili: The structure for adherence to cell surface. .

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 Sex pili: The structure for transfer of genetic material from the donor to the
recipient during the process of conjugation. 5.5 Morphology of bactéria

When bacteria are visualized under light microscope, the following morphology are
seen:

a) Cocci (singular coccus): Round or oval bacteria measuring about 0.5-1.0μmb in

diameter.They are found insingle, pairs, chains or clusters.
b) Bacilli (singular bacillus): Stick-like bacteria with rounded, tepered, square or
swollen ends; with a size measuring 1-10μm in length by 0.3-1.0μm in width
c) Coccobacilli (singular coccobacillus): Short rods.
d) Spiral: Spiral shaped bacteria with regular or irregular distance between
twisting

Figure 3 Different shapes of bacteria

6.Nutrition of bacteria
All form of life from microorganism to human beings share certain nutritional
requirements for growth and normal functioning. Generally the bacteria are classified in
two nutritional types on the basis of their nutrition requirement:

 Autotrophic
 Heterotrophic
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6.1 Autotrophic bacteria

A very small group of bacteria possess this type of nutrition. Few bacteria possess
photosynthetic pigment bacteriochlorophyll other than normal chlorophyll found in
higher plants are called photosynthetic bacteria.

6.2 Heterotrophic bacteria

Most of the bacterial species are hetrotrophic in nature i.e. utilize nutrition from other
living being. Though they lack the photosynthetic pigment they are unable to utilize
solar energy. These bacteria with the help of enzymes convert the complex organic
compounds in soluble form and absorb them.

6.3 Reproduction in bactéria

Bacteria generally reproduce very commonly by vegetative and asexual mode of
reproduction. No sexual reproduction was reported by many microbiologist but electron
microscopic study reports the unidirectional genetic recombination among certain
bacteria.

Reproduction in bacteria includes the following methods:

Vegetative reproduction :It includes the following types

 Binary fission
 Budding
 Cyst
a) Binary fission : The most common and most important mode of cell division
which occur in bacteria when the environmental factor such as light, moisture,
temperature are favourable is transverse binary fission.
b) Budding: In this type of process the bacterial cell wall gets thinned at the end of
cell, and it develops a cytoplasmic growth or protuberance which is covered by
thin membrane. This structure is known as bud. It contain the part of genetic
material of the parent cell. This out growth increases in size and develops a
constriction at its base and ultimately it gets separated from parent cell.
c) Cyst: Cyst formation is very rare in bacteria ego Azotobacter. Cyst is a spherical
cell which is formed under unfavourable conditions. Here the entire protoplast
of the bacterial cells rounds up, shortened, constricts and separated from the cell
wall. After that a thick cell wall is formed around this entire structure.
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6.3.1Sexual reproduction or genetic recombination

Unlike other prokaryote no true sexual reproduction is found in bacteria because
they lack sexual structures no gametic fusion takes place. Karyogamy and meiosis is
also absent in bacteria. Bacteria are haploid organisms. Gene transfer in bacterial cell do
not produce zygotes but partial diploid called mero-zygotes. The original genome of
recipient is named as endogenate. While the portion of DNA introduced from donar cell
into recipient cell is called exogenome. However three different mechanism were later
discovered for transferring gene or genetic material from one bacterial cell to another.
These mechanisms in order of their discovery are:

 Transformation
 Conjugation
 Transduction

As we refer above all this mechanisms involve genes exchange, thus these methods will
provide a very important variety of species.
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7.Viruses
Viruses are acellular microbes that require living host cells to multiply; thus, they are
obligate intracellular parasites.

Mayer (1886) showed that the juice from the infected plants of tobacco could reproduce
the disease if applied to healthy plants. The Russian botanist Dimitri Ivanowski (1892),
demonstrated that the causal organism of tobacco mosaic could even pass through the
finest porcelain filter that withholds bacteria

7.1 General characters of viruses

 They do not occur free in nature but act as obiigate intracellular parasite.
 They are extreme microscopic structure which can only be seen by electron
microscope.
 Mainly the size ranges from 100-2000 millimicron.
 They can not be filtered by bacterial filters.
 The genetic material is either DNA or RNA which occurs in the form of single
molecule and can be single or double stranded.
 A single virus particle is known as virion which lacks functional autonomy.
 They lack their own enzyme system but interact with the host enzyme system
and synthesize new virus particles. Thus they have a .master and slave
relationship.
 Outer capsid of virus is proteinaceous and harmless and provide cellular
specificity to the virus.

