GEOGRAPHY NOTE BOOKLET GRADE 10 - 11

Name of learner: _________________________________________

Teacher: ___________________________________

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Geography notes grade 10 – 11 new curriculumn
Authors note:

Good day. Thank you for opting to use my material for your teaching process, I hope it will help you as
much to yield good results at the end of each term and year.

Please note that this note booklet is prepared according to the author’s knowledge capacity and therefore
may not be a 100% to everyone. I therefore apologize for the inconveniences this might cause, and I
advise that you edit the where necessary as to your preferences and knowledge to suit your teaching and
learners appropriately. Please feel free to contact the author if you wish to correct the content in this note
booklet, your suggestions and amendments will openly be considered.

If you have any queries, please feel free and don’t hesitate to contact the author on the contact details
provided below. I am open to positive comments, compliments and corrections for improvement and to
build a developmental teaching relationship among us. Negative remarks and personal attacks will
however not be entertained, lets learn to be positive and improve our teaching as a collective unit. Team
work is only way to elevate.

I wish you well in your teachings!

Thank you!

Christof Mbango
+264 817760851
[email protected]

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Geography notes grade 10 – 11 new curriculumn
The earth’s structure

The earth costs of three layers

❖ Crust
This is the outer shell of rock, forms the surface we live about 40km thick
❖ Mantle
The layer beneath the crust. Near the crust is solid, but deeper down is a hot, thick liquid or
molten state.
❖ Core
Divided into outer core and inner core.
Outer core is very dense but molten while inner core is a solid ball formed mainly or iron and
it is extremely hot.

Plate tectonic
Is the movement of plates.

What is a plate?
Plate is the large section of the earth crust that moves at a certain direction. Plates can either be
an ocean (oceanic plate) or a continent or on land (continental plate). Each plate has a border or
the edges known as plate boundaries.

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Geography notes grade 10 – 11 new curriculumn
Causes of plate movement
Plates move because of convectional currents (force) in the mantel.

Types of plate boundaries

Constructive (divergent) boundaries
Two plates diverge or pull apart or moving away from each other. This causes a rift valley (on
continent) or ocean ridge (on the ocean floor). Volcano occurs in these boundaries.

Destructive (convergent) boundary

This occur when plates collide or converge (come together). This may result in an earthquake or
volcano o*r both at the same time.

It can happen in two ways:

- Two continental plates collide (converge)
E.g. Indo-Australian and Eurasia plate. Sediments pushed up to form fold mountains e.g.
Himalaya mountain in India.

-A continental and oceanic plate converge

E.g. Nazca and South American plates.
The heavier oceanic crust sinks below continental crust into, magma of a mantel to form deep
sea trench. Where the plate bends into the mantel, a subduction zone is formed. Volcano and
earthquake takes plate.

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Geography notes grade 10 – 11 new curriculumn
Shear or conservative or neutral boundary
Two plates move alongside each other in the same direction or opposite direction. These
boundary crusts are not destroyed nor created, e.g. North American plate and Pacific plate.
Pressure builds up over time and is released in a sudden jerk causing an earthquake.

Fold Mountains
Fold is when the rocks bent. Fold occurs when plates drift towards or past one another, there
always stress involved. Fold mountains found at destructive and collision margin (oceanic and
oceanic or oceanic and continental). Fold mountains made of sediments that are compressed and
lifted up as mountains. Examples: Himalayas, Rockies, Atlas, Andes.

Different types of folding

a) Monoclinal fold

-Stress (force) from only one side

b) Asymmetrical over fold c) Asymmetrical over thrust fold

b) Stress from both sides, but stronger from one side

c) Forces from one side so strong that caused the layer to break along the fault and move
past each other.

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Geography notes grade 10 – 11 new curriculumn
 d) Symmetrical open fold e) Symmetrical open fold

d) -Not too much force, equally from both sides. e) Too much force, equally from both sides

Labeled diagram of folds

Global distribution of the earthquake and volcano

Earthquake
What is the earthquake?
Earthquake is the sudden shacking (movement) of the earth crust. It occurs when two plates
colliding or when plates move past each other, the hook onto one another, tension builds up until
rock edges breaks off.
✓ A place in the crust where earthquake begins is called focus.
✓ An area on the crust directly above the focus is known as epicenter.
✓ The strength of earthquake is measured with the Richter scale.
✓ A seismograph is the instrument that records the force (intensity) and the direction of the
earthquake. This record is indicated on a graph of paper called seismogram.

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Geography notes grade 10 – 11 new curriculumn
Factors that influence the amount of damage at Earthquake (Why some people experiencing
more damage than others)
✓ The intensity of the earthquake – The high the intensity, the greater the chance of
damage.
✓ Distance from epicenter – The closer to the epicenter, the more the damage.
✓ The time of the day – If it takes place during the night, most people will be killed.
✓ The season – It kills more people when it occurs during winter than summer
✓ The quality of building and underlying rocks.
✓ The type of building materials.
✓ The level of preparedness of the people.
✓ Weather tsunami forms. Tsunamis are ocean waves generated by earthquakes that occur
under the ocean.

The impact/ effect /results of earthquake/damage caused by the earthquakes

Building collapse People are killed, injured or trapped
Transport systems (roads, railways) damaged Dams collapse
Electricity and communication lines cut Water and gas lines broken
Workers lose jobs and insurance companies lose money. Tourist disrupted
Tsunamis destroy farmland and fishing

Strategies to manage the effects of an earthquake

- Buildings should be reinforced with steel
- Gas, water and electricity should be placed in reinforced ducts within the foundation of
buildings
- Steel frames should be used for construction.
- Areas prone to landslides should be avoided
- Install detects and warning signs

Volcano
Volcano is a conical mountain created by extrusive materials like lava, ash, gas, and also fire
ejected from central vent or crater.

