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The Drivers for the Collapse of Lake Haramaya and Proposed Integrated
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Article in International Journal of River Basin Management · March 2022

DOI: 10.1080/15715124.2022.2047709

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 International Journal of River Basin Management

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The drivers for the collapse of Lake Haramaya and

proposed integrated rehabilitation strategies

Sitotaw Haile Erena, R. Uttama Reddy & Awol Akmel Yesuf

To cite this article: Sitotaw Haile Erena, R. Uttama Reddy & Awol Akmel Yesuf (2022): The drivers
for the collapse of Lake Haramaya and proposed integrated rehabilitation strategies, International
Journal of River Basin Management, DOI: 10.1080/15715124.2022.2047709

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INTL. J. RIVER BASIN MANAGEMENT
https://doi.org/10.1080/15715124.2022.2047709

RESEARCH PAPER

The drivers for the collapse of Lake Haramaya and proposed integrated
rehabilitation strategies
Sitotaw Haile Erenaa, R. Uttama Reddyb and Awol Akmel Yesufa
a
School of Geography and Environmental Studies, Haramaya University, Dire Dawa, Ethiopia; bDepartment of Geography, Jigjiga University,
Jigjiga, Ethiopia

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Lake ecosystem is facing a threat of shrink in many parts of the world and the same in Ethiopia. Lake Received 29 May 2021
Haramaya, one of the highland lakes in Ethiopia, has been dried a decade ago in 2004. This study was Accepted 30 January 2022
conducted in Lake Haramaya watershed, Eastern Hararge, Ethiopia, with the objectives of identifying
KEYWORDS
drivers of dried Lake Haramaya and proposing rehabilitation strategies. Various methodologies were Drivers; Lake Haramaya;
employed to meet the intended objectives. Drivers are identified by the study of triangulated data protection zone;
from landsat images of five decades, trend of climate change, focus group discussions, and review rehabilitation strategies
of previous research results. To see the effect of land use dynamics on the lake environment,
major LULC types were detected and the change analysis of the watershed was executed. To
investigate association between climate change and lake environment, the rainfall index method
was employed to evaluate 30 years annual rainfall distribution of Haramaya meteorological
stations. The results of this method reveal that land use for settlement, climate change, and
overexploitation of the lake within and out of the watershed were primary drivers. To propose
lake rehabilitation strategies, the study employed the United Nation man and biosphere
protection zones. The study classified the watershed into three classes as core, buffer, and
transition zones. The size of the lake in 1985 was decided as the core area and 100 metre
surrounding the core area as the buffer zone. The result of the study proposed protection of the
core area and introduction of apple fruits replacing chat in the buffer zone with prohibition of
human settlement. In addition, this study suggests that all activities that take place in the
transition zone should comply with sustainable development goal strategies. Therefore, it is highly
recommended to adopt the output and proposed strategies of this study in future rehabilitation
strategies of Lake Haramaya and its watershed.

1. Introduction
significantly affects shallow lakes all over Europe, particularly
Our world is living under the threat to natural resource the Netherlands.
depletion and water resource. Various factors have been Several studies also reveal that expansion of farming land
associated with water resource deterioration mainly with in inaccessible areas, deforestation, and the day-to-day
dried lakes. Among the multi-faceted reasons, the major demand-driven routine activities of humankind resulted in
ones are anthropogenic activities due to the population temporal and spatial changes in the land use land cover con-
growth (Gebere et al., 2015; Warra et al., 2013), land use ditions that in turn affects hydrological regulation and soil
and land cover changes (Angessa et al., 2019; Elias et al., erosion losses (Elias et al., 2019; Rawat & Kumar, 2015).
2019; Erena & Worku, 2019; Getachew & Melesse, 2012), cli- Since 1900, more than half of the world water bodies have
mate change and variability (Bressers & Kuks, 2005; Erena disappeared (vas Jeyeh, 2008). According to the same author
et al., 2018; Mooij et al., 2005; Singh & Singh, 2019), urban in Asia, about 50,000 ha of wetland and lake is degraded
growth and urbanization (Erena & Worku, 2019; Singh & every year. Although there are few lakes such as ‘Basaka
Singh, 2019), and lack of appropriate water and wetland pol- Lake’ in Ethiopia, which is exceptionally expanding, many
icies (Elias et al., 2019; Teka et al., 2013). lakes including Chad, which is one of the largest lakes in
Numerous case studies on the lake environment show Africa, and other smaller lakes of Africa are shrinking and
that deterioration of the lake is a recent phenomenon that some of them are near to dry. Ethiopia is also facing the
is happening all over the globe. Ramachandraiah and Prasad same scenario regarding the degradation of water bodies.
(2004) revealed that many water bodies were lost in Hyder- Ethiopia is one of the East African countries endowed
abad, India. Simultaneously, Rao et al. (2004) also affirmed with abundant freshwater resources that dubbed the country
the drying up of Kolleru Lake in Andhra Pradesh, India. In as the Water Tower of East Africa. Despite the ample surface
Bangladesh, Islam et al. (2012) revealed that the filling up and groundwater that amounts to 123 and 2.6 billion cubic
of the lake bed is causing lake degradation in Dhaka. Accord- metres, respectively, per annum, Ethiopia is also facing var-
ing to Srinivasan et al. (2015), urban exploitation is the pre- ious challenges from diminishing and disappearances of its
dominant factor, resulting in a decline of groundwater table. water bodies, especially lakes and rivers. Since 2000, many
Similarly, Wu and Xie (2011) also showed that urbanization Ethiopian lakes have shrunken in size, and some of them
is prominently degrading the urban lakes in Wuhan, China. have already disappeared. To mention few among many,
Mooij et al. (2007) revealed that the climate change most of the rift valley lakes such as Lake Shalla, Abjata,

CONTACT Sitotaw Haile Erena [email protected]

© 2022 International Association for Hydro-Environment Engineering and Research
2 S. H. ERENA ET AL.