7.2 How do Virus differ from Bacteria

 They are smaller than bacterias fig.
 not possessing any cellular organization.
 Not growing on inanimate media.
 not multiply by binary fission
 Not showing any sensitivity to antibiotics.

7.3 Nature of viruses

The nature of viruses is still not clear, because it is not easy to define them within the
accepted framework of living or non living organisms. Some virologist regard viruses as
animate object (when present inside the host cell) whereas other consider them
inanimate.
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Viruses are living because:

 They show growth and multiplication (only inside the host cell)
 They have genetic material i.e. DNA/RNA.
 They can direct protein synthesis (though they use host machinery for it).
 They show mutation.

Viruses are non-living because:

 They can be crystallized (Stanley, 1935)

 They behave as inert chemicals outside the host cell.
 A cell wall or cell membrane of any type is absent in viruses.
 They do not show functional autonomy

7.4 Occurrence
Occurrence of viruses in the cells of bacteria and higher plants and animals is well established.

 Plant viruses: Most plant viruses have been found in angiosperm (flowering plants).
Relatively few viruses are known in gymnosperm, ferns, fungi or algae. Plant viruses
are of great economic importance, since they cause plant diseases in a variety of crops.
 Animal viruses: Virus diseases are known in a variety of vertebrates including fish,
amphibian, birds and mammals. Important virus diseases of humans include
poliomyelitis, small pox, rabies, mumps, measles, yellow fever, influenza and
encephalitis.
 Bacteriophages: Viruses have been found in practically all groups of bacteria. The host
range is confined within bacterial groups. A bacteriophage may multiply only in certain
strains of E.coli fig.

Figure 4Major morphological forms of viruses. Most viruses are considerably smaller than cell
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7.5 Replication of viruses

All viruses are entirely parasitic. They do not show any metabolic activity except
(multiplication) self-duplication that too only within the host cytoplasm. Viruses require
specific host cells for their multiplication.

Two different types of life cycles are exhibited by bacteriophage, virulent or lytic cycle
and temperate or lysogenic cycle. In the former the intracellular phage multiplication
results in the lyses or disintegration of the cell of the host bacterium and then final
release of the progeny virions. In later no harm is caused to the cell of the host
bacterium and the nucleic acid of the virus is first inserted in the bacterial (host) DNA
and then replicates along with bacterial DNA. Bacteria containing prophages are called
lysogenic bacteria and those viruses whose nucleic acid can become prophage (i.e. gets
incorporated in bacterial DNA) are known as lysogenic, temperate or avirulent phages.

Figure 5Stages of replication of bacteriophage in bacterial cycle

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8.The Fungi
Once, fungi and bacteria were considered parts of the plant kingdom, primarily because
they produce spores, have cells walls and obviously are not animals. Now it has become
clear that the organisms grouped together as fungi are definitely not plants.

The name of the fungi is derived from their most obvious representatives, the
mushrooms (Greek, mykes, latin, fungus). They are eukaryotes and share with plants
the possession of a cell wall, liquid-filled intracellular vacuoles, microscopically visible
streaming of the cytoplasm and (almost universal) lack of motility.

Classification of Fungi and Related Organisms

Kingdom - Myceteae

Division - Myxomycota - Slime molds

Division Eumycota - True fungi

Sub division Mastigomycotina - Fungi with motile cells

Class - Chytridiomycetes

Class - Hyphochytridiomycetes

Class - Oomycetes

Sub division Zygomycotina - Fungi with zygospores

Sub diviSion Ascomycotina - Fungi with asci

Sub division Basidiomycotina - Fungi with basidia

Sub division Deuteromycotina - Fungi without known sexual stages

8.1 General characteristics of fungi

Fungi constitute a large group of organisms, although about 100,000 species have been
named, 200,000 more species are estimated to remain undiscovered. Like insects and
orchids, fungi are quite possibly speciating rapidly than they are being discovered.
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8.2 The Vegetative body:

The vegetative body is a thallus. It consists of filaments about 5 ~m in diameter which
are multiply branched and spread over or into the nutrient medium. The filaments or
hyphae consist of a cell wall and cytoplasm with its inclusions. The hyphae may be
without cross walls (in the lower fungi) or divided into cells by septa in the higher
fungi.