There are three types of volcano

-Composite volcano
- Shield volcano
- Ash and cinder cone volcano

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Geography notes grade 10 – 11 new curriculumn
Types of Volcanic Activities
- Active volcano = Volcano that erupt regularly
-Dormant volcano = Resting, they have not erupted for many years
-Extinct volcano = This volcano is no active anymore (dead)

The impact/effect of volcano (Negative effect)

People may be killed or injured
Property is destroyed
Crops are covered with ash or lava
Tourism may be disrupted
Transport may be disrupted by volcanic activity

The positive effects of volcano (why do people live near volcano)

Valuable materials like diamonds are produced
Lava can form very fertile soil
Can be used to generate geothermal energy
People have their employment there
Attract tourism, as people travel to see and study volcanoes
Pumice lava is used in products of toothpaste
Lava flows create new land

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Geography notes grade 10 – 11 new curriculumn
Weathering
Weathering is the process that breaking down of rocks to form soil.

Three types of weathering

*Mechanical (physical) weathering: Is the breaking down of rocks without any change in their
chemical composition. Caused by heat/cold
e.g. Granular disintegration, exfoliation and shattering

*Chemical weathering: Is the breaking down of rocks due to chemical changes that cause bonds
within the rock break. Therefore, the rock may change its physical appearance. Caused by water.
e.g. oxidation, carbonation and dissolution

*Biological weathering: Plant roots secrete weak acids that attack the rocks when they absorb
nutrients from rocks thus weakening the bonds within the rocks. Animals like rabbits; uric acid
from excrete reacts with rock minerals and weakens rock bonds. Animal dig tunnels and expose
rocks to agents os weathering
e.g. burrowing animals, plant root cracks and acid from plant roots

Erosion
Erosion is the process that removes weathered particles to new places.

Agents of erosion
* Wind: pick up materials and move them from one place to another
* Water: running water transport weathered materials
Ocean currents and waves move materials along the coast and weather the rock

The main factors influencing the type and the rate of weathering
The rate of weathering is influenced by the rock type, climate, vegetation, relief, aspect and
humans.
Climate
Different climates results in different types of weathering. Hot and wet climate speed up
chemical weathering while cold and dry climate speed up physical weathering. Some rocks
weather rapidly in humid climate while others in dry climate.
Rock type and composition
Rocks consist of different level of hardness. Rocks that are extremely hard will able to resist
weathering forces longer than the soft rocks. All rocks weather because they are exposed to oxygen
and water.

RIVER PROCESS

The main features of drainage basin

- The river system: A river and all its tributaries

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Geography notes grade 10 – 11 new curriculumn
 - Source of the river: Where the river starts
- Mouth: Where a rive ends, can be a sea or wet land
- River Channel: Where the river flows
- Discharge: The amount of water flowing through the river
- Drainage basin /Catchment area: The area drained by a river and its tributaries
- Watershed: high lying area separating drainage basin
- Tributaries: Smaller river that flows into a larger river
- The point at which a river begin is called a source.
- At first the channel is small, but it increases rapidly as the river is joined by many
tributaries. A tributary is a small stream or river flowing into the main river.
- A place where a tributary joins the main river is called confluence.
- The river valley in the highland areas, is usually steep sided. As the river approaches
lower land, its valley sides becomes less steep and its channel widens. Most rivers
eventually flow into the sea, although a few ends in lakes. The end of a river is known as
its Mouth

Characteristics of a river valley

The river course from the source to mouth is called the long profile. The profile is steep and
irregular upland (near source) and much gentle and smoother near the mouth.

Characteristics of the Upper course:

• V-shaped valley with steep sides,
• interlocking spurs (protruding headland),
• steep slope (higher energy-vertical erosion),
• Large pieces of rocks moved (little sediments- water is clear),
• potholes, waterfall, gorges and rapids.
• More vertical erosion
Characteristics of the Middle course

• more lateral erosion,

• Open valley
• truncated spurs,
• deposition begins on flood plain,
• river may begin to meander,
• few waterfalls, river cliffs

Characteristics of the Lower course

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Geography notes grade 10 – 11 new curriculumn
 • Valley is flat and wider
• River occupies small channel in relation to valley
• Wide floodplain – for overflow
• Deposition is the main feature
• Lower velocity
• Meanders, oxbow lakes and braiding
• Levees, deltas/estuaries may form

Erosion by rivers

• Hydraulic action: water pushed into cracks and crevices of the bank. Air and water
compressed, breaks the rock
• Corrasion / abrasion: Stones and gravel scours the banks and bed of the river
• Attrition: materials carried by the river grinds down other materials carried by the
river and reduce in size
• Solution or corrosion: Acids in the water dissolve certain types of rock (limestone)
Factors affecting erosion

• Load: heavier and sharper load means more erosion

• Velocity: greater velocity means greater speed and greater erosion
• Geology: softer rocks erode fast
• PH: acidic water erodes limestone
• Human impact: deforestation increases run-off

River transportation

• Traction: heavier boulders rolled

• Saltation: smaller stones bounced along
• Solution: mineral salts are dissolved in the water
• Suspension: Silt and fine materials carried by water
Deposition: When does a river deposit?

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 • When discharge is reduced following a period of low precipitation
• Velocity is lessened on entering the sea or a lake
• Shallower water occurs on the inside of a meander
• When the load is suddenly increased
• When the river overflows its banks so that the velocity outside is reduced

Where does deposition take place?