Ziway, and Abaya are under the threat of survival as a result Tinike, Tuji Gabissa, Gobeselama, Ifa Haromaya, Kerensa
of coupled population pressure and climatic change. Besides Dereba, Finkille, Amuma, Adele weltaha, Haqa Becheka,
the attempt of ongoing protection by UNESCO, Man and and Kuro in Haramaya district, Kerensa Borte, Egu, Tula,
Biosphere programme, Lake Tana, the biggest highland sibilu, and Bilisuma in Kombolcha district (Figure 1). More-
lake in the country, is also shrinking in size and losing its over, the three kebeles of Haramaya town and the Haramaya
quality. Among highland lakes located in the eastern part University campus in Haramaya districts are also parts of the
of the country, Lake Haramaya and Adelle were totally disap- watershed.
peared and changed to the ephemeral lake, and Lake Tinike Lake Haramaya watershed is one of the densely populated
is also in the way. The report of Ministry of Environment, watersheds supporting about 127,645 people with a density
Forest and Climate Change (MEFCC) shows that the dimin- of 929 persons per square kilometre (CSA, 2013). This num-
ishing water bodies and their water balance become a huge ber includes the residents of three kebeles of Haramaya town
threat to the country nowadays (NIWRMP, 2018). excluding Haramaya University communities. Regarding
Many researches have been conducted with regard to agricultural practices, the majority of the population in the
Lake Haramaya (Abdulaziz 2006; Lemma, 2011; Gebre watershed are small-scale farmers engaged in crop cultiva-
et al., 2015; Wakgari & Getu, 2016). Wakgari and Getu tion, irrigation agriculture, livestock, and mixed farming.
(2016) found out that Lake Haromaya and Adele were The farmlands are intensively cultivated with horticultural
dried up because of environmental degradation and clearing crops (fruit and vegetables) and a perennial plant locally
of land for farming that increased the rate of siltation and known as ‘Chat’ (Catha edulis) in areas where there is access
dramatically decreases the lakes’ volume. The other research- to the water resource.
ers revealed that land cover changes especially the increase of The watershed contains no perennial river. The only
chat cultivation have affected the water balance of the water- source of water available to recharge the groundwater is rain-
shed by changing the groundwater level. In addition, Abdu- fall. Ethiopia experiences a bimodal distribution of rainfall,
laziz (2006) reported that the domestic consumption by with peaks in April and August. On the contrary, January
Haramaya town, Haramya University, Awasay town, and is the driest month followed by December, November, and
Harar city is found as a prominent factor behind the dried February.
Lake Haramaya. All these researchers tried to discover the With regards to soil resources, Hararghe zone is generally
drivers of the dried lake from population increase and land overlain by limestone and sandstone deposits, which began
use perspectives. Even though a set of different factors may during the Triassicperiod of the Mesozoic era and during
be generally attributable to demise Lake Haramya, still the Jurassic and Cretaceious Period of the same era. According
further factors may be complementing these drivers, for to Muleta (2002), the Highlands, including Lake Haramaya
example, climate change and others need further investi- Watershed, lie over the crystalline bedrock of prehistoric
gation. The reason why Lake Haramaya was dried cannot Gondwana continent. Hence, Lake Haramaya watershed is
be answered simply by studying site-specific kebeles in rich with different types of soils such as leptosols, Haplic xer-
which the lake was located. Therefore, considering the osols, chromic cambisols, dystric gleysols, chromic vertisols,
whole watershed that drains the lake is very important. and dystric nitisols. According to the USDA soil texture
Although the derivers of demise Lake Haramaya have been classification system, two soil texture classes were observed
the subject for various researchers, the majority of them in the study area. These texture classes were sandy clay loam
intensively tried to list out the drivers and little attention and sandy loam (Mohammed et al., 2018).
has been vested on the way how the lake can be rehabilitated In the case of land use, Lake Haramaya watershed is cov-
again. Considering these gaps, this study aims (1) to identify ered mainly by bushes of various species of shrubs such as
the drivers of dried Lake Haramaya from the climate change Khat (Catha edulis), acacia, Junipers, and large trees like
perspective and (2) to propose the watershed level appropri- Eucalyptus, which are scattered around homesteads. The
ate for lake rehabilitation planning strategies that could help farming system is a mixture of crop and livestock pro-
to design appropriate solutions for communities and govern- duction. Khat (Catha edulis), which is the main cash crop,
ment structures that want to restore the lake in practice and is dominantly grown in the study area with the irrigation sys-
to recommend various types of structural and biological tem of agriculture. The irrigation water source is dominantly
strategies for lake rehabilitation activities that should take traditional hand-dug, which are developed by the farmers
place in different conservation zones. themselves.

2.2. Data type and data sources

2. Materials and methods
To achieve the intended objectives, the study demanded var-
2.1. Description of the study area
ious types of data from various sources. These include both
The study area map of Lake Haramaya was demarcated with primary and secondary data. To identify drivers that lead
the principle of watershed-based delineation. The watershed to the collapse of lake, spatial and climate data such as rain-
of Lake Haramaya is located in Haramaya Woreda and partly fall, temperature, satellite image, and digital elevation model
in Kombolcha districts, eastern Hararghe zone, Oromia (DEM) were collected from different sources. Regarding cli-
region. The watershed approximately lies between 9° 22’ mate data 40 years (1960–2013), rainfall and temperature
30’’ and 9° 30’ 00’’ north latitude and 41° 58’ 30’’ to 42° 6’ data were collected from Ethiopian Meteorological Agencies
30’’ east longitude, with an altitude range of 1965–2433 (EMA). The satellite image of different years 1985, 1995,
metre above the sea level. 2000, 2006, 2014, and 2021 with 54/166 path and rows
The watershed covers an area of 14,010 ha and comprises were downloaded freely from USGS earth explorer. January1
about 18 peasant associations. These are Ifa Bate, Damota, was the acquisition date for all satellite images except for the
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RIVER BASIN MANAGEMENT 3

Figure 1. Location map of the study area.

