HRD is the framework for helping employees develop their personal 3.

and organisational skills, knowledge and abilities. It includes career Use

development, organisational development. HRD is managerial d as
oriented or aims at developing managers’ abilities. a
tool
Management development is a process of assessing individual to
managerial competencies, achi
eve
a
nu
mb
Concept of Human Resource Development er
of
These are the e activities and experiences designed to build individual Obj
managerial competencies based on these assessments which include ecti
ves
both employee training and management development.
Rol
Rao T.V. 1985 defines HRD as a process by which employees are e of
HR
helped to continuously sharpen their capabilities required to perform D
present and future roles, develop their general capabilities as
a).
individuals and discover and exploit their own potentials for their own Des
and organisational purposes and develop organisational culture in ign
syst
which supervisor subordinate relationships, team work and ems
collaboration among sub-units are strong and contribute to acr
oss
professional well-being, motivation and pride of employees. the
enti
re
org
Justifications of HRD in organisations anis
atio
1. The need for organisations to develop and retain staff n to
2. The need for organisations to manage careers of employees enc
our
3.The link between HRD and Organisational goals age
lear
4.The need to achieve excellence through people nin
g(s
5Empowerment of employees
yste
6.Quality lies in people/employees, ms
app
7. Used to create a climate of learning. Each employee has a potential roa
to do better ch)
8.Used as a tool to manage change-if there is conflict engineer HRD
9. Used to achieve position of competitive advantage. HRD used as a
weapon to beat/lead an
10. Used to reduce costs
11. Improve perfomance
12. innovation
Objectives of HRD
1. Used as a tool to achieve a number of things like Quality. Quality
lies in people/employees,
2. Used to create a conducive working environment
1
b). Avoid prescriptive recipes in learning (training calenders bloc new de
ideas)
vel
c). Develop structured learning- learning that evaluates
systems,skills,values,attitudes op
d). Get top management to support learning me
e). Adopt titles that reflect the need to learn
nt
do
Enhancing the HRD Role within the Organisation
es
Ensure that HRD assume a crucial role in the board meetings
not
Demonstrating that written & verbal communication are key aspects
of HRD functions. me
Funding & Staffing of HRD depts lsat levels that reflects its rel
importance
y
Finding HRD solutions to individual & orgnal
foc
The outcomes of HRD such as developing employees
us
and making them ready to accept the responsibilities,
on
help employees welcome changes, adapt to changes,
em
enables the implementation of the programmes of total
plo
quality management , maintenance of sound human
ye
relations and increase in productivity and profitability.
es
HRD is also beneficial to the individuals in achieving
as
their potentials, increase in performance, fulfilling their
ind
needs and also in enhancing the social and
ivi
psychological status. HRD helps the groups in the form
du
of increase in co-operation, increase in collaboration
als
and team spirit. Further, it helps in achieving the social
but
goals by offering value for money in its goods and
als
services.
o
HRD is regarded as a valuable resource, implying that on
there is a need to invest time and effort in their oth
development. Second, they are human resources, which er
means that they have their own special characteristics soc
and therefore cannot be treated like material resources. ial
The need to humanize organizational life and introduce uni
the human values in the organization. Human resource ts

2
and processes in the organization. These include the ma
nag
role or the job a person has in the organization, the eria
l
dyadic unit (consisting of the person and his styl
e.
supervisor), the various teams in which people work,
OD
inter-team processes and the total organization. is
mor
e
tha
THEMES IN HRD n
any
1. Improve relationship btn corporate strategy, people, sing
technology & processes that drive the organisations le
tech
2. Due to globalization HRD practitioners are challenged to niq
attract, build, retain, use technology in order to compete ue
effectively (use
of
3. Manage constant change to contain costs, to improve quality
vari
and quantity of the product
ous
4. People & Organizational practices have become pivotal to tech
business success & emphasis is on how winning companies niq
build & retain their organizational capability of HRD ues)
practioners
OD
5. Employees have to be viewed as business partner doe
s
6. Employees have to be viewed as business partners & HRD not
program should have a role. incl
ude
7. HRD professionals should be design organizations ran
do
8. HRD staff should appreciate the changing
m
markets,legislation,current productivity, policies etc.
or
ad
hoc
Must actively promote innovation & take the role of intergrating the cha
HR strategy with business strategy nge
s
Must lead the way in diverse mgt & demonstrate why it is a source of
competitive advantage. OD
is
Come up with policies to confront processes of the company. aim
ed
at
Organizational Development strategies mor
e
Definition of OD tha
n
OD is defined as a long range effort to improve an rais
organisation’s ability to cope with change and its problem ing
solving and renewal processes through effective management mor
of organisation culture. ale
or
These are planned systematic approaches to change.
attit
What is not OD ude
as it
OD is not micro approach aimed at addressing individual behaviour aim
like Management Development or Training and Development; instead to
OD is macro goal of developing an organisation wide improvement in add
3
ress overall organisation health and effectiveness. This may include To
participant satisfaction as one aspect of change effort, but includes incr
other effectiveness parameter as well. eas
e
em
plo
Characteristics of OD
yee
1. Planned Change: the change aims at addressing specific objectives mor
ale
Collaborative: It includes involvement and participation of the
organisation members that are mostly affected by change. To
dev
Performance: OD programs aims at improving and enhancing elo
performance and quality (TQM). p
new
Humanistic: OD relies on ma
humanistic values about people and organisation that aims at nag
addressing effectiveness by opening up new opportunities for eria
increased use of human potential. ( Relationship among elements and l
excellence) skil
ls
Systems: Systematic appro It is concerned with interrelationship of and
various divisions, departments, groups and individuals as stra
interdependent subsystems of the overall organisation tegi
es
Scientific: OD is based on scientific approaches to achieve
organisation effectiveness.

Or
gan
Justification of OD
izat
The level of competition is too high hence conventional training ion
techniques not sufficient to address it. al
ana
Survival: Organisations may cease to exist if they don’t continually lysi
change s
and
Improved Performance: Without OD organisational performance may dia
decline. gno
sis

Major Aims of OD Programs

The
To increase productivity pro
cess
To increase responsiveness to clients of
revi
To improve competitive positioning (increase productivity/decrease ewi
costs) ng
To increase employee involvement and participation the
dev
elo
pm
To increase employee morale ent,
wor
To develop new managerial skills and strategies
k
Capabilities, Competend Processes of HRD and OD env
iron
Professional values and ethics me
nt,
Values and Mission of Organisation Development ( French and Bell) pers
A development outlook in which the needs and aspirations of human onn
el
4
and operation of a business or another type of association. Performing De
a periodic detailed organizational analysis of a company can be a
min
useful way for management to identify problems or inefficiencies that
have arisen, but have not yet been addressed, and then develop son
strategies for dealing with them.
196
The development of a strategy for systematic improvement of an 2
organisation demands an examination of the present state of things.
arg
Such an analysis usually looks at two broad areas. One is a diagnosis
of the various subsystems that make up the total organisation. These ues
susystems may be natural “teams such as top management, the
that
production department, or a research group; or they may be levels
such as top management, middle management or the work force. HR
D
The second area of diagnosis is the organisation processes that are con
occurring.These include decision-making processes, communication
pattern and styles, trib
relationships between interfacing groups, the management of conflict, ute
the setting of goals and planning methods.Thus organisational
analysis may either focus on the structural aspects (subsystems, to
various components etc.) or on processes. org
aniz
atio
The link between Human Resource Development and
Organizational Development nal
dev
Important HR issues in achieving OD elo
i. Aligning business pm
ii. egy w ent
iii. and
1. Knowledge management and creating learning organisation eco
2. Developing moral excellence through managing ethics and no
culture mic
3. Skills and competency development dev
4. Developing mutual trust and synergy of work teams elo
pm
Relationship between HRD and OD ent
of a
cou
Both deal with problems of attitude, behaviour as well as
interpersonal relations in an organisation set up ntry
OD link with HRD to address the whole organisation issues thro