• At the mouth of the river
• Inside the meander (slip off-Slope)
• In the flood plain where water gets shallower
• When the river flows on flatter places
When a river loses energy, the following changes takes place
• The heaviest materials are deposited first, this leads to areas in mountain streams to
be filled with big boulders
• Gravel, sand and silt is deposited after big boulders
• Fine particles like silt and clay carried in suspension is deposited at the river mouth
• The dissolved materials like salts are carried in to the ocean.

The land forms of erosion and deposition

Depositional landforms Erosional landforms

• Meanders • Water falls, rapids
• Flood plains • Ox-bow lake
• Deltas
• Levees

The land forms of erosion and deposition

Formation of Meanders
- Meanders are sweeping bends in a river, which tends to occur in the middle and lower
course. It occurs when a river reaches flatter.
- Velocity is higher on the outside of bend, this increase erosion on the outside bend to

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Geography notes grade 10 – 11 new curriculumn
 form undercut bank or river cliff slope.
- Velocity is lower on the inside of the bend this cause deposition and lead to the formation
of a slip -off slope.

Formation of Potholes
Potholes are formed through the process of abrasion; holes enlarge and deepen the river bed. It
formed when:
- Fast flowing turbulent water
- Larger loose blocks of rocks accompanied by pebbles and sediments that wear away rock
surface.
- A spinning and swirling action of the load.

Formation of Ox bow lake

➢ Erosion on outer/concave bank of meander,
➢ Deposition on the inner bank,
➢ Increase size of meander, narrow its neck,
➢ Eventually river breaks through,
➢ Creates a temporary island,
➢ Short cut through meander neck becomes main channel, end of former meander silt up

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Waterfalls (Iguaçu, waterfall)
➢ Formed where a horizontal layer of hard rocks lies on top of a layer of soft rock in a river
valley which prevents vertical erosion
➢ The soft rock underneath is eroded more quickly by the river and gradually a plunge pool
develops.
➢ The splashing water and eddy currents in the plunge pool undercut the hard rock layer.
➢ The hard rock becomes unsupported and collapse and the Waterfall retreats upstream.
➢ A deep steep sided valley called a gorge or ravine is left behind.

Formation Rapids
o Forms when resistant rock prevents downward erosion.
o This leads to an Increase in slope but no vertical drop
o It is usually temporary

Formation Gorges
- Gorges are formed when sheer force of water as it flows over waterfall
- When there is more downfall than sideways erosion.
- Pieces of rock break off and causes the waterfall to migrate or retreat upstream leaving a
steep sided gorge.

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Geography notes grade 10 – 11 new curriculumn
 Importance of water falls (Victoria Fall)

• It creates beautiful scenery, which encourage the development of local tourist

industry
• Local tourist industry create employments for local people
• Provide market for local products and handicrafts.
• Can be used to create hydroelectric power
Levees

• Form on the floodplain on the lower course

• Flooding causes overflowing banks
• Above the bank there is shallow water;
• Heavier deposits a left on banks and is increased by successive floods.
• This leads to raised banks known as levees
• May be artificially raised and strengthened as flood protection
• River may be above the level of flood plainHow is a deltas formed?

• A large and constant supply/deposition of silt /sediments/alluvium by river

• As the speed of flow slows down the river cannot carry the load/river has less
energy
• No strong tidal effects in the sea
• Impact of salt water causes further deposition. Floccation – fresh water meets salt
water
• A calm and shallow water lead to the form distributaries

Formation of Ganges Delta in India

• The monsoon climate brings summer rain which fill up the river Ganges.
• The Ganges carries a large amount of sediments.
• The river flow is slowed down by meeting the denser sea water.
• Sediments are deposited faster than the tides can remove them.
• Deposition increase, and split the river into distributaries leading into a delta
Importance of deltas

• Habitat for many birds and animals

• Fertile/alluvial soil
• Available water supply for irrigation
• Enough water for Extensive cultivation e.g. rice
• The land is low-lying which make it easy for construction
• People can obtain fish from the river
• Used for transport
Braided channel appearance & formation

• Appearance = main channel divided into smaller channels,

• separated by small islands (eyots).
Why does it Form

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Geography notes grade 10 – 11 new curriculumn
 • high sediment load and variable discharge are the main cause.
• During times of decreasing discharge, competence and capacity decrease and load
is deposited in the channel causing the flow to divide.
• Decreasing gradient also increase depositions and this leads to a stream braiding.

Rejuvenation of river

River may be rejuvenated given new energy when there is:

• Global drop in sea level
• Uplift of land
• Increase in rainfall
• River capture
Results of rejuvenation of rivers: incised river, river terraces, water falls

The long profile of a river

• Is a line drawn from the source of the river to the mouth, showing how the gradient
changes. It is usually steeper at the upper course with water falls, rapids and lakes
and more gentle and smooth in the lower course.

How does one come to know the direction of river flow on map?

• By looking at values of contour lines

What about right or left bank in reality?