1985, which is March 1. The selection of each satellite image Land use land cover analysis was carried out to observe
was done with various objectives. 1985 was selected to trace the trend of various land uses that affect the well-being of
back the status of the lake in the 1980s following the intro- the lake. Before the classification work was done, geometric
duction of satellite image technologies. In the same way, and spectral correction of the images was done with the
1995 was used to see the trend of the lake in 1900s. On the help of 1:50,000 topo sheets to select the proper band combi-
other way, satellite images of 2000 and 2006 were selected nation. Then, the unsupervised classification of LULC analy-
to show the effect of global climate change on Lake Hara- sis was done by considering indices for water, vegetation,
maya. Finally, 2014 and 2021 were selected to see the impact agriculture, grassland, bush, forest, and bare lands. Later,
of soil and water conservation strategies and the current sta- the supervised classification was made for the year 2014
tus of the lake, respectively. Each satellite image is presented and 2021 by taking six signature editors of historical GPS
in detail in Table 1. data from respective land uses. Furthermore, the supervised
As the acquisition date of each satellite image was done classification for the rest of the years was done by using Goo-
during the dry season, the weather condition of the study gle earth image and other aerial photographs. To supplement
area was cloud free with less canopy cover. The digital the result of the spatial analysis of the watershed, primary
elevation model (DEM; with a grid size of 30 × 30 m) was data were collected through interviews and focus group dis-
downloaded from US Geological Survey (USGS). On the cussions. The focus group discussion was conducted with the
other way to recommend appropriate structural and biologi- selected eight elders who have been living in the study area
cal activities at different protection zones, soil, slope, and for more than 30 years. The main reason behind the selection
geology data are needed. The soil map used for soil type of the elders is they can recall their past 30–40 years of land
identification of the watershed was obtained from the Soil use and land cover and the history of the dried Lake Hara-
and Land Use Survey of Ethiopia. The percentage of slope maya and the surrounding districts.
rise and the geologic nature of the watershed were extracted
from DEM.
2.3. Data analysis

Table 1. Presentation of satellite image data type, source, and collection

Land use and land cover classification was made using EDR-
technique. DAS imagine classic interface and Arc GIS 9.3. Finally, the
Data classification was done by using the supervised and unsuper-
Sensor source Method of data collection vised classification. The supervised classification was done by
Landsat TM, (1985, 1995) USGS Download with path and row of 54/ taking control point using the global positioning system
online 166
Landsat ETM + , (2000, USGS Download with path and row of 54/
(GPS) from the field survey for different land uses except
2006) online 166 vegetation cover. The unsupervised classification was done
Landsat OLI, (2014, 2021) USGS Download with path and row of 54/ using normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) =
online 166
(NIR – VIS)/(NIR + VIS), which is automatically computed
4 S. H. ERENA ET AL.

by ERDAS imagine software so as to ease the classification Transitional zone: Transition zone is the agricultural belt
for vegetation cover. The land use of the watershed was surrounding the buffer of a lake, where the settlement and
classified under seven classes as water body, settlement, variety of farming is practiced (Bunnara & van Tuyll,
bare land, cultivated land, grasses, bush/sparse trees, and for- 2000). To recommend appropriate structural and biological
est/aquatic vegetation using supervised image classification activities that should take place in different zones of conser-
technique of the maximum likelihood method. vation areas, recommendation of appropriate structural and
The effect of climate was assessed by employing the stan- biological lake rehabilitation mechanisms has done based on
dardized rainfall anomaly. The frequency distribution of the geographic feature analysis of the area. This includes
annual rainfall was assessed for the year 1960–2013. The rainfall, temperature, soil type, elevation, slope, and econ-
annual rainfall distribution of each year and standardized omic and environmental advantage. The slope of the study
annual rainfall index was computed and examined for Har- area affects the type and nature of structural and biological
amaya stations (FAO, 1998) using Equation (1): method of lake rehabilitation strategies. Slope data of the

watershed were extracted from DEM with the help of Global
Z = (xi − x)/ d. (1) mapper, ERDAS classic imagine, and Arc GIS 9.3 software.
Finally, the slope class was categorized based on the inter-
If Z < −1, it would be below normal. national slope classification standards of WOCAT (2010).
The standard classifies 0–2% as flat, 2–5% as gentle, 5–8%
If −1 ≤Z ≤ 1, it would be normal. as moderate, 8–16% as rolling, 16–30% as hilly, and 30–
Z > 1, it would be above normal. 60% as steep. Slope classification was used to decide the
type of the structural method of soil and water conservations
where Z = Standardized minimum rainfall anomaly, ∑d is techniques suitable for the specific slope category. This was
the standard deviation,
x is the mean annual rainfall records, done to enhance the rehabilitation of the area through redu-
and xi is the observed annual rainfall. cing soil erosion and degradation. Similarly, biological rec-
To classify the protection zones, United Nations (UN) ommendation was also done on the basis of the slope classes.
man and biosphere guideline were employed. The guideline The other equally important method employed to address
suggests the protection of the most important resource at this objective was the analysis of the soil map of the study
risk should have three classification zones termed as core, area. Information of soil was used to decide the agricultural
buffer, and transitional zones. activities and types of plants and vegetation suitable for the
Core area: Core area is a conservation area surrounded by specific soil type. Accordingly, the characteristics of each
buffer zones. According to the UNESCO definition of man soil type were described from FAO soil description of
and biosphere, core area is defined as a lake, national parks, 1968. ArcGIS 9.3 software was used to delineate and calculate
wildlife sanctuary, forests, and other resources, which have a the area and soil type of the study area watershed.
wide range of advantages, where conservation and protection With regard climatic information, the climate data
are the priority of management option (Bunnara & van Tuyll, obtained from Haramaya meteorological station was used
2000). According to this definition, the core area is the area to see the effect climate change on dried Lake Haramaya.
that is totally free of human interference neither for settlement Accordingly, the 35 years of rainfall and temperature data
nor for agricultural practices except off farm activities. To of the station were analyzed for the year 1979–2013. Excel
decide the size of Lake Haramaya core area, the review of software was fundamental software used to schematically
different literature, past satellite image detection of lake size, present the temperature ad rainfall data of the study area.
UN man and biosphere guideline, and focus group discussions The elevation data obtained from GPS reading are also con-
were employed. Since the objective of this study was to reha- sidered as input for the suitability analysis.
bilitate the lake, knowing the past size of the lake is very impor- Finally, the 1985 year satellite image analysis result of the
tant. Hence, the analysis of 1985 satellite image was used to Lake Haramaya size (400 ha) is considered as the core area.
obtain the size of the core area. The arc GIS 9.3 software Areas with 100 m radius from the 1985 Lake size are
was used to work on the core area and buffer zone delineation. proposed to be the buffer zone. Accordingly, 135 ha of
Buffer zone: The buffer zone is defined as ‘a zone, periph- land surrounding the core area is proposed as a buffer
eral to a national park or equivalent reserve, where restrictions zone. These two zones were identified and mapped using
are placed upon resource use or special development measures GIS software.
are undertaken to enhance the conservation value of the area’
(Sayer, 1991). In the literature, there is no standard blueprint
model for the demarcation of the buffer zone (Ebregt & Greve, 3. Results and discussion
2000). The size of the buffer is determined based on the 3.1. Drivers for collapse of the Lake
resource value, the intensity of adjacent land use, buffer
characteristics (slope, soil type), and special buffer functions Various factors were identified as drivers for the collapsed
(Tewksbury conservation commission, 2013). At any con- Lake Haramaya. The major ones are land use and land
ditions, as the size and the width of a buffer increase, the effec- cover change, climate change effect, and over extraction of
tiveness of conservation increases. In most literature, the the lake water. Likewise, the review of previous scholars
minimum width of any buffer is decided not to be less than study also associated the collapse of Lake Haramaya with
50 feet (Ebregt & Greve, 2000; Tewksbury conservation com- human and climate factors (Lemma, 2011).
mission, 2013). The literature review and UN man and bio-
sphere guideline were used to decide the size of the buffer 3.1.1. Land use and land cover change of the watershed
zone. Focus group discussion was also used to decide the In case of land use and land cover change, the 1985, 1995,
buffer size of the lake. 2000, 2006, 2014, and 2021 satellite image analysis result
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RIVER BASIN MANAGEMENT 5