Both OD and HRD are involvement, communication, team-building, ugh

training and development which lead to high morale, commitment rais

among people, increase in utilisation of resources, high employee job ing

satisfaction and team work. OD and HRD found in high productivity, the

organisation effectiveness, cost reduction, profits and improvement of qua

organisation image. These ultimately lead to high quality of work life, lity

growth and competitive edge for organisations. and

5
productivity of labour and accelerating the rate at which society ‘s kets
Cust
stock of knowledge advances.
omer
s
Proc
Human Resource Development and Management esses
Envi
Management is concerned with exposing and exploiting the creative ron
ability of an individual. Management deals with various managerial ment
procedures such as planning, implementing, monitoring and
evaluation through extracting work from an individual. HRD is the
instrument to reach that goal. HRD functions and systems are carried
out through the organisation systems and sub-systems. ABI
LIT
Y
Theoratical Foundations TO
LEA
RN
Human Capital Theory AN
D
What is strategic about developing employees- The value in GR
employees? OW
The need to understand sources of employee value Ope
Gain an appreciation of the importance of human capital nnes
s to
Understand how competitive advantage can be achieved through new
developing ideas

What is strategic about developing employees- The Acq

uisiti
value in employees? on
 The need to understand sources of employee value of
kno
 Gain an appreciation of the importance of human wled
capital ge
and
 Understand how competitive advantage can be skill
achieved through developing employees s

 Understand the obstacles that prevent organisations

from investing in their employees
 That success of the organisations lieorganisations
DEC
ISIO
Why is it important for organisations to Develop N
Employees? MA
KIN
G
CAP
ABI
TEC LITI
HNI ES
CAL
KN
OW
LED MO
GE TIV
Mar ATI

6
 ON

CO
MM
ITM
ENT
It
can
be
TEAMWORK
pro
Interpersonal Skills ved
It is
Leadership Abilities bey
ond
dou
bt
You need aCA Culture where employees are considered valuable
that
assets
HR
Need to assess the cost & benefit (risks & return) involved in can
developing this asset. infl
uen
Human asset can-not be duplicated and therefore can help provide ce
competitive advantage the
bott
In the global village the skills required are becoming less manual and om
line

Important Organisational Assets HR

can
Financial - equity, securities in investment and account receivables incr
eas
Physical - plant, land, equipment, raw materials e
shar
Market - goodwill, branding, customer loyalty, product line,
eho
distribution work, patents, trade mark, copyrights.
lder
Operational - management practices, structure of work, technology val
ue
Human - education, knowledge, skills, competencies, work habits,
motivation, personal relations SH
RD
’s
suc
Value Chain of Organisational Assets cess
dep
end
Organisational performance can be measured through four outcomes s on
which are: the
abil
Employees ity
to
Organisational sca
Financial Accounting n
the
Market Based. env
iron
me
nt
Human Resource Value Chain
(ch
ang
EMPLOYEES ORGANISATIO FINANCIAL ing
MARKET
NAL OUTCOMES BASED
OUTCOMES 7
OUTCOME
-expenses OUTCOMES
-attitudes -productivity
-revenues -stock prices
 -profitability

enonomy, political, legal, market conditions, technology and social Are

environment) the
feat
ures
of
The Behavioural Perspective
soci
al
life
The behavioural perspective on HRD argues for the use of HRD ie
practices as tools to shape patterns of behaviour that help net
wor
organizations achieve organizational goals and objectives. Different ks,
organizational goals and objectives require different types of nor
ms ,
behaviours and therefore differnt HRD practices (Snell, 1992). val
Factors that become relevant in this context include: organizational ues
that
size, technology, ownership, sector and location as important enc
contingency variables. our
age
part
icip
Employee Involvement and Empowerment: Interpersonal ants
Interventions to
co
Employee involvement and empowerment and buy-in management me
are new techniques of unleashing human potential in organisations. tog
ethe
Laboratory Learning Programmes have been said to increase self r to
insights and awareness of impact upon others and that observable pur
changes in behaviour do occur on the job. sue
effe
Laboratory learning improves organisation productivity (inc
ctiv
abseintism, profits and quality), technical and structural interventions.
ely
shar
ed
INTELLECTUAL CAPITAL visi
on.
Armstrong 2001:53
Consists of the structures & frameworks of knowledge available to the
orgn. These are intangible resources which together with tangible like
money & physical assets improve contributions to the value
generating of a firm. Org
anis
IC comprise the value of all relationship inside & outside the atio
organization. nal
Cap
IC covers values attached to intangible like goodwill, corporate image ital
& brands
Inst
ituti
ona
3 Elements of IC
l
Human Capital Kn
owl
Knowledge, skills & abilities of the employees in an organization. edg
e-
Social Capital pos
The structures & framework of knowledge derived from networks of sess
relationship within & outside an organization. ed
by
an

8
organization, stored in databases, knowledge that the organization
owns.
Can be referred to as structural capital
Significance of IC
The three elements of IC are interrelated. It is the individual who
generate, retain & use knowledge. (Human capital) this knowledge is
enhanced by the (Social Human Capital to generate institutional
knowledge possessed by the orgn. ( Organisational capital)
It is the knowledge, skills and abilities of individuals that create value
which is why the focus is on means of attracting, retaining,
developing & maintaining the HC those individuals represent.
Orgnal effectiveness depends upon making good use of HC, which
needs to be developed, captured & exchange knowledge mgt, inorder
to create orgnal capital.
4 It is important to note that individuals & go but organizations
preserve knowledge over time. OC stays behind when employees
leave.
HC is the intellectual capital asset that goes home every night with
the employee
Practical implication of the IC theory
1.Companies can grow by building on the capability of the people for
competitive advantage
2.SHRD should concern itself with matching people’s competencies
& talents, to the changing business & requirements
3.SHRD should concern itself in developing & maintaining of
knowledge, skills and abilities involved in every job within the
business & from outside & inside business environment.
4. Human capital issues are critical coz they are concerned with the
attraction,retention,dvpt & reward of the workforce inorder to
maintain a critical,commited & well motivated workforce.
5. SC issues are important coz they enhance the process of
developing, capturing & dissemination of knowledge
OC issues are concerned with knowledge mgt process with the aim to
obtain & reward explicitly & tacit knowledge for competitive
advantage.
The cutting edge of economic growth is knowledge

9
 1. Interrelationships between Human Resource Development, Organizational
Development and Economic Development

 Economist perception of HRD/ HRD, OD and Economic Growth

The economists view employees as human assets and development of human resources is
an investment. Economists explain that development of employees increase labour
productivity.
Education has been viewed as crucial factor in economic development. It is argued that
improvement in education is the backbone of any strategy of HRD and economic growth.
Education contribute towards improvement in productive life and hence plays important
role in HRD.

Competencies of OD Consultant
Roles and skills of OD Consultant
Susan Gebelein suggest 6 key consulting skill areas:
Team Development
Corporate Change
Strategy Development
Management #
Roles and Skills of an OD Consultant
Susan Gebelein suggest 6 key consulting skill areas:

 Team Development

 Corporate Change

 Strategy Development

 Management Development

 Employee (career) Development

 Technology Integration

10
The skills that focus on people oriented nature of consulting include the following:

The Consulting Wheel

P
Leadership

Personal Skills

Skills Consultin
g Skills
Profile

Interpersonal
Communication

Skills Problem Solving Skills

Leadership: consultants must know how to initiate action and being able to motivate others
Project Management: This includes planning, organizing, clarifying goals and setting priorities

Communication: The need to communicate and listen effectively so that all key players are kept
informed
Problem solving: This includes technical expertise, knowledge of business operations and
diagnostic and decision making skills.
Inter Personal: This includes facilitating, building relationships and process consulting skills
Personal: This includes a focus on helping, on results and on ethical and trustworthy behaviour
The OD consultant’s role is to help employees create their own solutions, systems and concepts.
Alternative Identifier
Fact Finder
Process Specialist
Reflector

11
 Mechanic Systems Organic Systems

Exclusive individual emphasis Relationships between and within groups

emphasised

Authority-obedience relationships Mutual confidence and trust

Delegated and divided responsibility Interdependence and shared responsibility

rigidly adhered to

Strict division of labour and hierarchical Multi-group membership and

supervision responsibility

Centralised decision making Wide sharing of responsibility and control

Conflict resolution through suppression, Conflict resolution through bargaining or

arbitration and/or warfare problem solving

Competencies of OD Consultant

Ability to tolerate ambiguity

Ability to influence
Ability to confront difficult issues
Ability to support and nurture others
Ability to listen and