• Looking at the direction to which the river flow and the bank on your right side is
the right bank. Even a map with arrow indicating the flow of water the same can be
used.

benefits associated with utilisation and management of

resources in wetland areas such as floodplains and deltas
• Flood plains and deltas are very fertile because of the deposition of alluvium soil
• Some deltas can be used for agriculture
• Some deltas offer good site for settlements
• Some flood plains are suitable for recreational purposes (river Thames in UK)
• Some contain deep water good for harbours (Mississippi)
• Flat gradient in deltas are used for the roads, railway and communication links.

advantages and difficulties for people of living close to a rivers

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Geography notes grade 10 – 11 new curriculumn
 advantages disadvantage
• fertile soils for agriculture. • Flooding; so people may lose
• Water for irrigation and for their property/crops washed away
domestic use so food shortages
• People can grow rice in areas • Instability of foundations;
that would otherwise be too dry • Need to bridge river;
Communications (by river; by • Often densely
road/rail on flood plain); populated/competition for space;
• River is source of food/fish; flooding of farmland/damage to
• Flat land for building flooding crops
of roads; • damage to houses
• Recreation drowning/deaths

Flooding in the Mississippi what has been done to reduce the effect of flooding

• Raised levees along the main river and its tributaries

• Straightening the channel and shortening it
• Large spillways has been built to take access water during flood
• The flow of the major tributaries had been controlled by series of dams.
• planting trees in Tennessee Valley so less water will get to river as more
evapotranspiration occurs

Wind processes

Common in hot deserts, less rain

Wind is the main agent of erosion, transportation and deposition
Wind actions

Wind action is very powerful in arid and semi arid regions, where rocks are broken down by
weathering and is easily picked up by wind.
Reasons:
Because of low rainfall in the desert (less than 250 per year), there is a lack of vegetation to bind
the soil and prevent it from being picked by wind
Wind actions are strong in deserts also because there are no trees to break down the wind

Processes of wind erosions

• Abrasion: occurs when wind picks up particles of sand and scours rock surfaces
• Attrition: occurs when sand particles carried by the wind grind each other into smaller
particles
• Deflation: the progressive removal of fine and loose materials by wind, leaving a hollow
behindDeflation :wind can blow lighter material away – lowers landscape to create
deflation hollow –leaves heavier material – creating desert pavement – can go low

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Geography notes grade 10 – 11 new curriculumn
 enough to reach water table – creates an oasis

• Insernberg –outcrops of resistant rock –may be created by a combination of wind and

water

Wind deflation and the formation of oasis

• Sand is blown away by wind and a hollow is created

• Dew collect on the hollow and materials are loosened by chemical weathering.
These loosened materials are carried away by wind.
• Further deflation continue to dig downward until the hollow reach the water
bearing rock, permeable rocks.
• Underground water filter through the permeable rocks to form an Oasis

Abrasion on the formation of rock pedestals

• When horizontal layers of rocks with varying resistance are exposed to the wind,
softer layers will be eroded easily while harder layers ( more resistant layers will
remain)
• This leads to the formation of features called rock pedestals or Mushroom rocks.
Explain how abrasion leads to the formation of rock pedestals

• The sand is scoured against the rock (abrasion is high close to the ground, on the
base). Softer layers are eroded faster and more resistant layers erode slowly, causing
irregular shape called rock pedestals or mushroom rocks.

Depression or deflation hollow.

• Formed when the sand is blown away by wind, leaving a hollow. As this hollow
reaches the permeable water bearing rocks, water seeps out of the rocks to form an
oasis or a swamp.
Features produced by wind erosion

▪Rock pedestals: form when the surface has alternating layers of easily eroded and
resistant rock. As wind blows materials against the rock the easily eroded part
wears away faster than resistant part. This leads to the formation of tower-like
structure.
▪ Isenberg: is a round-topped isolated pillars of rock formed when the wind removes the
outer surface of rock. Formed by abrasion

▪ Desert pavements: formed when wind removes lighter materials leaving only heavier
rocks and stones, as desert pavements. It is facilitated by lack of vegetation, this is
because there are no roots to bind the sand particles as well as trees to break down the
wind.

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Geography notes grade 10 – 11 new curriculumn
 ▪ Zeugens:
▪ Forms where horizontal layers of varying resistance are found.

▪ Weathering opens cracks in the rocks and wind abrasion widens and deepen these
openings.

▪ Parts of the more resistant rocks, form ridges

▪ While furrows forms between ridges.

▪ Zeugens vary between 3m and 36m in height.

Yardangs:

• Forms where alternate layer of hard and soft rocks lie vertically
• They also lie parallel to the wind direction.
• Wind abrasion turns belt of soft rocks in to trough
• While harder materials remains and undercut.
• They stand up as narrow ridges called ridges
• They are not more than 15m in height.

Wind transport materials in 3 different ways

1. Suspension: very fine particles are lifted in the air and carried over a great distance

2. Saltation: Rough grainy sand particles are bounced along the ground.

3. Surface creep: heavier materials are rolled along the land surface by wind

Landforms resulting from wind depositions

Formation
• Form where there is a limited supply of sand
• Forms where wind blows from one direction for long periods
• Lie at right angles to the wind direction
Characteristics
1. has a crescent shape/ Is C shaped
2. forms two horns that point down wind
3. have gradual slope facing the wind and a steep slope on the wind shadow side
– between 1 m to 30 m high.
4. depending on amount of sand can migrate 15m a year.

Transverse dunes:
Formation

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Geography notes grade 10 – 11 new curriculumn
 • Develop where sand is more plentiful
• Where wind blows constantly from one direction
Characteristics
• They resembles a row of high Barchans dunes that have joined together.
• They can be between 2 to 50 m high and 10 to 150 m long
• They migrate downwind slowly.
Longitudinal or Seif dunes:
Formation
• lie parallel to the wind direction
• winds converges from two similar directions
Characteristics
• can be up to 160 km long and 100 to 200 m high e.g. Sahara
• streets between the dunes are kept clear of sand by eddies in the wind
Star dunes:

Formation
• form when the wind changes direction regularly.
• E.g dunes near Sossus Vlei, Namibia.
Characteristics
• Form a star shape.