shows that the watershed has been experiencing dynamics of time. However, following the increase of economic reward
land use that aggravate the collapse of the lake (Figure 2). and export value, chat, which is the most water-consuming
Agriculture is the primary land use within the study area crop, becomes the dominant crop in the watershed. Even
where the crop production is the main agricultural activity. after the collapse of the lake, the situation continues, and
Most land is used for crops and permanent plants, which many deep boreholes are present to pump chat irrigations.
include sorghum, maize, chat, and vegetables. Most of the As a result, the lake has gone beyond revival. Hence, Yesuf
farmland, which is located in the gentle slope of alluvial et al. (2013) concluded that the pumped abstraction from
cover, is used for crops and vegetables, while the hilly side the ephemeral lake bed, which is 71.2. l/s, is higher than
of weathered basement is covered by chat. abstraction that had been used for domestic supply, which
According to Wakgari and Getu (2016), the land use prac- was 60 l/s. This unwise use of water resources for irrigation
tice of the study area had brought negative impact on soil complemented with other factors contributed to the gradual
conservation and management. He stated that high popu- shrink and then collapse of the lake.
lation increase over the limited land area in the northern In addition to irrigation purpose, the lake was exploited
high land of the study area resulted in the indiscriminate for- for domestic and municipal purposes by residents both
est clearing, overgrazing, absence of soil conservation, and within the watershed and out of the watershed (Brook,
poor soil management. Similarly, Angessa et al. (2019) also 2006). Within the boundary of the watershed, the lake
confirmed that the land use condition of the watershed has water has been used by residents of Haramaya town and Har-
greatly contributed to siltation (sedimentation) on Lake Har- amaya University. Moreover, the lake water had been serving
amaya and its surrounding area. This unwise land use prac- the residents of Harar town who were out of the lake water-
tice and poor land tillage lead to the siltation process and shed. According to Abdulaziz (2006), following the inade-
have caused much amount of soil erosion to be carried and quacy of Sofi spring water to fully cover the water demand
deposited on the lake floor. In addition, the energy consump- of the city, Harar city turns its face to Lake Haramaya to
tion of the watershed is another factor. Except for Haramaya satisfy the overpopulated water demands of the city dweller.
University and Haramaya town, other communities of the The findings of Yesuf et al. (2013) showed that before its col-
watershed depend on traditional energy sources. As pre- lapse in 2004, the Haramaya lake has been serving 70,000
sented in Table 2, the classified land use land cover of the population of Harar and 150,000 dwellers of Aweday and
study area shows that a lot of changes took place in different Haramaya town. Further reports indicate that even after
years from 1985 to 2016. the collapse of the lake and treatment plant was completely
Table 2 shows that the area of water body, forest, and shut, Harari Water Supply and Sewerage Service Authority
grass land were decreasing throughout since 1985–2021. (HWSSSA) went in an all-out campaign of digging boreholes
On the contrary, the size of settlement, cultivated land, and into the ephemeral lake beds and drilled seven (2009/10)
shrub/bush land were dramatically increasing throughout deep boreholes in the basin to provide domestic water supply
the study period (Figure 3). The increment in shrub land is for Harar. Beside for domestic purpose, Hararar brewery fac-
mainly associated with the increment of chat cultivation. tory also had been using the water from the lake. Currently,
The overall accuracy assessment using the confusion the brewery uses water from Finqille and kereensa kebeles
matrix of the LULC was made for each classified image. located very close to Lake Tinike, which is a seasonal tribu-
The results of overall accuracy show that 0.85 for 1985, tary of Lake Haramaya. This shows that unless rehabilitation
0.84 for 1995, 0.86 for 2000, 0.88 for 2006, 0.88 for 2014, and appropriate watershed management strategies and plan-
and 0.85 for 2021. In the same way, the overall kappa stat- ning are applied, the current ongoing use of water resources
istics for each classified image shows 0.82 for 1985, 0.81 for in those villages will be a threat for Lkae Tinke as well.
1995, 0.83 for 2000, 0.86 for 2006, 0.86 for 2014, and 0.83
for 2021. The details of each accuracy assessment are pre- 3.1.3. Impact of climate change on Haramaya Lake
sented in Table 3. during (1985–2021)
From this increase and decrease conditions of different The dry of Lake Haramya was not an overnight process. The
land use, we can deduce that there is a direct association lake has been showing a continuous size decrease since 1985
between the size of the lake and different land uses such as as shown in Figure 4. Many factors can be associated with the
forest, settlement, bare land, and cultivation land. Whenever demise lake. However, the year at which the lake totally dried
the forest cover, bush land, and grass cover decrease, the size and become the ephemeral lake shows that climate change
of the water body decreases. This shows that good vegetation has been boldly affecting the Lake Haramya. The result of
cover increases soil infiltration capacity, which in turn the satellite image analysis shows that the lake was dried
increases the groundwater of the watershed, which can and become ephemeral lake in 2004.
increase the size of the lake through the underground flow. Currently, in 2021, the lake has shown a good progress of
restoration for possible various reasons. In the first place, the
3.1.2. Overexploitation of the lake water extreme rainfall that take place over the eastern Africa and
Culturally, societies of Haramaya woreda in general and the Horn of Africa in 2020 made the major dried springs
communities near the lake in particular were relied on irriga- to restore in many parts of Ethiopia, including the eastern
tion agriculture using the lake water. From the past to pre- part of the country, where Lake Haramaya is located. In
sent, the different types of vegetation such as potato, addition, the termination of Harer brewery exploitation
onion, cabbage, and chat have been the dominant types of coupled with the soil and water conservation activities that
crops cultivated near the lake areas. Through time, in the Haramaya woreda and Haramaya university are under-
addition to fruit and vegetation cultivation, the community taking is believed to be enhancing the restoration of the
started to cultivate maize and other cereal crops that con- lake. Moreover, even though the activity is lately started,
sume a high amount of water and take a long harvesting the ongoing national wide green legacy campaign can be
6 S. H. ERENA ET AL.