8.3 Nutrition
A universal characteristic of fungi is that they are completely heterotrophic; no trace of
photosynthesis is found in any stage of any group. However, because they have walls,
fungi cannot engulf food as animals do; instead, fungi must obtain nutrients from the
environment from living, dying or dead organisms.

8.4 Growth and reproduction

Fungal hyphae elongate at their apices (apical growth). In most fungi every part of the
mycelium has the potential for growth (elongation); a small piece of mycelium is
sufficient for inoculation to produce a new thallus. However, the forms and mechanisms
involved in the reproduction of fungi are extremely diverse and are used as the basis for
classification.

Two kinds of reproduction are distinguished, namely sexual and asexual. Most fungi
can reproduce in both ways. A universal character of fungi is their formation of spores,
resistant resting stages that are the primarily means of reproduction, dispersal and
survival, spores are produced either asexually or sexually.

8.4.1Asexual reproduction
Asexual reproduction of fungi is mostly by budding, fragmentation, or formation of
spores. Spore formation is the most widely distributed and most highly differentiated
method. Conidiospores are budded off at hyphal apices (in Penicillillm, Aspergilllls).
When these arise inside sporangia (i.e. receptacles), the fungi are grouped as
sporangiospores (Mucor, Rhizopus).

8.4.2 Sexual reproduction

This, as in all other eukaryotes, comprises the union or conjugation of two nuclei. In
different fungi, the nuclear fusion may occur at different intervals after the first parental
contact.
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Sexual reproduction can usually be divided into three phases.

 Plasmogamy
 Karyogamy
 Meiosis

Plasmogamy, the fusion of two protoplasts. The resulting cell has two nuclei. This
nuclear pair or dikaryon does not need to fuse immediately, but it can persist in the
dikaryotic state during the rest of the cell division, the two nuclei dividing
simultaneously (conjugative division). The fusion of the two haploid nuclei
(karyogamy) may occur later, often only after formation of a fruiting body, to give the
diploid nucleus of the zygote. Following karyogamy, meiosis, the reduction division of
the chromosomes to the haploid number, takes place.
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9.Applications in Microbiology
Commercial products from microorganisms Microorganisms can be harnessed to make
many valuable prod ucts, and industrial microbiology and biotechnology are the
sub disciplines of microbiology focused on these tasks.(NESTER 2012)

Industrial microbiology uses microorganisms to synthesise products in large amounts.

This is done by taking microbes that naturally produce some substance of relatively low
value – for example, an antibiotic or alcohol – and selecting for ‘overproducing strains’
that can be grown on a huge scale; the resulting product may be made by tons or
thousands of litres. Biotechnology, by contrast, employs genetically engineered
microbes to synthesise small amounts of very high-value products that the microbes are
otherwise unable to make, such as a human protein.

Figure 6Selected products of industrial microbiology and biotech

9.1 Environmental applications of microorganisms

Microorganisms play critically important roles in the environment. We have already
considered the key roles that microbes play in nature’s major nutrient cycles. But in
addition to these more or less continuous activities, microorganisms have been
exploited for purifying wastewaters and for cleaning pollution in the environment, a
process called bioremediation.
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10.Final Thoughts
 Microbiology plays an important role on industry providing food by action of
bacteria
 Microorganisms are both beneficial and harmful
 Both bacteria and fungi are tiny organisms which can completely decompose
organic material on environment.
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11.References
 MONICA Cheesbrough. Medical Laboratory Manual for Tropical Countries,
Microbiology, volume II, First edition. Tropical Health Technology and Butter
Worth-Heinemannith, 1984
 TORTORA GJ, Funke BR and Case CL (2016) Microbiology: An Introduction,
12th edn. San Francisco, CA: Benjamin Cum mings/Pearso
 Nester EW, Anderson DG, Roberts CE, and Nester MT. Microbiology, A
Human Perspective. 7th Edition. New York: McGraw Hill; 2012.