Categories of Consultant’s Role

Engineering or Purchase Models Clinical or process models

The client’s statement of the problem is The client’s statement of the problem is
either accepted at face value or varied by treated as information. The problem is
the consultant on the basis of his or her verified jointly by both client and the
technical expertise relative to the problem consultant

12
 Little time is spent on developing The consultant/client relationship is viewed
consultant/client relationship. The as an essential ingredient in the process and
connection is generally short-term and considerable attention is given to this
problem-oriented development

The solution or prescription to the problem The major focus of the consultant is to help
is generally developed by the consultant and the client to discover and implement
implemented by the client appropriate solutions for themselves

The consultant brings technical expertise to The consultant is an expert in how to

bear on client’s problem (s) diagnose and facilitate organisational
processes

The consultant is primarily concerned with The consultant is primarily concerned with
increasing the client’s knowledge and skill improving the client’s diagnostic problem
relative to the stated problems solving skills

In general the consultant does it for and to In general, the consultant helps the client to
the client do it for and to themselves

Source: Margulies and Raia (1978)

Burke (1987) cites Lippit and Lippit (1978) lists the following roles:
Advocate
Technical Specialist
Trainer/Educator
Collaboration in Process Solving
Ability to listen and Empathise
Ability to recognise one’s own feelings
Ability to conceptualise
Ability to discover and mobilise human energy
Ability to teach or create learning opportunities
Ability to maintain a sense of humour

13
Human resource mastery ( staffing, developing, performance appraisal, rewards, organisation
planning and communication)
Change and process mastery ( diagnosis of organisation, building relationships with clients,
articulate vision, leader change agent, proactive and implement goals)
Personal credibility ( accuracy in HR work,
HR role in OD
1. Business mastery ( financial capability and strategic capability)
2. Human resource mastery ( staffing, developing, performance appraisal, rewards,
organisation planning and communication)
3. Change and process mastery ( diagnosis of organisation, building relationships with
clients, articulate vision, leader change agent, proactive and implement goals)
4. Personal credibility ( accuracy in HR work, consistency, meeting commitment, emotional
intelligence thinking outside box, listening skills etc)
OD expects to pay attention to :
Managing resistance
Leadership style of employee involvement
Identify training needs precipitated by change in organisations
Staffing and career development issues
Develop collaborative atmosphere
Manage crisis situations like layoffs, plant closure etc
Develop reward systems which encourage team effort

HRD Interventions and OD Outcomes

Career Systems and Development

Career system ensure attraction and retention of human resources through the following sub-
systems:

14
  Manpower planning

 Recruitment

 Career planning

 Succession planning

 Retention
Work systems and Development

Work-planning system ensures that the attracted and retained human resources are utilised in the
best possible way to obtain organisational objectives through the following sub-systems of work-
planning systems.

 Role analysis

 Role efficacy

 Performance plan

 Performance feedback and guidance

 Performance appraisal

 Promotion

 Job rotation

 Reward.

Development Systems

The development system ensures that the retained (career system) and utilised (work systems)
human resources are continuously developed so that they are in a position to meet the emerging
need of the hour. This include the following

 Induction

 Training

 Job enrichment

 Self-learning mechanism

 Potential appraisal

 Succession development

15
  Counselling

 Mentor system

Self-renewal systems

This include the need to renew or rejuvenate the organisation through its sub-systems

 Survey

 Action research

 Organisation development interventions

 Organisational retreats

Culture system

The need to develop a desired culture which support changes in the organization. It is the
culture that will give a sense of direction, purpose, togetherness and teamwork. Organisa-
tions need cultural practices that facilitate business and these include the following cul-
tural subsystems
 Vision, mission and goal
 Values
 Communication
 Togetherness and celebrations
 Empowerments
 Rewards and recognition

The essence of HRD aims at achieving higher productivity through the following interventions

Training, performance appraisal, career planning and counselling, organisational development,

employee relations and their quality of work-life, organisational communication, quality circles ,
rewards and human resource information among others.

Selecting and Designing Intervention Strategy

HRD & OD Intervention Strategies

16
Intervention Strategies
Selecting a Strategy
Organization Structure
Help provide the elements of the organization to one another. Eg downsizing, restructuring
Technical Processes
The need to carefully examine them and bring them to the state of the art in machinery, methods,
automation and job lines.

Behavioural Processes
Emphasize on the use of human resources
For OD to be successful there is need to consider the interdependencies that exist among the
various sub-elements of the organisation. Any major changes, effort, regardless of emphasis,
must deal with the total organisation system which includes structure, technology and people.
Each of these approaches appear in most OD strategies but receive different emphasis.
After a strategy is selected, OD intervention techniques are then utilised, such as goal setting,
confrontation meetings, survey feedbacks, total quality management and team building to
revitalise the organisation.

Help client generate valid information

Provide free choice for the client among decision alternatives
Provide client ownership of the chosen alternatives or action plans

An OD intervention refers to the range of actions taken to improve the health or functioning of a
client system.
All OD interventions are aimed at changing some specific aspect of an organisation like its
climate, members, structures and procedures.

Issues to consider when selecting an appropriate intervention

The potential results of the technique
Will it solve basic problems?
Does it have any additional positive outcome
17
 The potential implementation of the technique
Can the proposed technique actually work in a practical application?
What are the actual dollar and human costs of this technique and the impact of costs upon the
client system?
How do the estimated costs of the technique compare with the expected results 1 1(costs vs
benefits).
The potential acceptance of the technique
-Is the technique acceptable?
-Is the technique adequately developed and tested ?
- Has the technique been adequately explained and communicated to members of the client
system?

An Overview of OD Interventions

Category Individual Team Intergroup Total Organisation

System

Behavioural Laboratory Learning Team Building Intergroup Goal Setting

Development
Career Planning Process Grid OD (Phase 4)
Consultation Third party
Managerial grid intervention Survey Feedback
Quality Control
Stress Management Organization Action Research
Role Negotiation mirror
Biofeedback Likert’s System 4
Role Analysis Process
Management by Quality of work life
Consultation
Objectives Grid OD
Total Quality
Grid OD (Phase
Goal Setting Goal Setting Management
3)
Quality of work life Third-party
Total Quality
intervention
Management

Structural Job Enrichment Job enrichment Job enrichment Grid OD (Phase 4)

Stress Management Team building Goal Setting Survey Feedback
Quality of work life Quality Circles Total Quality Action Research

18
 Management by Role Negotiation Management Likert’s 4 System 4
Objectives
Role Analysis Quality of work life
Grid OD (Phase 2) Total Quality
Management
Self-managed work
teams Restructuring

Technical Job Design Job Design Job Design Grid OD (Phase

4,5,6)
Quality Control Grid OD (Phase
3) Survey Feedback
Grid OD (Phase 2)
Total Quality Action Research
Management
Likert’s 4 System
Total Quality
Management
Reengineering

Individual and Group Process Level Interventions

Management Development Programs

Management Development

Is concerned with improving the performance of managers in their present roles and preparing
them to take over higher responsibilities in the future.
Mumford & Gold(2004) defines it as ‘an attempt to improve managerial effectiveness through a
learning process’

Abilities needed by managers

19
1.Empower & develop people-understand & practice the process of delivering through others
2. To manage people & perfomance-managers increasingly need to maintain morale whilst also
maximising perfomance
3.To work across boundaries,engaging with others,working as a member of a team
4. Develop relationships & focus on customer, building partnershiphs with both internal &
external customers
5. To balance technical & generic skills

Formal approaches to management development

1.Coaching & Mentoring
2.The use of perfomance management to provide feedback & satisfy development needs
3.Planned experience, which includes job rotation,job enhancement, taking part in project teams
or task groups, ‘action learning’ & secondment outside the organisation.
4. Formal training by means of internal or external courses
5. structured self development plan guided by a management development adviser
6. Competency frameworks used as a means of identifying & experiencing development needs &
pointing the way to self-managed learning programmes

Informal approaches to management development

1.Managers to understand their learning styles so they learn from experiences

2. Emphasising self-assessment & the identification of development needs – against agreed
objectives
3. Getting managers to come up with own personal development plan-self directed learning
programmes
4. Encouraging managers to discuss their own problems & opportunities with their manager,or
mentors to establish for themselves what they need to learn or be able to do.
Most management development does not involve outside classes or professional trainers. It
involves the employee's daily work, skill stretching assignments, leadership roles played,
mentoring by a manager, cross-training, and other development on-the-job.