Coastal process
 Waves are formed by the wind blowing across the water for a great distance – the
fetch
 Swash – water and material moving up the beach
 Backwash – water and material moving down the beach
 Oscillation wave – in deep water only the energy moves forward – water particles
move in a circular motion

Waves terminology
• Wavelength (L): expressed in meters –the horizontal distance between successive crests
• Wave period (T): expressed in seconds –time between successive crests
• Wave height (H): expressed in meters – vertical distance between the top of a crest and
the bottom of a trough.
• Wind duration is the time over which the wind has been blowing
• Wind fetch is the distance upstream from the point of observation over which the wind
blows with constant speed
 Wavelength (L): expressed in metres –the horizontal distance between successive crests

 Wave period (T): expressed in seconds –time between successive crests

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Geography notes grade 10 – 11 new curriculumn
  Wave height (H): expressed in metres – vertical distance between the top of a crest and
the bottom of a trough

 Wind duration is the time over which the wind has been blowing
 Wind fetch is the distance upstream from the point of observation over which the wind
blows with constant speed

Difference between destructive and constructive waves

Destructive constructive
 High energy/powerful waves – erodes  Low energy/gentle waves - deposit
 Backwash more powerful than swash  Swash more powerful than backwash
 Short wave length  Long wave length
 high frequency  lower frequency
 Steep, closely together and quickly  Shallow and widely spaced
breaking

Factors influencing wave energy/ strength

 Wave length
 Velocity of wind
 Duration of wind
 Fetch/ distance over which the waves can travel
 Offshore profile/presence of wave cut platform
 Presence of bays/headlands retract waves
 Type of waves.

Erosion processes

 Wave pounding /Hydraulic pressure: when waves smashes against a rock, the
force of the water compresses air or water trapped in crack of the rock – enlarges a
weakness in the rock
 Corrasion/Abrasion: materials such as sand and stones carried by waves are
scoured against the base of cliffs and erode them.
 Attrition: the material carried by the waves grind down other materials in the wave

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Geography notes grade 10 – 11 new curriculumn
  Corrosion or solution: acids dissolved in sea water such as carbonic acid dissolve
certain rocks, e.g. lime stones.

Other things that contribute to coastal erosion includes:

 Sub-aerial: forces of weathering and erosion that are not linked to waves may attack
cliffs.

Human activity: development of hiking trails, 4x4 at coastal resorts can also change shape and
structure of coastline

Formation of wave cut plat form

 When a cliff is constantly attacked by strong waves, a notch develop at the base of
the cliff.
 As the notch get deeper, the unsupported section of the cliff may become unstable
and collapse.
 The cliff retreats, leaving behind a gently platform of rocks showing where the rock
once stood, called wave cut plat form

Identify the different structures in the Diagram

 Cave
 Arch
 Stack
 Notch
 Stump

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Geography notes grade 10 – 11 new curriculumn
Describe how the stack in the diagram was formed

1. Constant attack of waves on headlands expose weaker rocks which can be

eroded to form a small notch.
2. The notch grows into a cave
3. Continuous wave attack from both side of headland can extend the cave through
the headland to form an arch.
4. The roof of the arch become too heavy and collapse to leave an isolated stack.
5. After many years the stack may be eroded to form a stump.

Amount of erosion is influenced by

 Where do the waves breaks
 Exposure to wave action
 Destructive or constructive wave
 The depth of the sea
 The length of the fetch
 The shape of the coastline (rugged/rough, smooth)
 Supply of beach material
 Type of rock along the coast
 Structure of rocks (resistance)

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Geography notes grade 10 – 11 new curriculumn
 

Transportation of materials by waves

1. Onshore _ on land
2. Offshore in water.

Longshore drift

▪ If the prevailing wind in a coastal area blows at an angle to the shore

▪ It will cause Waves approach the shore at an angle.
▪ Swash move up the beach at an angle
▪ backwash is dragged straight back down the beach.
▪ The process is repeated along the beach and eroded materials are moved in a zigzag way
parallel to the coastline

 movement of material can be slowed down by building groynes/ barriers

 A groyne is a wall perpendicular to the coast – materials pile up on windward side of
the wall

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Geography notes grade 10 – 11 new curriculumn
 
Landforms caused by erosion

 Bays : soft rocks eroding faster causing bays

 Headlands or capes: hard and more resistant rock. Headlands will be eroded by
destructive waves
Coastal deposition
Requirements for deposition to take place
 irregular coastline,
 large amounts of materials,
 long shore drift

Sources of materials deposited :
 river sediments,
 materials from cliffs and headlands,
 offshore supplies
 Constructive waves build up beaches
NB
 A cross section of a beach is called a beach profile
 The ridges found along the beach are berms

coastal landforms from deposition

 Spits: an extended stretch of beach material that projects out of the sea – distal end –
joined to the mainland at proximal end. Forms where there is a prevailing wind
leading to a long shore drift
 Bar: A long stretch of beach material (sand and shingle) that join together two
headlands
 Tombolo: A stretch of beach material that connects an island to the main land
 Lagoon: form at an irregular coastline where enough sand is carried and accumulate
at the mouth of a bay. The sand bar grow in size and height.
Water is dammed up behind the bar to form a lagoon

WEATHER STUDIES

Weather and Climate

Weather is the condition of atmosphere recorded over a short period, such as an hour, day or

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Geography notes grade 10 – 11 new curriculumn
month.
Climate is the condition of atmosphere recorded over a long period, such as season or a year.