Figure 2. Land use land cover change of Lake Haramaya watershed (1985, 1995, 2000, 2006, 2014, and 2021).

the notable reasons that can be associated with the restor- would dry up in 15 years. However, the lake did not live
ation progress of Lake Haramaya. The size of the lake at that long time and completely vanished in 2004–2005.
each year of image analysis is presented in Table 4. Although other factors are complementing the drivers of
Similar to the satellite image analysis, the meteorological demise lake such as (Shimelis, 2003) the increasing water
data of Haramaya station shows that the record of annual abstraction for irrigation, the year at which the lake collapsed
rainfall data in the station is significantly decreasing between confirms that the climate change is a major cause behind the
the year 2000 and 2005 (Figure 5). The complement of these dried Lake Haramaya. In supplementing this, the trend of the
results shows that climate change has been affecting the size annual rainfall data of Haramaya meteorological station
and well-being of the lake and aggravated the collapse of shows that precipitation had been significantly decreasing
Lake Haramaya. through 2000–2007.
The collapse of the lake in 2004 shows that the global cli- The trend analysis of rainfall distribution shows that high
mate change that took place between 2003 and 2005 has rainfall was recorded in 1966, 1967, 1968, 1983, and 2013,
imposed a significant impact in eliminating the survival while the least rainfalls were recorded in 1969 and 2002 at
struggle of Lake Haramaya. In line with this, Yesuf et al. Haramaya meteorological station. From the least rainfall
(2013) indicated that the trend of warmer temperatures records, the 2002 rainfall condition has a strong association
that had happened since the mid-1980s has increased the with the year at which the Haramaya Lake was dried. For this
rate of evaporation from the lake. The shrinking of this justification, it is also good to compare the rainfall distri-
already small lake had been the concern of many previous butions of the years following 2002. With similar conditions,
researchers (Hawando, 1980, 1981; Heluf & Yohannes, the result of the year 2003, 2004, 2005, and 2006 shows that
1997; Yesuf et al., 2013) in the past few decades. However, the consecutive decrease of rainfall in these years was below
as no tangible attempts were been made to save it, the lake the standardized anomaly of rainfall and confirms that the
dried up completely showing a gradual decrease that could climate change took place between 2002 and 2006 at Hara-
allow the possibility of intervention. Based on erosion and maya meteorological station had aggravated the collapse of
sedimentation analysis, Solomon (2002) predicted that lake the lake that dried up in 2004.

3.2. Zoning protection area

Table 2. Land use class with respective to area coverage.
LULC Type 1985 1995 2000 2006 2014 2021
The selection of the lake restoration principle may vary from
Water body 4.2 4.0 2.9 2.6 2.8 3.3
lake to lake depending on the results obtained from the feasi-
Settlement 2.6 2.9 5.0 5.8 7.9 9.8 bility study of the lake. Lake restoration is a mechanism of
Bare land 39.7 40.1 47.9 58.3 48.6 44.3 restoring a lake to its previous conditions and presumably
Cultivated land 36.6 39.0 35.9 28.2 36.5 40.3
Grass 33.8 32.8 26.9 24.8 24.3 20.6
to the better state. In other words, it is the action to be
Shrub/bush vegetation 12.3 12.3 12.9 13.9 12.8 14.2 taken to correct to the possible extent, the abstraction hap-
Forest/aquatic veg 7.6 5.7 5.3 3.1 3.9 4.1 pened (vas Jeyeh, 2008). Based on the analysis made so far,
Total 136.8 136.8 136.8 136.8 136.8 136.6
the main driver factor for the collapse of Lake Haramaya
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RIVER BASIN MANAGEMENT 7