20
Building the skills of managers through management development options is critical to the
effective functioning of your organization. This is because of the power of a manager to impact
the organization through his or her oversight of the work of other employees.
Especially middle managers are expected to communicate the company direction, goals, and
vision to their reporting employees. Only comfortable business communicators are likely to
perform their needed communication tasks effectively.
Yet senior company leaders depend on their communication because they can't easily
communicate with every employee themselves.
It is not surprising that the managers in your workplace are the single most important factor in
employee engagement, employee motivation and building a productive workplace
Managers are the key to employee retention and the main reason employees cite when they leave
their current employer.
So, the need for management development is significant and can provide a significant payback.
Internal Management Development Advantages
Internal management development has advantages over external seminars and classes. It presents
and reinforces needed skills and management techniques. It speaks a common language that
people in an organization will understand and gives them a common language that they can use
with each other.
Internal management development is presented around challenges and problems so it is
customized for the people who attend. It is offered on managers’ terms and at their preferred
times and at their preferred length.
Internal management development reinforces the organization's culture and addresses the norms
and expectations of the manager's workplace. It incorporates familiar workplace examples and
reinforces desired organization direction, values, and goals.
Done with care, internal management development also reinforces the application of the skills
learned in training back in the workplace. This significant ability to do the activities needed for
training transfer to the workplace, before, during and after the training is all the justification one
need to offer internal management development.
It can require weekly assignments, reading, and on-the-job training. Employees can work
together in study groups outside of the actual training. You can also provide management
development training as part of an ongoing, regularly-scheduled management meeting.
Internal Management Development options abound and can include the following opportunities
for employees' growth and ongoing development.
Employee training
Employee career paths
Coaching
21
Mentoring
Job rotation
Promotions
Performance Management and Development
Succession Planning
Benefits of On the Job Training
1. Employees look forward to coming to work because they are learning and growing; not
stagnant.
2. Helps your employees to become more rounded professionally by enriching your employees’
skill set. On the job training is an inexpensive professional development tool. Hands on learning
is one of the best ways to develop expertise.
3. Demonstrates your interest in staff development and your employees’ job satisfaction.
4. Increases productivity and job satisfaction. Employees that recognize that management is
supportive of their growth and enrichment are almost always more engaged and productive.
5. Contributes to company growth. Employees that are able to take on broader levels of
responsibility can only help your company to run more efficiently which saves time and money.

Management Development Options

Management development can include such external opportunities as university classes,

seminars, workshops, courses, conferences, and field trips. Employers can assist employees to
pursue these options by paying for classes and seminars.
They can also offer tuition assistance for employees attending college or university classes and
who plan to earn a degree.

Designing & Implementing MD programmes

1.In coming up with MD there is need to link organisational & individual goals HR should assist
by interpreting the needs of the business & advise on how management can play their part in
meeting these needs.

22
2.There is need to design MD programmes that builds on & develops the qualities,skills &
attitudes of participants. There is need to develop such programmes in conjuction with line
management competency frameworks that can provide a basis for MD
3.MD programmes should be motivating to those encouraged to participate in it. The HR & the
organisation should provide help & encouragement to manages in preparing & pursuing their self
directed learning activities. There Is need to encourage managers to carry out their
developmental activities & provide guidance as required.
4. The MD programmes should be supported by HR policies to do with recruitment, selection,
reward, talent management & succession planning.
5. There is need to plan & conduct formal learning events as part of programmes. It should also
have the full commitment of those responsible for the operation process.

Career Development and Succession Planning

Career Management & Development

If careers are managed well, employees become motivated & productivity increase and they are
able to meet organisational goals
Career management is the responsibility of the individual and the organisation’s role is to
provide assistance to the employee to facilitate the redirection of the person’s career growth.
It is important to note that each person should assess his/her own interest and take necessary
steps to fulfil them

Aims of CM
Give individuals the potential and guidelines & encourage individuals of the need to fulfil their
potential
To provide promising employees with a sequence of training and experience that will equip them
for any assignments in future
To ensure that the organisation’s needs for management succession are satisfied from within
Process of Career Management
Individual 2. Organisational Level
Planning takes place at individual level- individual CM is when individuals identify career goals
and this should begin by understanding oneself, decide what kind of person they are, skills they

23
have, likes and dislikes ,strengths & weaknesses and on the basis of this balance the individual is
able to identify his career path.
An individual should identify job opportunities or promotion by looking at the following
What are the prospects of promotion or transfer
What position have my peers reached within 5-10years
What is the compensation range
Which department has the fastest growth in providing promotion
Employees should study the trends in the economy where there are shortages, technological
development & how govt policy can change the future of the market.
Organisational Career Management.
Occurs when employers help employees to set realistic career targets.
Helps them to create career options within the organisation
Assist employees to inform the other organisational logistical requirements in pursuit of their
career
Employers can facilitate their
HRP and ensure that the right people are available when people retire, resign
Organisation to engage a sequence of developing activities which give individuals job experience
to enable him or her to step into more advanced posts should they
arise.
Can be implemented as a way of grooming employees for promotion.

Career oriented could be carried by employers to help assess strengths & weaknesses to establish
flexible career path
Through job rotation on a periodic basis-helps employees to establish realistic pictures of what
she is capable of doing
Mentoring opportunities provided by the employer both formal and informal by experienced
managers on career paths to follow are crucial & are informal opportunities that may arise from
diverse employees
Employers can hold career planning opportunities

24
The way employers handle transfers; promotion can make or destroy employees’ careers.
Promotion should be handled in a manner that shows fairness, transparency. The criteria should
be clear & rational.
Employers should clarify the following
Is promotion based on seniority or competence
How is competence measured
Criteria for vertical, horizontal promotions should be specific
It is important to note that transfers opportunities for employees and create opportunities to
experience growth in another area.
Counseling is a systematic process where someone whose employment has been terminated will
be assisted with counseling to help him/her to suit his abilities.
Pre-retiment Counseling – easing the pressure of employees into retirement by offering financial
& investment counseling
Traditional Career Management
Top

-Middle

-no career(had jobs only)

Nowadays the ladder is no more, most of the organizations have flat structures and wide avenues
that employees can explore.

Jaime JIMÉNEZ J. & ESCALANTE J.C (2017). A linear and non-linear model for career
development.

The linear model of accomplishment is the path followed by professionals who wish to pursue a
career. The model displays a number of sequential steps that each candidate ought to take if he
wishes to pursue a successful career. In contrast, the non-linear model deals with professionals
who, after the acquisition of their qualifications for various reasons are not able to follow the

25
linear model and are involved in a number of professional activities that, apparently, deviate
them from a scientific vocation.

Linearity is a mathematical concept that has been used extensively in social studies. Many
statistical methods of data processing in the social sciences are based on linearity, for example
the multiple linear regression analysis. In social psychology, it has strong resonance in the
context of the individuals’ work environment, such as personal development. It is associated to
areas related to career development, in efforts to reduce the impact of traditional, hierarchical
systems of advancement characterized by a strict structural rigidity within the context of standard
promotion systems. Past career models, had a clear, unidimensional or linear direction. Upward
mobility was in fact the measure of success and advancement, as the much-used analogy of the
ladder suggests. Linearity is defined as data that when graphed are shown as a straight line, not
commonly seen in Nature. Characteristics of a linear model are Uninterrupted path/direction,
Institutional support, Requires full-time dedication

The non-linear model of accomplishment uses the open systems principle of equifinality.
Equifinality is the principle that a given end state can be reached by many different paths or
trajectories.