The Stevenson screen

The Stevenson screen is a wooden box (container) that used to store some of the weather
instrument. The Stevenson screen should be sited away from building and trees or other
natural surface.

Characteristics of Stevenson screen

➢ It is made of wood – wood is bad conductor of heat it prevent sunlight heating the
instrument.
➢ It is painted white – to reflect the sunlight.
➢ It stands on 1, 2 m above the ground – prevent heat and water splash from the ground.
➢ It is has double louvers on the sides - to allows air penetrate and move freely.
➢ It has double layered roof – to offer more insulation from the sunlight.
➢ The door opens to the south – to prevent sunlight reaching the instrument.

Sitting of the weather station

Weather station must be placed away from buildings, trees or walls.

Not placed on area covered in cement because this heats up more.

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Calculating the data

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 28
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The element of weather and their instruments

Weather element Instrument Units

Temperature Thermometer ˚C
Rainfall Rain gauge Mm
Humidity Wet and dry bulb thermometer ˚C or %
Cloud cover No instrument (We use our eyes) Octas or eights
Wind direction Wind vane/ wind sock 16 direction
Wind speed Cup anemometer Km/h or knots
Sunshine Sunshine recorder %
Air/ Atmospheric pressure Aneroid/ Mercury barometer Millibars or hPa

How to determine the relative humidity:

1. Read the temperature of the dry and wet bulb thermometer.

2. Subtract the wet bulb reading from Dry bulb reading.
3. Find the dry bulb reading on the hydrometric table (row).
4. Find the difference reading on hygrometric table (column)Read off where

5. the row and column meet and you have a relative humidity in percentages.

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Geography notes grade 10 – 11 new curriculumn
 Eg: Dry bulb is 30 ͦC, Wet bulb is 27 ͦC
30 ͦC - 27 ͦC = 3 ͦC
Therefore, the relative humidity is 75%
Name/Identify Function Unit Parts How it work Place
Mercury To measure the Mercury & vacuum Mercury rise when the body Inside the Stevenson screen
thermometer body ͦC temperature is high
temperature
Max & Min To measure Mercury, alcohol Metal index shows the daily Inside the Stevenson screen
Thermometer atmospheric ͦC metal index, Max & min temperature.
temperature magnet, vacuum Record can be taken at the
bottom of metal index. The
magnet used to reset the
thermometer after taking
readings
Wet & Dry bulb To measure the Mercury, alcohol, Mercury in both thermometer Inside the Stevenson screen
thermometer humidity ͦ C or % jar of distilled shows difference if the air is
(Hygrometer) water unsaturated and shows the
same reading if the air is
saturated. Record must be
taken where mercury ends
Aneroid barometer To measure the Hpa or Pointer, Hpa no, The arrow points to the Inside the Stevenson screen

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Geography notes grade 10 – 11 new curriculumn
 air pressure millibars written RAIN, FAIR number of millibars when
CHANGE the pressure increases.
Rain gauge To measure the MM Outer canister, Pour water into measuring Open area away from trees
rain fall inner canister cylinder and place it at a and building. If planted in
(copper), funnel, level surface and level of the soil, the top should be
glass bottle your eyes take reading. 30cm from the ground
Cup anemometer To measure the Km/H or 3 revolving cups, As the wind blows into the It should stand at a high
wind speed Knots Revolution cups they start spinning and level, mounted at a pole or
counter the counter shows the wind top of building. Away from
speed automatic trees and building
Wind vane To show the 16 Arrow, 4 main The arrow shows the It should stand at a high
wind direction direction direction, pole direction where the wind is level, mounted at a pole or
coming from top of building. Away from
trees and building
Sunshine recorder To records the Solid glass ball The glass ball act as a lens. Open area away from trees
hours of % The lens pick up rays of the and building. Where the
sunshine sun onto a piece of card sun’s rays not blocked
which is marked off in hours

Recording and analyzing data

Types of graphs
Line graph for temperature
Bar graph for rainfall
Wind rose for wind direction

The following calculations can be done using the weather data:

➢ Total- it is determined by adding all the values.
➢ Average or mean temperature- Calculated by adding all the values together and
dividing them by the number of values. E.g. Maximum +Minimum and then divided by
two. (Max 30+ Min 18). 30+18=48/2=24 Degrees Celsius
➢ Range- is the difference between the highest and the lowest figure e.g. Max-min=Range,
like 30-18=12 Degrees Celsius.

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Geography notes grade 10 – 11 new curriculumn
Therefore, you can analyses the weather by studying carefully the diagrams and then
determined the total, average, range, highest, lowest, hottest, coldest, and many more. You may

also talk about the relationships e.g. Temperature and rainfall. The diagrams drawn may show
that temperature is high and also a possibility of high rainfall and vise versa.

Air Pressure Systems/cells

Air pressure is measured by an Aneroid Barometer or Barograph in a unit called Millibars or
Hectopascals. Isobars appear as dot or broken lines on a map.

Basic Competencies: Describe and identify from the Synoptic map: (a) High Pressure Systems
(b) Low Pressure Systems.

High Pressure Systems

➢ Are huge areas of descending air deflected to the left.
➢ They also called Anti-cyclones as they move anticlockwise.
➢ They are indicated by an H in the centre of the cell.
➢ It has bigger millibars towards the centre.
➢ Air pressure decreases towards the outside of the cell.
A Ridge is an extension of high pressure cell. This can be seen as two high pressures in the
same cell.

Describe the air or weather condition associated with the high-pressure systems.