demarcated, and consensus agreements were not yet estab-

lished. Currently, most of the lands that have been under
the lake territory were converted to farm lands by individuals
and institutions bordering the lake. So the plan of lake restor-
ation and rehabilitation starts with the demarcation of core
areas, which should be left for only conservation purposes.
Applying the egg model (Hedden-Dunkhorst & Schmitt,
2020) to the study area, watershed helps to facilitate the
lake rehabilitation planning strategies of Lake Haramaya.
The 1985 territory of the lake that covers around 400 ha
should be protected as a core area. This zone should be
free of settlement, agricultural practices, and digging of bore-
holes into the ephemeral lake beds. Various activities can be
planned to supplement the household who have been relying
on the core area to generate their income . This includes the
introduction of fishery products in the core area that can be
managed by the surrounding community and committees
composed of professionals in a sustainable manner, introdu-
cing traditional and modern recreational activities using
boats in which the youth can establish small micro enter-
prises to generate incomes that can discourage abusing
core area protection. Moreover, the government NGO and
other institutions should enhance the livelihood of house-
holds that depend on exploiting the lake core areas. This
includes the provision of school materials and free schooling
for their children that can be handled in collaboration with
Haramya University and different levels education offices
of the Oromia Regional States.
The buffer zone is used for ecological friendly practices
such as farming or tourism. Lakes, wetlands, rivers, streams,
and ponds do not thrive in isolation. Therefore, their health
Figure 3. Schematic presentation of LULC change of the watershed (1985–
2021).
existence depends on their surrounding environment and
upper catchments that drain into them. Currently, buffer
zones are widely used in natural resource conservation pro-
was emanated from the mismanagements of natural cesses (Sayer, 1991). Buffer zone is ‘ any area, often periph-
resources within the watershed. eral to a protected area in which activities are implemented
Lake is fed by its watershed. Therefore, it is very impor- or the area managed with the aim of enhancing the positive
tant that restoration efforts also address the surrounding and reducing the negative impacts of conservation’ (Ebregt &
watershed area. The watershed management can be Greve, 2000). Therefore, the whole idea of buffering is to pro-
addressed through on-site and off-site management tect a periphery of a protected area to reduce the negative
techniques. impacts from human beings on the protected area. Like the
On-site strategies are rehabilitation activities that take core area, buffer zone conservations have some restrictions
place at the site where the lake is located. To practice this that include prohibition of human settlements in the zone.
on-site watershed management, it is important to categorize Buffer functions are most effective when adjacent develop-
the whole watershed into different zones. Zoning is a wisely ment is of low intensity, greater than 50 feet wide, and land-
used technique to divide areas of land within the given area owners understand the rationale for establishing buffers
into distinct areas based on the suitability of the zones for (Tewksbury conservation commission, 2013). A buffer
different effective activities. For easy category, the watershed zone width of 50–645 feet is recommended for areas where
is classified as core, buffer, and transitional zone (Figure 7). the groundwater is lowered as a result of development activi-
The core area is delineated based on 1985 satellite image ties (Tewksbury conservation commission, 2013). Accord-
analysis and cover an area of 400 ha. Likewise, 135 ha of ingly, the consensus was reached to recommend 100 m of
land/wet land located subsequent to the lake was identified buffer to rehabilitate Lake Haramaya.
as buffer zone (Figure 7). Areas located surrounding the The land use in the buffer zone should not plane purely
buffer areas are considered as transitional zones (Figure 7). from the economic point of view. Rather, it should recognize
The activities that took place in the two inner zones of the multi-dimensional aspects such as environment of the
core area and buffer zones are termed as on-site activities. area, safety of the lake, and socioeconomic conditions of
They are termed as on-site for the fact that whatever action communities within the buffer zone. Therefore, the manage-
takes place in these areas can exert a direct impact on the ment of the buffer zone should be done based on the rec-
lake under rehabilitation. ommendations of activities that benefit both the society
Core area: A core area represents a legally protected site and the lake, which is under the rehabilitation process.
for the conservation of biodiversity and limits activities The practice of any activities in the buffer zone is
beyond conservation to research and education only (Lour- imposed by certain restrictions in line with the objectives
ival et al., 2011). The core area of Lake Haramaya was not of lake rehabilitation. Accordingly, the buffer zone should
8 S. H. ERENA ET AL.

Table 3. Accuracy assessment using confusion matrix: produces accuracy, user accuracy, over all accuracy, and kappa coefficients.
1985 1995 2000 2006 2014 2021
LULC Type PA UA PA UA PA UA PA UA PA UA PA UA
Water 91.43 88.89 85.71 88.24 85.71 88.24 91.43 96.97 94.29 97.06 94.29 89.19
Settlement 85.71 85.71 88.57 88.57 91.43 94.12 94.29 89.19 97.14 79.07 88.57 88.57
Bare land 81.43 85.07 82.86 86.57 85.71 85.71 87.14 85.92 87.14 92.42 87.14 85.92
Cultivated land 84.29 84.29 81.43 83.82 84.29 81.94 88.57 87.32 81.43 87.69 80.00 83.58
Grass land 87.14 82.43 85.71 80.00 85.71 85.71 82.86 86.57 87.14 85.92 82.86 85.29
Bush 82.86 86.57 82.86 81.69 82.86 84.06 85.71 89.55 88.57 88.57 84.29 86.76
Forest 82.86 80.56 85.71 85.71 88.57 86.11 91.43 82.05 91.43 88.89 88.57 79.49
Overall accuracy 0.85 0.84 0.86 0.88 0.88 0.85
Overall kappa statistics 0.82 0.81 0.83 0.86 0.86 0.83

be free of the pest side and fertilizer use so as to minimize technologies related to the sustainable use of land and
the threat to water quality and aquatic animals. Therefore, water resources, and the use of renewable energy to provide
the land inside the buffer zone should not expose to agricul- stimulate employment (Coetzer et al., 2014; Makenzi, 2013).
tural production processes, which demand the use of these
chemicals. Moreover, the planning of the buffer zone
3.3. Proposed rehabilitation strategies in different
advises other alternative land use systems that also support
conservation zones
lake rehabilitation.
Currently, the land that was under the lake territory was To introduce new variety crops that replace water-intensive
converted to agricultural land, mainly chat crops (Catha edu- crops and simultaneously contributing equivalent economic
lis). However, since chat crops needs high consumption of rewards, the analysis of geographic features of the buffer
water, it has been exerting high pressure on the lake under zone (soil, slope, rainfall, altitude, and temperature) is help-
rehabilitation. Therefore, to undertake activities that can fit ful. If these conditions allow, it is possible to introduce valu-
the lake rehabilitation and economic benefits of the society, able fruits, which have high economic reward and at the
it is important to look at alternatives for farm activities same time enhances the lake rehabilitation activities.
and the introduction of new variety crops. Rainfall: The observation of 35 years rainfall data record
The transition zones are allowed for various activities of the Haramaya metrological station shows that in most of
such as subsistence crop and livestock farming to commer- the years the area receives rainfall within the range of 800–
cial agriculture, trade, industry, and tourism. Examples 1000 mm per year with Figure 5-6.
across the world show that transitional zones are fostering Temperature: Regarding temperature, the same metrolo-
local economic development by generating additional gical station record tells that the area is receiving an average
income and employment opportunities associated with yearly temperature within the range of 15–16°C with mini-
different economic sectors (Carius, 2016; Makenzi, 2013; mum and maximum annual range of −4°C to 20°C,
Nautiyal et al., 2001). However, these activities need to com- respectively.
ply with the sustainability development goals and subjected Altitude: In terms of altitude, the reading from GPS
to some haphazard and non-environmental friendly activity shows that the watershed is located within the altitudinal
restrictions. This restriction includes the backward use of the range of 1965–2433 m above the sea level. A specific area
agricultural system, open grazing, adoption of new of the lake is 2060 m above the sea level.