26
27
Stages that people go through in career management
Exploration- ie assessment of alternatives avenues to take
Establishment Stage – some career that people rise through the ladder
Mid -career stage- where you have to review performance and then promote or review
performance or realize the need to change the career
Reasons for choosing careers
-Interests
-Capability
-Value
-Attitudes
-Needs
-Personality
-Motivation
Tips on Enhancing One’s Career(Decenzo & Robins) 2005:236
Know yourself
Work on turning weaknesses into opportunities
Be honest with yourself assessment
Manage your reputation- Achievements
Build & maintain a network of contacts
Attend conferences
Keep current, develop specific skills
Balance specific & general competences
Stay within your profession
Document your achievement
Career Anchors
These are talents that people have- and they help them make systematic choices
Types of anchors
28
Security- need a stable job eg in govt
Flexibility- eg academia
Creativity eg IT
Autonomy eg accountants need independence)
Technical expertise – eg motor mechanics
Managerial expertise-
Features associated Traditional Careers
Succession planning- the need to identify the individual
Targeted development- companies use to prepare employees for high post
Career path analysis –where the employee will have to identify pattern sequences for the events.
Change in Career Management
Companies now have new flat structures- pay difference is so small
Pay/Salary is no longer associated with level
No ladder climbing- people are now paid for performance
No job for life
Career is now perceived as a sequence of behavior that an employee carries over a period of time
The rationale for looking at behavior:
Career rust out- it is up to the employee to make themselves important and enjoy the career. Also
the need to make a change in one ‘s position
Career Development & Competitive advantage
It was used as a basis to lure employees to stay in the past but nowadays we talk about employer
of choice, there is need for satisfaction, the attitude of management all influence employees ‘
decision on career management.
The challenge of HRM today is to manage the knowledge worker – the need to match reward
with skills
-the need to give the worker autonomy & independence
-the need to give them recognition
-involve them in your management
-create environment for information sharing

29
- Employees want to be created free –agents allow them to be creative- to tap their knowledge
-hence it will be possible to be competitive through continous learning
Internal advice Senior Managers support,vision & mission
Within & across Of organisation
Career
Organisation
Development

HRD conducive Individuals commitment, openness &

communication
Environment

Line managers help in coming up with career development plans & provide information for
career prospects.
NB. In this case career development is used to improve performance and organizational goals.
Succession Planning

Succession Planning is the process of identifying & preparing suitable employees

(talent),through mentoring, coaching, planned training & development interventions as well as
job rotation, to replace key players such as the CEO within an organisation as their terms expire.
From a risk management perspective provisions are made in case no suitable internal candidates
are available to replace loss of any key person. It is usual for an organisation to ensure a key
person so that funds are available when he dies (insurance), this practice is rampart in SA &
these funds can be used by the business to cope with the problems before a suitable replacement
is found or developed . A recent example of sound succession planning is the case of how
General Electric found a succession for its CEO J Welsh. The board of directors engaged in a
lengthy & systematic review of potential successions prior to his retirement
The discipline of SP in the USA has risen in importance as a corporate governance issue under
the Sarbanes Orxley Act of 2002. A careful and considered plan of action ensure the list possible
destruction to the Person’s responsibilities & therefore organisation’s effectiveness eg such a
person who is
a)suddenly & expertly is willing to continue their role with the organisation
b)Accepting an approach from another organisation or external opportunity which will terminate
his current employment.

30
c) Indicating the conclusion of a contract or time limited project or
d) Moving to another position & a different set of responsibilities within same organisation
A succession plan clearly sets out factors to be taken into account & the process to be followed
in relation to retaining the person or replacing the person.
The Process of Succession Plan
Steps in designing SP
There are perspectives that the organisation can utilise in designing an SP program
It involves a systematic company wide SP approach which aims at Ensuring that employees in
their various positions are competently developed & ready to occupy the next position
immediately above their current rates. The idea here
Is to ensure that all vacancies are filled from within every time they arise & this serves the
organisation in money terms.
3.It aims at targeted positions at senior management level in organisation
Individual Development Plans for succession Planning(Competence maps)

Name Grade Job Totle Current Job Personal Interventions

Roles Qualifications

Name Grade Summary of Interventions Remarks

The goal here is to ensure that the organisation has got suitable employees available within the
talent pool to occupy as and when they fall vacant.
Targeted SP involves the following basic steps

31
To identify key positions in all departments in the organisation for which a pool of candidates
must always be on standby to fill when they fall vacant. This process can be done easily if there
is a succession planning committee in place.

Position Grade No of people in Department Pontential

Position Successions

This step involves identifying suitable talent from the pool of successions for the identified key
positions in all departments.
3.Develop competence maps for each of the candidates in the succession pool & extrapolate
chart to show their readness to fill the targeted positions.

Name Jan Feb Mar Apr May

Sibanda #######

Banda ********* ****** *******

Ndlovu //////////////// /////////// //////////// ///////////

Sande wwwwwwwwww wwwwww wwwwwwwwww wwwwww wwwwwww

.4 Develop a rank orderly of a succession pool

.5. Implement development interventions in line with the rank order

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Coaching and Mentoring

Coaching-focuses on achieving specific objectives, usually within a preferred time period.

Coaching helps an employee get the best performance out of themselves – the potential for
which was already there.

There are two types of coaches: an internal coach or a professional external

coach.

Internal Coach
Specially trained internal coach

Champions of coaching within the organization In alignment with organizational talent

development agenda

Cost effective, especially when coaching large numbers of employees.

External Professional Coach
Works outside of the organization
Offers value of wider experience and independent approach
Maintains confidentiality

Can provide fresh ideas and knowledge

Often offer more experienced coaching skill set

Mentoring-follows an open and evolving agenda and deals with a range of issues.

33
Mentoring is an incredibly powerful tool for individuals who want to learn and grow within an
organization. Moving or preparing to move into a new role, taking on new responsibilities,
building confidence to develop your career further, or working in a new environment all seem
much easier with a mentor to support you
.
There are different schools of mentoring ranging from non-directive to sponsor mentoring.
In a non-directive model, the mentor acts as a sounding board, a catalyst for the individual’s
learning and perhaps a role model. In a sponsor model, a more senior person promotes, oversees
and takes control of a junior protégé’s career.
Having an understanding of both schools of mentoring can be very helpful when choosing what
type of mentoring to use in talent development.
Often a mixture of developmental and sponsorship mentoring can provide the most effective
methods to support your organizational talent across all
Benabou and Benabou, 2000. Coach Vs Mentor

Coach Mentor
Protégé’s learning is primarily focused on abilities Learning is focused on attitudes

Technical or professional focus Focus on personal and professional

development

Effective use of the protégé’s existing competencies Helps the protégé realise his/her potential

Professional interaction with the protégé More interaction with an affective

component

Inspires respect for his/her professional competencies Is a role model

Coaching is a little bit like having the professional equivalent of a fitness trainer – a specialist
dedicated to working with you on specific goals and objectives you would like to achieve for
whatever reasons.

34
Mentors, on the other hand, are more likely to have followed a career path similar to the one on
which you are embarking. They are, therefore, charged with passing on their knowledge and
expertise. Importantly, the knowledge transmitted in this way will contain invaluable details
about organisational values, beliefs and culture that are hard to acquire through formal training
Mentoring is more of relationship based, knowledge sharing in multiple ways peer to peer, senior
to junior or even junior to junior.

Mentoring programs have a longer time horizon than coaching and concentrate more on career
development, leadership development, and knowledge transfer versus individual skill
development or immediate performance improvement.
Mentoring is used most often to help people transition between career stages. It is invaluable as a
tool to support individuals who are being fast tracked or accelerated into more senior leadership
roles, particularly as it can focus on developing the whole person and has a wider-angled lens
than coaching.
Coaching is concerned primarily with performance and the development of definable skills. It
usually starts with the learning goal already identified. The most effective coaches share with
mentors the capability to help the learner develop the skills of listening to and observing
themselves, which leads to much faster acquisition of skills and modification of behaviour.
Coaches also share with mentors the role of critical friend – confronting executives with truths
no one else feels able to address with them.