➢ It is associated with clear skies (cloudless) and no rain.

➢ The air is compressed as it sinks and leads to warming of the air.
➢ The air is drier (can’t hold moisture)

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Two high pressures that affects Namibia
The Kalahari High Pressure Cell (KHPC) - dominates the Namibian weather during winter. It
causes warm sunny days and cold nights. It blocks the inflow of moist air from the north.

The South Atlantic High Pressure Cell (SAHPC)-forces cool, dry air towards the Namibian coast.
This dry air prevents the desert and coastal areas from receiving rain.

Low Pressure Systems

➢ They are indicated by L in the centre of the cell
➢ Air pressure increases outwards.
➢ The air moves clockwise around the system.
➢ It spirals upwards.
➢ It has smaller millibars towards the centre.
➢ It develops when the air is heated, expands, becomes light and rises.
➢ It is also called a Cyclone.
A Trough is an extension of a low pressure.

Air / weather condition associated with a low pressure cell

➢ It is associated with warm, moist air that rises and condenses to form a cold.
➢ These often develop over Namibia during summer and lead to extensive rain, usually in
the form of thunderstorms.
➢ It brings fog at coastal area.

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Movement of air between pressure systems

➢ Air moves from a high to a low-pressure cell.

➢ A low pressure will always be next to a high-pressure cell.
➢ When there is a bigger difference in air pressure low and high pressure, the stronger
the wind will blow.
➢ The smaller the difference, the lighter the wind will blow.
➢ When the wind is stronger, it may cause very violent storms like Hurricanes and
Tornadoes.
➢ The difference between H and L pressure is called the pressure gradient.

Three types of rain

a) Convectional rainfall
b) Cyclonic/ frontal rainfall
c) Orographic/relief rainfall

Convectional rain

This causes the heavy rain and thunderstorm

Cyclonic/ frontal rainfall

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 Orographic/relief rainfall

Hail

Hail is formed when water vapour condenses

Synoptic Weather map

The word synoptic comes from the word “synopsis” meaning Summary.
So a synoptic weather map summarises all the different aspect/elements of weather at different
places.

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Geography notes grade 10 – 11 new curriculumn
 /
Meteorologists record weather on a daily basis and summarized on a synoptic map and then
used to make weather forecasts.
All weather stations are indicated as weather station models to show that in that particular
place weather is being measured.

Satellite photographs are used to track weather systems and to draw synoptic charts.

How to read a synoptic weather map

Each weather station is indicated with a circle on the map and the weather observations of all-
weather elements and shown in as a circle with a set of symbols.

Fronts
a) Cold Fronts lead to hard showers with cold temperatures. It is shown with a round frill.
b) Warm fronts lead to soft soaking rain with warm temperatures. It shown with a sharp
teeth

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Geography notes grade 10 – 11 new curriculumn
Interpretation of weather
➢ Look at the date to determine the season.
➢ Stick to the basics.
➢ Look for any cold or warm fronts.
➢ Look carefully at the station models.
➢ Remember wind directions are based on the patterns of the isobars.

Factors influencing the climate of Namibia

Latitude
During winter, the sun is directly to the northern hemisphere, this leads to the temperature in
Namibia drops, with result little rainfall. During summer the sun is directly over Namibia
(Tropical of Capricorn), temperature is higher, more moisture and chance for rain.

NB. Places closer to the equator have higher temperature than near the poles.

Altitude (height above sea level)

Temperature decreases 1°C for every 100m rise in altitude. Therefore, the air at higher
altitudes is cooler than the air at lower altitudes. NB. The high you go the cooler will be.

High- and low-pressure system

During winter, Kalahari Higher Pressure cell dominates the interior. This causes clear sky and
dry condition. During summer the warm air moisture rises over the dry air and creates Low
Pressure cell in the interior and this result in more moisture and rain.

Cold Benguela current

The cold Benguela current wash the shores of Namibia. As a result of this cold water, there is a

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Geography notes grade 10 – 11 new curriculumn
reduction of evaporation and less rain can originate at the coast.
How cold air influence (change) the weather at the coast:
o It lowers the temperature at the coast
o It prevents or reduce evaporation and cause that results less rain.
o It cause fog at the coast.

Distance from the sea

In summer, the places near the coast stay cool due to the cooling effect of the ocean while the
places inland will be warmer due to the heating effect of the land. In winter the opposite
happens. NB. Places closer to the ocean, experience cold during summer

Climatic regions

 Different areas in the world receive different energy from the sun. some area get
more energy (low latitudes e.g. equatorials) while other receive less ( high latitudes
e.g. polar regions).
 This causes different climates.
 Natural vegetation: Refers to plants that grow naturally in a region, not those
planted by people.

There are four natural vegetation regions

 Equatorial rainforest or Tropical rainforest
 Tropical grassland/ tropical Savannah
 Tropical Deserts
 Mediterranean regions

Equatorial rainforest/ tropical rainforest

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Distribution of tropical rainforest in the world.

 It lies along the equator

 It is located 5° N and 5° S of the equator
 It lies between tropic of cancer and tropic of Capricorn.
They include the Congo Basin in Africa and the Amazon Basin in South America.

The vegetation in the tropical rainforest

Because of high temperatures and heavy rainfall encourage continuous growth giving dense
vegetation.

The layers of vegetation in the equatorial rainforest (rainforest tiers)

1. Emergent layer: the tallest trees reaching up to 50 meters.

2. Top/Upper canopy: trees that form a layer above the lower vegetation, and goes
up to 30 m
3. Lower/under canopy: trees that grows up to 20 m. they struggle for light, rains
drip slowly.