Figure 4. Size of Lake Haramaya in different years (1965–2016).

 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RIVER BASIN MANAGEMENT 9

Table 4. Size of the lake at each respective study years. As displayed earlier, all the areas in the buffer zone meet
Year Lake size in hectare the requirements. For example, the altitude is about 2060
1985 223.49 m.a.s.l, the rainfall is 800–1000 mm, the area is free of forests
1995 105.52 that avoid penetration of sunlight and gentle slope, and the
2000 31.23
2006 100.29 two soil types also fulfil the requirement to be recommended
2014 288.09 for apple fruit cultivation.
2021 366.70 Based on this analysis, apple fruit is recommended to be
planted inside the buffer zone for various reasons. In the
Soil type: The watershed is rich in different soil types. first place, it helps to rehabilitate the area. Secondly, it boosts
Among these soil types, the buffer zone lies within two of the economy of the community. From the economic point of
the soil type chromic vertisols and dystric gleysols. Both view, the apple fruit is a fruit of high market value. One kilo-
soils have a pH value less than 6.5. Gleysols are wetland gram of apple costs 120 birr. At one harvest time, a single
soils with bluish subsoil located in the areas with shallow apple tree can yield about 30–40 kg, which can generate an
groundwater. The vertisols are better fertile soils composed income of 3600–4800 birr annually. In addition, the apple
of 30–95% of clay. fruit is important for health and become the symbol of
Slope: The topography of the watershed varies from the flat wholesomeness. Traditionally, it has been said that, ‘an
to steep slope. Accordingly, rolling and moderate are the apple a day keeps away from the doctor’. This shows that
dominant slopes flowed by gentle slope with an area coverage the fruits have a lot of nutritional elements, anti-oxidants,
of 30, 22, and 15%, respectively. Conversely, the steep and flat vitamin C, and dietary fibres, which inhibit cancer-inducing
slope followed by hilly slope is the least from the bottom hav- substances.
ing area coverage of 3%, 11%, and 13%, respectively, and see From the environment and lake rehabilitation point of
Figure 8. The slope of the area also determines the topography, view, the fruit helps to avoid soil erosion. This is done by
soil, and water conservation activity of the watershed. planting a fruit in rows parallel to contour intercropped
with annual and perennial crops. The profit of apple is to
protect soil erosion and to increase the income. According
3.3. Conservation strategies inside the buffer zone to the estimate done by the Ministry of agriculture, about
The objectives of planning inside the buffer zone have two 250–310 quintals of fruits are harvested from a hectare of
missions. The first is to control erosion and pollutions that land (MoA, 2013).
enter into the core area. The second one is to provide income On top of the field between different lines of apple tree,
generation opportunities for the person whose lands fall grasses can be grown to protect the field from splash erosion.
inside the buffer zone territory. When crop selection is Based on the altitude of the area, elephant grasses are rec-
made, the roles of crops on the livelihood of concerned com- ommended to be grown inside the rows of the apple tree.
munity, suitability of soil, and agro-climatic conditions of the The grasses have also two advantages. Primarily, it protects
study watershed should be evaluated (FAO, 1918). There- splash erosion. Secondly, it could be a potential source of
fore, the management and rehabilitation of buffer zone plan- income for the farmers and at the same time enhances the
ning should focus on the rainfall, soil type, altitude, cultural and modern way of cattle fattening activities prac-
temperature, and agro-ecology of the area. ticed in the area.
The geographic features of the buffer zone displayed ear-
lier show high suitability for the introduction of apple fruit 3.3.1. Conservation strategies inside the transition zone
(Anna). According to the manual prepared by Ministry of Transition zone is the agricultural belt surrounding the
agriculture, apple fruit requires rainfall of 800–1000 mm, buffer of a lake, where settlement and variety of farming
well-drained and sandy loom soil, elevation of 1900–2700 activities are practiced. Inside the transitional zone, except
m above the sea level, pH value of 5.5–6.5 with a good pos- mechanized farming especially owned by investors, others
ition to sunshine, and free of big tree shade (MOA, temper- types of farming are also possible. However, all activities
ate fruit manual, 2013). should go in line with the objectives of lake rehabilitation.

Figure 5. Rainfall distribution of Haramaya Metrological station 1979–2013.

10 S. H. ERENA ET AL.

Figure 6. Standardized daily extreme rainfall anomalies of Haramaya station (1960–2014).

For areas with steep slope: The pressure on the lake has
increased in response to the population growth of the water-
shed. As a result, people used the land with slope that do
not deserve for cultivation. From the slope distribution of
watershed shown in Figure 8, the steep slope occupies 130
ha. In these areas, the construction of terraces lined with the
planting of natural forest could be the appropriate soil and
water conservation planning. This strategy is helpful for
areas with high altitude and steep slopes. This type of rehabi-
litation strategy can be done in various ways. The first one is
through the planting of quick growing popular plantations to
stabilize slopes and prevent wind and water erosion. The
second is to plant highland fruits that can provide high econ-
Figure 7. Core and buffer zones of Lake Haramaya.
omic returns concomitant to soil and water protection.
Thirdly, as these steep areas are not appropriate for agricul-
tural activities, it should be reserved as communal land or
Rapid population growth and expansion of agriculture on lands under the government institution and free of farm
the expense of forest land had increased the use of pesticides activities (Figures 9–11).
and fertilizer in the transition zone, which posed a negative The soil maps of the area in which the steep slopes are
impact and aggravated the collapse of lake. Therefore, con- located are dystric Nitosols, which are well-drained, deep,
servational planning of transitional zones is also important and red tropical soils. In terms of elevation, these areas were
to sustain the rehabilitation of the lake. To eradicate threats located at about 2300 m a. s. l and getting better rainfall than
from the transition zone, different conservation mechanisms lake sites. In this case, recommendation of apple fruit is feasible
are proposed as follows. for economy and rehabilitation of the watershed as well.