Team Development Interventions

Teamwork is work done by members of a group. The coordination of individual effort into task
accomplishments is most important when members of a team are interdependent. Team building
or team development are used to increase communication, cooperation, cohesiveness of units so
that they become more productive.
Team building is a data based intervention where a work group examines such things as their
goals, structure, procedures, cultures, norms and interpersonal relationships to improve their
ability to work together effectively and efficiently.
Types of Teams

Cross-functional teams These teams are made up of individuals from various departments or
functional specialties. Success of the cross-functional teams depends on the following factors: 1.
Selection of suitable members
2. Clarity of purpose of the team
3. Fair understanding of group functions by each member

35
4. Team-building
5. Achievement of noticeable results

Virtual teams are groups of people who work interdependently with shared purpose across space,
time and organizational boundaries, using Information Technology to operate and collaborate
without face-to face interactions with each other. Tools that they use include e-mails, chat-room,
virtual community/group etc.

Self-managed teams A self-managed team is a group of employees who are responsible for
managing and performing technical tasks that result in a product or service being delivered to an
internal or external customer. Self-managed teams are empowered to hire, organize and purchase
equipments without prior approval of the management.
And outcomes at both the companies are indeed very flattering.
A number of empirical studies indicate that self-managed teams have led to increased job
satisfaction, higher productivity, better customer service, and organizational commitment

How to make teams more effective?

Team building (GE Model)
Team building
1. Establish credibility: the trainers must establish their knowledge and credentials
2. Allow ventilation: the trainees should be provided with ample opportunities to clear off their
anxieties and unresolved issues before the training begins
3. Provide an orientation: the trainers should give specific verbal directions and provide clear
expectations and models of behaviour
4. Invest in the process: help the team in identifying its problems and concerns
5. Set group goals: let the trainees create their own mission statement and then set specific goals
and specific activities and behaviour to accomplish these goals
6. Facilitate the group process: let trainees learn how group functions
7. Establish intra-group procedures: help trainees set up a meeting format that might include
reporting minutes, making announcements, discussing problems, proposing solutions, taking
action and making new assignments
8. Establish inter-group processes: let the trainees select a leader to interact with other teams
9. Change the role of the trainers
10. End the trainer’s involvement

Benefits of Team Building

Provide for the effective management of complexity
Rapid response to ever changing environment and work demands

36
Results in high level motivation for the individuals within the team and increased levels of task
accomplishments
Improved levels of job satisfaction and camaraderie result in higher levels of motivation
Higher quality of decision results from mature teams who are capable of making better decisions
than even the most brilliant individual.
Characteristics of Effective Teams
Energy and enthusiasm
Members are in the team because they can contribute
If team wins each individual wins
If team loses each individual loses
Members of a team are bound together by a vision

Effectiveness of teams (Fred Luthans)

1. Establishing a sense of partnership

2. Attractive work arrangement
3.Sharing of collective intelligence
4. Well-defined goals
5. Creating a learning organization
6. Developing a bond among the team-members
7. Collaboration

Techniques for Team Effectiveness

Role Negotiation:- (Roger Harrison) views it as a technique used to control role negotiations of
team members. Team members discuss what they want from each other. The outcome of role
negotiation is a set of written agreements and concessions which each member find satisfactory.
Role Analysis:- a technique used to clarify role expectations ( French and Bell 1978). Group
norms influence each member’s behavior and members have expectations from each other. Role
analysis is used to clarify the role discrepancies about each other which leads to team
effectiveness.
Role Conflict:- occurs when there is a discrepancy of a role expectation and a role conception.
Team members always have expectations of attitudes and behaviors of each other. However
these may not always tally.
37
Role ambiguity: refers to the role a team member being unaware of or lacking sufficient
knowledge of the expectations of others.
The employee needs to know his/her role set and their different expectations; his/her rights,
duties and responsibilities
One should know what kinds of activities would fulfil those responsibilities.
One should know the possible consequences of role performance or non-performance for
himself/herself as well as for his/her role set
The employee needs to know the kind of behaviours which are satisfying or frustrating for
his/her personal needs and values.

Challenges faced by work teams

Goals

Size Mentor
TEAM OPERATING Needs
PROBLEMS

Norms
Leadershi
p

Decision
Making

Intergroup Development Interventions

Collaboration
The process of collaboration involves learning how to improve interpersonal interactions in
group settings while committing to a common agenda. Collaboration is a structured, recursive
process where two or more people work together toward a common goal—typically an
intellectual endeavor that is creative in nature—by sharing knowledge, learning and building

38
consensus. Collaboration does not require leadership and can even bring better results through
decentralization and egalitarianism. In particular, teams that work collaboratively can obtain
greater resources, recognition and reward when facing competition for finite resources.
Competencies for Collaborative Partnerships

Know thyself. Many realities exist simultaneously. Each person's reality is based on self-
developed perceptions. Requisite to trusting self and others is in knowing your own mental
model (biases, values, and goals).
Learn to value and manage diversity. Differences are essential assets for effective collaborative
processes and outcomes.
Develop constructive conflict resolution skills. In the collaborative paradigm, conflict is viewed
as natural and as an opportunity to deepen understanding and agreement.
Use your power to create win-win situations The sharing of power and the recognition of one's
own power base is part of effective collaboration.
Master interpersonal and process skills. Clinical competence, cooperation, and flexibility are the
most frequently identified attributes important to effective collaborative practice.
Recognize that collaboration is a journey. The skill and knowledge needed for effective
collaboration take time and practice. Conflict resolution, clinical excellence, appreciative
inquiry, and knowledge of group process are all life-long learning skills.
Leverage all multidisciplinary forums. Being present both physically and mentally in team
forums can provide an opportunity to assess how and when to offer collaborative
communications for partnership building.
Appreciate that collaboration can occur spontaneously. Collaboration is a mutually established
condition that can happen spontaneously if the right factors are in place.
Balance autonomy and unity in collaborative relationships. Learn from your collaborative
successes and failures. Becoming part of an exclusive team can be as bad as working in isolation.
Be willing to seek feedback and admit mistakes. Be reflective, willing to seek feedback, and
admit mistakes for dynamic balance.
10.Remember that collaboration is not required for all decisions. Collaboration is not a panacea,
nor is it needed in all situations.

Intergroup Development Interventions

Characteristics of inter-group conflict: Inter group conflicts are characterized by perception of

the other as the “enemy”, stereotyping, constipated, distorted and inaccurate communication and
stoppage of feedback and data input. Each group begins to praise itself and its products more
39
positively and believes that it can do no wrong and the other can do no right. There might even
be acts of sabotage against the other group.
Sub optimization: when a group optimises its own goals at the expense of the overall
organisational goals.
Intergroup competition: when groups have conflicting purposes or objectives.

Perceived Power Imbalance between groups: occur when power is not balanced especially when
some previously established relationship is shifted.

Role Conflict and Role Ambiguity: when directives are vague or incompatible and individuals
not clear of their functions, purposes and goals in the organization.

Personality: differences between members emanating from conflicting functions, objectives,

career aspirations or personalities.eg two managers competing for promotion, rewards or
resources.
It is when the performance of one group is interdependent on the performance of the other group.
Your success depend on others cooperation. When two groups are interdependent
misunderstandings, low coordination and conflicts may arise. Groups in conflict with one
another spend much time focussing on the conflict instead of accomplishing the goals. OD
programs are then needed to deal with these intergroup problems, use joint problem solving,
correct misconceptions and reopen channels of communication.

Inter-group interventions are integrated into Organizational Development programs to

facilitate cooperation and efficiency between different groups within an organization. For
instance, departmental interaction often deteriorates in larger organizations as different divisions
battle for limited resources or become detached from the needs of other departments.
Conflict Resolution meetings (Blake and Mouton’s Approach) are one common inter-group
intervention. First, different group leaders are brought together to get their commitment to the
intervention. Next, the teams meet separately to make a list of their feelings about the other
group(s). Then the groups meet and share their lists. Finally, the teams meet to discuss the
problems and to try to develop solutions that will help both parties. This type of intervention
helps to gradually diffuse tension between groups caused by lack of communication and
misunderstanding.
Intergroup Techniques-Managing Conflict
The styles are determined on the desire to satisfy self or others

40
1 .Avoiding: the style involves a low concern of both self and others, avoids conflict by
withdrawing, buck passing or passive agreement.
2. Obliging: with a low concern for self and high concern for others, more concerned with
people satisfaction, harmony and smoothing over conflicts.
3. Dominating: with high concern for self and low concerning for others, focusing on attaining
personal objectives and often ignore the needs for others, forcing win-lose situation
4. Compromising: with moderate concern of self and moderate concern for others, tending to
seek out compromise between conflicting parties or elements
5. Integrating: with high concern for self and others, this style is concerned with problem
solving, uses openness, sharing of information and the examination of differences to reach a
consensus solution.

Rotating membership: Such interventions are used by OD consultants to minimize the negative
effects of inter-group rivalry that result from employee allegiances to groups or divisions. The
intervention basically entails temporarily putting group members into their rival groups. As more
people interact in the different groups, greater understanding results. Organizational
Development joint activity interventions serve the same basic function as the rotating
membership approach, but it involves getting members of different groups to work together
toward a common goal. Similarly, common enemy interventions achieve the same results by
finding an adversary common to two or more groups and then getting members of the groups to
work together to overcome the threat. Examples of common enemies include competitors,
government regulation, and economic conditions.
Third Party Consultation: (Walton’s approach) usually an outside third part intervenes to
resolve conflict. Two conflicting sides confront each other in his presence, better understanding
of issues, open communication, discovering alternative goals. 3rd party help equalising power and
confronting problems.
Organization Mirror: designed to give work units feedback on how other elements or
customers of the organisation view them. This helps identify problem and search specific
improvements of operating efficiency
Intergroup Team Building: conflicting groups meet to work on issues/ interface. Need for a
consultant to intervene and balance power so as to move from a hostile to problem solving
confrontation.

Cooperation VS Competition (Richard Beckhard )

While conflict can-not be avoided it is important to cooperate and collaborate as success will
depend on the interdependence of the two

41
Groups should adopt the ‘boundary less approach’ where an open trusting, sharing of ideas
atmosphere prevail. There should be willingness to listen, share ideas, debate and take the best.
Honest feedback, win-win situation to problem solving,
Intergroup competition has been said to give self esteem to the competing group, give task
orientation in the group, and give more pressure on the group to work and cooperation within the
competing group and sometimes productivity. However competition has been said to give
degradation in the internal cohesion with the whole organisation, communication decreases,
hostility increases.
Organisation System Level Interventions

Goal Setting
Goals give direction to individual‘s life and provide purpose and direction to the organisation.
OD is planned change. Team building and inter team building have set a foundation of trust and
cooperation that are important in the establishing of goal setting.
Goal setting theory/MBO

Goal setting is a process intended to increase efficiency and effectiveness by specifying the
desired outcomes towards which individuals, teams and organizations should work. Goals
include deadlines, budgets and other standards for behaviour and performance.
Major findings about goal settings
More difficult goals produce better performance: goals must be difficult and challenging.
Specific hard goals are better than ‘do your best’ goals:
People may abandon goals if the goals become too hard: if goals become impossible people may
be discouraged and abandon the goal.
Participation in setting goals increases commitment and attainment of goals: goals should not be
imposed.
Feedback and goals improve performance: information concerning on how to adjust in order to
accomplish better. Frequent relevant feedback necessary.
Individual differences tend to affect goal setting;
Support of top management is critical in goal setting.
MBO used for setting goals. Help in planning, organizing, problem solving, motivating and other
important management activities.
MBO Process (Refer to HRPP notes)

42
Criticisms of MBO

MBO requires more time, resources and effort of successful adaptation.

Top down communication, focussing on specific targets while ignoring some other
responsibilities, manipulative approach, inefficiency and weakness in application.

Total Quality Management: Quality and Production Interventions

Total Quality Management: Quality and Production Interventions

Definitions: TQM –the management of activities involving improving the quality of the
organization’s product or service. TQM involves moving towards corporate excellence by
integrating the desires of individuals for growth and development with organizational goals.
TQM is a philosophy and a set of guiding principles for continuous improvement.

TQM applies human resources and analytical tools to focus on meeting or exceeding customer’s
current future needs. It integrates these resources and tools into management efforts, by
providing planned, systematic approaches to improving organization performance. This involves
everyone in programs aimed at improving the total organization so that it is more customer
oriented, quality conscious, flexible and responsiveness. The purpose is to increase effectiveness
of an organization through planned improvements which influence the quality and productivity
of the organization.

TQM Values
Trust- TQM values trust and respect for each individual
Integrity- places importance on self-motivated workers who are committed to eliminating defects
and wastage. TQM also designed to promote uncompromising integrity in all internal and
external activities.
Teamwork- is also a major value in TQM. The involvement of every individual is promoted in
teamwork.

43
Characteristics of TQM
TQM is organization wide
Top management to support it
TQM is ingrained as a value in the corporate culture
Partnership with customers and suppliers
Everyone in an organisation has a customer
Reduced cycle time
Techniques of TQM range in scope (statistical quality control, job design, empowerment, self-
managed work teams)
Do it right the first time
Corporate citizenship
No single formula works for everyone

Steps in Implementing TQM

Make it clear that management is committed to quality
Form quality improvements teams with representatives from each department
Determine the current and potential quality problems
Evaluate the cost of quality and explain its use as a management tool
Raise quality awareness and person concern of all employees
Take actions to correct problems identified
Establish a committee of zero defects programme.
Train supervisors to actively carry out their part of the quality improvement programme.
Hold a ‘zero defects day’ so all employees realise that there has been a change.
Encourage individuals to establish improvements goals for themselves and their groups
Encourage employees to communicate to management the obstacles they face in attaining their
improvement goals.

44
Recognise and appreciate those who participate
Establish quality councils to communicate on regular basis.
Do it all over again to emphasize that the quality improvement programme never ends.
Compatibility of TQM and OD.

TQM and OD share similar values like both are organisation-wide, depend on planned change,
believe in empowerment and involvement, self renewing and continuous, base decision making
on data-based activities and they view people as having the inherent desire to contribute to
meaningful ways.
However OD consultant should avoid becoming TQM expert as there could be other OD
interventions to solve problems besides TQM.
Evaluation of HRD programmes
Effectiveness of HRD Programs
The degree to which HRD programs achieve its intended purpose, measure how well the desired
goal is achieved.
1. Identify strengths and weaknesses
2. Determine cost benefit ratio
3. Identify who benefited most or least
4. Identify future participants
5. Provide information for improving HRD programs
6. Is HRD a revenue contributer or a revenue user
7. Is HRD credible to line and upper level managers
8. Are benefits of HRD readily evident to all
Acknowledhge other factors that influence performance than HRD like economy, resources and
policies
Provide metrics for HRD where possible
Demonstrate value added approach for HRD
Demonstrate accountability for HRD activities

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Evaluation Models

HRD budgets are receiving more scrutiny than ever before, hence, human resources has to look
for more solid evidence to justify the investment in their programs. Chong (2005) argues that
there seems to be widespread agreement that systematic evaluation is the least well carried out
training activity. HRD evaluation models are used to assess the cost benefit, effectiveness and
the success of human resources development processes. There are myriad of training models,
namely, Multi-Rater Feedback System, Competence-based Approach, Phillips ROI
Methodology, Return on Expectation (ROE) and too many numerous to mention. These models
are Eurocentric in nature, outdated and majority are linear in nature such that they are not
iterative, as such, they need to be used with caution. However, models simplify reality and
provide the starting point in the evaluation processes. Clegg (1987) asked 43 chief training
officers at Fortune 500 companies why evaluation is not done and the responses were: (ranked in
order of importance): a) lack of time, b) lack of adequate methodology, c) lack of standards and
yardsticks, d) lack of money, e) lack of necessity to evaluate, and f) lack of expertise. Grider et
al. (1990) in some cases firms evaluate training without any particular reference to a model
because such models are not known by the human resources practitioners.