Figure 8. Basic configuration of a biosphere reserve, based on the egg model for core, buffer, and transition zones (red, yellow, and green), respectively, adopted
from (Lourival et al., 2011)).
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RIVER BASIN MANAGEMENT 11

Figure 9. Protection zone division of the study area.

The proposed non-structural methods to control soil ero-

sion of these places can be agro forestry techniques of culti-
vation systems. Agro forestry is the combined cultivation of
annual or perennial crops with trees in the field. Agro for-
estry has multi-dimensional advantages in that it can be
used to increase crop diversity, stabilize slopes, moderate cli-
mate, produce pleasant smells, and rehabilitate both soil and
water bodies. To implement the strategies, it needs identify-
ing of tree stocks appropriate to the climate and geographic
condition of the area. Therefore, establishing of fruit trees
intercropped with perennial trees and foliage grasses can
be advantageous.
Structurally, stone terraces and walls can control the pro-
blem in areas where stones are available. In areas where there
is no stone, soil bund can replace terracing. Terrace helps to
bring sloping land into different level strips to enable the cul-
Figure 10. Soil distribution of Lake Haramaya watershed. tivation of various crops in these landscapes.
For rolling and moderate slope: Among possible alterna-
tives of soil and water conservation techniques, soil bund
For areas with hilly slopes: Hilly slopes are areas within that is throwing soil to dawn slope is recommended in
the slope of 16–30%. This category of land in the watershed areas of rolling slope category. It is suitable mostly in med-
accounts about 1910 ha. The effect from the vast areas of hilly ium and high rainfall areas with well-drained soils. The
land scape in the study area, imposed a siltation problem that bund reduces and stops the velocity of runoff and conse-
has caused the lake to lose its depth rapidly. To curve these quently reduces soil erosion. In the same way, among mod-
problem, areas under this landscape should be rehabilitated erate slope categories, Fanya juu construction, which is a
by structural and non- structural method. throwing of soil up slopes, also helps to retain the maximum
possible rainwater that can cause runoff. Both methods can
be applied on cultivated lands with slopes above 3% and
below 15% gradient.

4. Conclusion
Lake ecosystem is facing a threat of shrink all over the world.
In the similar manner, many lakes in Ethiopia are getting
shrink and some have already disappeared. Of the dried
lakes of Ethiopia, Lake Haramaya, which is found in eastern
Hrarghe, has collapsed a decade ago. According to the
studies conducted by different scholars, drying of the lake
was associated with human and natural factors.
The human factors were emanated from excessive extrac-
tion of lake water for irrigation agriculture and domestic
purpose of communities inside and outside the watershed.
In addition to these conditions, the change of land use sys-
Figure 11. Slope of Lake Haramaya watershed. tems in response to population pressure and impact from
12 S. H. ERENA ET AL.

global climatic changes that had affected the country in the Erena, S. H., Worku, H., & De Paola, F. (2018). Flood hazard mapping
2005 exacerbated the dry of the lake. As a result, the lake using FLO-2D and local management strategies of Dire Dawa city,
Ethiopia. Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies, 19, 224–239.
that had been under shrinking condition totally disappeared
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in 2005. FAO. (1998). Irrigation and Drainage, No 56, FAO, Rome, Italy.
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egy in line with UN man and biosphere protection area Performance of high resolution satellite rainfall products over data
guideline and classified the lake watershed into three conser- scarce parts of Eastern Ethiopia. Remote Sensing, 7(9), 11639–
11663. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs70911639
vation areas as core, buffer, and transitional zones. Combin- Gebriye, S. (2003). Performance evaluation of small scale irrigation prac-
ing the literature review, geographic feature analysis of the tices in Lake Haramaya watershed and methods of improving water
watershed, UN man, and biosphere guideline and in consul- application efficiency [MSc Thesis]. Haramaya University.
tation with surrounding communities different strategies of Getachew, H. E., & Melesse, A. M. (2012). The impact of land use
lake rehabilitation strategies were recommended at different change on the hydrology of the Angereb Watershed, Ethiopia.
International Journal of Water Sciences, 1(6).
zones of the lake watershed. Accordingly, the core area was
Hawando, T. (1980). Agro-ecological impacts on Soil fertility status and
proposed to be free of any human interference, while the utilization of agricultural lands in Hararge highlands, Eastern
buffer zone was proposed not to be used for residential Ethiopia. AAU, College of Agriculture, and Haramaya.
and intensive farming agricultures. The buffer zone was Hedden-Dunkhorst, B., & Schmitt, F. (2020). Exploring the potential
also proposed to be 100 m, and the introduction of apple and contribution of UNESCO Biosphere Reserves for landscape gov-
ernance and management in Africa. Land, 9(8), 237. https://doi.org/
fruit and elephant grasses was recommended to be the
10.3390/land9080237
income-generating activities inside the buffer zone. Similarly Islam, M. N., Kitazawa, D., Runfola, D. M., & Giner, N. M. (2012). Urban
based on the analysis of slope, elevation, soil type, and econ- lakes in a developing nation: Drivers, states and impacts of water qual-
omic and environmental conditions, different activities were ity and quantity in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Lakes & Reservoirs: Research &
proposed for areas in the transition zone. Finally, creating Management, 17(4), 253–263. https://doi.org/10.1111/lre.12010
Lemma, B. (2011). The impact of climate change and population increase
awareness to the surrounding communities to take care of
on Lakes Haramaya and Hora-Kilole, Ethiopia (1986–2006). Impacts
the resource has got priority for the rehabilitation of the of Climate Change and Population on Tropical Aquatic Resources, 9.
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Further studies with the underground water analysis are rec- C., da Silva, M., & Possingham, H. (2011). What is missing in bio-
ommended to enhance the rehabilitation of the lake to the sphere reserves accountability? Natureza & Conservaçao, 9(2),
160–178. https://doi.org/10.4322/natcon.2011.022
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G. Eds), AfriMAB Biosphere Reserves in Sub-Saharan Africa:
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MOA. (2013). Highland fruit suitability study and dissemination man-
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