Tyler (1949) in Chong (2005) defines evaluation as a process of determining to what extent the
educational objectives are actually being realized by the curriculum and instruction. Boyle and
Jahns (1970) defined evaluation as the determination of the extent to which the desired
objectives have been attained or the amount of movement that has been made in the desired
direction. Further study by Provus (1971) in Chong (2005) conceptualized the need to have a
certain standard of performance as an objective-based criterion to judge the success of the
program. Boyle and Jahns (1970) in Chong (2005) defined evaluation as the determination of the
extent to which the desired objectives have been attained or the amount of movement that has
been made in the desired direction. Stufflebeam (1971) in Chong (2005) mentioned that
evaluation is the process of delineating, obtaining and providing useful information for judging
decision alternatives. Further study by Provus (1971) in Chong (2005) conceptualized the need to
have a certain standard of performance as an objective-based criterion to judge the success of the
program. It can be noted that the scholars are in agreement that evaluation judges the worth or

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value of the program and ensuring training objectives are met. There is need to evaluate the
training methods, leaning process, impact of training, trainee’s participation or involvement and
whether training objectives were met. The question is “Was training worth it? This means that
we should evaluate to discover whether the learning activities add value and enhance employee
capability (Martin et al., 2010).

Return on investment (ROI)

Return on investment (ROI) has been used in determining the value of an investment in financial
terms, thus, evaluating training by comparing the overall economic benefits of training with the
cost of the training. The objective of ROI calculations with training programs is to determine
program impact on organizational performance, verifies training methodologies and allows staff
to gauge their progress. This evaluation model is a self-assessment to measure learners’ comfort
level with the material pre and post training. The benefits and demerits of training are converted
into monetary values (in dollars). Learning opportunities result in higher levels of employee
promotion, increased sales, improved employee performance appraisals retention, satisfaction,
skills and knowledge, and this translates to better organizational performance. For example, time
saved or increased output (or both) as a result of improved performance following participation
in a development program can then be compared to a dollar figure (Lang, 2012). Cost worksheet
for ROI analysis normally includes, e-learning technology license enrollment costs,
materials/technology fee, salary of trainer and staff, post program evaluation, lodging, per diem
and travel expenses. ROI is important tool of strategy that builds competitive advantage and
commitment of financial resources. The formula for ROI metric is;
ROI% = Benefits – Costs X 100
Costs

Phillips’s framework is comparable to Kirkpatrick’s, but Phillips expanded Kirkpatrick’s four-

level framework by adding a fifth level, ROI. Return on investment is calculated in order to show
value, in financial terms, of a training investment (Phillips, 1991). The levels of Phillips’s
framework are (1) reaction and planned action; (2) learning; (3) job application; (4) business
results; and (5) return on investment. Communicating and reporting ROI results aids in the

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improvement process for the training program and demonstrates accountability for the program.
Level five evaluation converts the qualitative data from a level four evaluation into monetary
values. At level five, both qualitative and quantitative data are used to determine the financial
impact of the training program. The monetary benefits of the program are compared to the cost
of implementation to determine the return on investment (Phillips, 1996, 11)

ROI of training validates training and justifies the training costs. ROI also assists in selecting the
methods of instruction that are effective, the cost in terms of lost opportunity of undertaking
training and benefits of training in financial terms. The methodologies used in evaluating ROI
are control groups, Internet with the online survey tool, modelling and estimation. Examples of
ROI evaluation criteria in some organisations could be output, quality, time, cost, work habits,
work climate and attitudes, development and promotion, and innovation in dollar terms. A
successful ROI hinges on rigorous planning and disciplined approach to keep the process on
track, strict implementation schedules of training, evaluation targets, ROI analysis plans,
measurement and evaluation policies and follow-up schedules. Besides for it to be operational
there is firm sponsorship from the HR function, Board level sponsorship, partnership with other
functions and discipline in planning.

CIPP Evaluation model

CIPP model is an evaluation model for curriculum evaluation and quality of training courses
offered. The checklist proposed by Stufflebeam (1983) has the following components,
Contractual agreements, Context evaluation, Input evaluation, Process evaluation, Impact
evaluation, Effectiveness evaluation, Sustainability evaluation, Transportability evaluation, Meta
evaluation and the final synthesis report. HRD evaluation is done to determine whether the
training and development objectives were met, determine the effectiveness of the different
components of training and development programme (e.g. contents, training aids, facilities and
environment, programme schedule, etc.), determine whether the training and development
programme justifies the cost, decide who should participate in future programme, gain practical
insight in order to design, develop and deliver more effective future programmes, conform to
policy guidelines and documentation of training and development efforts, To check the extent of

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transfer of learning i.e. the extent to which a trainees applies to his/her job and determine if the
training programme maps to the needs the trainees.

On the context evaluation an organization can do the training and development needs analysis
and formulating objectives in the light of these needs. This is used to determine the extent to
which the goals and objectives of the programme matched the assessed training needs of the
organisations. On the Input Evaluation, an organization should assess the extent to which
programme strategies, procedures, and activities support the goals and objectives identified in the
needs assessment and context evaluation. It also involves evaluation of determining policies,
budgets, schedules and procedures for training programmes. Process Evaluation: A process
evaluation is the critical aspect of programme implementation. It involves evaluation of
preparation of reaction sheets, rating scales and analysis of relevant records (Prasad, 2005).
Process evaluation is a continual assessment of the implementation of the action plan that has
been developed by organisation. It is an ongoing and systematic monitoring of the programme.

The process evaluation provides a guide to implementation of training programme strategies,

procedures and activities as well as a means to identify successes and failures. The objectives of
process evaluation done by an oragnisation are to; provide feedback to organisation and their
employees about the extent to which the activities on schedule are being carried out as planned
and using time and resources in an efficient manner; provide guidance for modifying or
explicating the programmes action plan as needed, particularly since not all aspects of the plan
can be anticipated or planned in advance; assess periodically the extent to which programmes
personnel are performing their rules and carting out their responsibilities and to provide an
extension record of the programmes.

Lastly, for the Product evaluation an organization should measure and interpret the attainment of
training and development objectives. Asadi, Raza, Akbari, and Ghafor (2016) explain that
product evaluation deals with how well a student is learning in a specific context and how well
the objectives are achieved; process on the other hand, includes the experiences and activities
organized in the learning situation. In other words, product evaluation measures, interprets and
judges the extent to which an organisation’s improvement efforts have achieved either short term

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or long term goals. Haddock (2015) argues that this model addresses the utility of the data
captured, but is criticised for being administrative and managerial rather than involving a range
of stakeholders in a participatory way.

Kirkpatrick ‘s Evaluation

It is widely acknowledged that the Kirkpatrick (1994) 4-level evaluation model has been
providing the most basic thoughts on training evaluation, to establish if leaning activities were
successful, what worked well and was the cost justified by the outcome of HRD activity.

Reaction
 Did the trainees like the development/training
 Did the training seem useful to the trainees
Learning
 How much did they learn
Behavior
 What behavior change occurred
Results
 What were the tangible results?
 What was the return on investment ?
 What was the contribution to the organization?

Other Methods

Interviews
Advantages Limitations
Flexible High reactive effects

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Opportunity for clarification High cost
Depth possible Face to face threat
Personal contact Labour intensive
Trained observers needed
Questionnaires
Advantages Limitations
Low cost to administer Possible inaccurate data
Honesty increased Response conditions not controlled
Annonymity possible Respondents set varying paces
Respondents sets the pace Uncontrolled return rate
Variety of options

Direct Observations
Advantages Limitations
Nonthreatening Possibly disruptive
Excellent way to measure behavior change Reactive effects are possible
Maybe unreliable
Need trained observers

Written tests
Advantages Limitations
Low purchase cost Maybe threatening
Readily scored Possibly no relation to job performance
Quickly processed Measures only cognitive learning
Easily administered Relies on norms
Wide sampling possible Concern for racial/ethnic bias

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Simulation/Performance tests
Advantages Limitations
Reliable Time consuming
Objective Simulations often difficult to create
Close relation to job performance High costs to development and use
Includes cognitive, psychomotor and affective domains

Archival Performance Information

Advantages Limitations
Reliable Criteria for keeping/discarding records
Objective Information system discrepancies
Easy to review Indirect
Minimal reactive effects Not always usable
Records prepared for other purposes

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