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Geography notes grade 10 – 11 new curriculumn
 4. Shrub layer/ ground layer: consist of shrubs, ferns and other plants adapted to
live in the shade of tall trees.

Adaptation of vegetation in the tropical rainforest (characteristics)

 Tall trees have large buttress roots for support

 Leaves have drip tip to shed off excess water
 There are lianas (vine like plants) climbing on trunks of tall trees in search for
sunlight (may grow 200m)
 Tree trunks are straight with no branches in lowers section in order to grow tall
 Many of the larger leaves also have holes to reduce wind damage and little ridges to
drain away rainwater.
 There are epiphytes: plants that have their roots growing on trunks and branches of
other trees.

Climate in the tropical rainforest

 Hot all year, with average temperature of 27-30°C

 It is wet all year with annual precipitation reaching 3000 mm
 It has a smaller annual temperature range of 2°C.
 It has no seasons
Reasons for high temperature

 It is in the equator where the high angle rays fall on a small area of the earth

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 surface.
 Rays at the equator have a shorter passage through the earth atmosphere

Reason for high rainfall

 Strong convection currents in the moist air causes cumulonimbus clouds, which
leads to heavy convectional rainfall

Reasons for continuous growth and great variety of vegetation in Tropical rainforest

 Because of high temperature throughout the year, which is ideal for plants growth.
 There is Low annual temperature range.
 Sufficient rain{rains everyday}
 No seasonal change
 Tree shed off their leaves throughout the year, providing humus for growth,
 Humid temperature, that speed up decomposition of litter.

Why are the tropical rainforest being cleared

 Clearing land for agricultural purposes

 Cutting down tree for firewood and building materials
 Logging, cutting for commercial
 Clearing to make ways for road construction
 Mining development
 Cattle ranching

What are the consequences of cutting down trees

 Destruction of animals habitats

 Extinction of plants and animals species
 With few trees, there will be higher concentration of Carbon Dioxide that leads to
global warming
 Increase soil erosion, which leads to flooding
 Soil erosion wash away top fertile soil and decrease crop production

forest management techniques

 Agro-forestry: planting crops with trees

 Reforestation: planting trees in area which were previously cleared
 Sustainable harvesting: giving of quotas in harvesting
 Forest reserve: areas set aside as national parks to protect endangered species

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Location of Tropical Savannah

 They lies between 15° S and 15° N of the equator

 They are found near the tropic of cancer and the tropic of Capricorn.
 It is between tropical rainforests and tropical deserts.
NB: It is the largest vegetation region in Africa

Climate of the tropical Savannah

 It have hot and cool seasons
 Has alternate wet and dry seasons (when it is winter in the northern hemisphere it
will be summer in the southern Hemisphere)
 They have wider temperature range, except (during rain seasons when clouds
reduces temperature)
 The rain migrate with the sun bringing with ITCZ and equatorial low pressure.

Vegetation in the tropical savannah

It covers a large area as a result, the amount of rainfall differs from place to place. The part of
the tropical savannah close to the equatorial rainforest receive high higher rainfall than those far
from equatorial rainforest

Vegetation

 The typical vegetation is very dry grassland with scattered trees. Vegetation change
to short grass in drier parts closer to the desert.
 In wetter parts, close to the tropical rainforest the vegetation change to tall grass
vegetation adapts to survive in some dry months.
 Trees in tropical Savannahs are deciduous: to prevent loss of water during the dry
season.
 They have long tap roots that reaches the under ground water.

Human activities
1. Live stock and game farming
2. Subsistence farming, e.g maize, millet and groundnuts
3. Cash crop farming: e.g Cotton, Sisal, Sugarcane and Tobacco.
Animals life in the tropical Savannah

 It is home to greater number of animals. Natural parks have been developed in

many different areas to protect wild animals and those animals serve as tourist
attractions which generate foreign currencies.

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Geography notes grade 10 – 11 new curriculumn
Main characteristic of tropical Savannah

 Seed lie dormant in dry seasons

 Seed only germinate in rainy seasons
 Trees have long tap roots to get underground water
 Trees loose leaves in dry seasons to prevent water loss
 Some tree store water in trunks like the baobab
 Umbrella shaped to avoid strong wind
 Smaller thorny leaves to avoid water loss

Tropical deserts

What is a desert
Is an area where the average annual rainfall is less than 250 mm.
Main characteristic of desert areas
 Very higher temperature
 Smaller annual rainfall
 Wide temperature range (20-50 °C)

Reason for wider ranges

Higher diurnal temperature (day temperature) because of higher insolation, lack of cloud cover
and bare rocky and sandy surfaces which reflects heat.
On the other hand, nights are very cold with temperature falling below zero due to higher
nocturnal temperature.
Causes of deserts

 Rain shadows of mountains

 In the zone of subtropical high pressure with dry subsidizing air
 Most deserts are along the western coast, with cold water with no rain.
 Continentality: caused by the dry land with no moisture for evaporation so there
will be no clouds and rain.
Different types of deserts

 Erg: a desert that is covered by sand and made up ¼ ( one quarter) of the world
deserts.
 Reg: These are stone covered plains

Hammada: these are areas of deserts covered by bare rocks

Location of world deserts

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Geography notes grade 10 – 11 new curriculumn
  Found in areas of descending air
 They are found between 15° and 30° North and South of the equator

Names of some deserts in the world

1. Namib Desert (oldest desert in the world)
2. Kalahari desert
3. Sahara Desert
4. Mojave
5. Great Australian Continents

Climate features of deserts

 Deserts have unreliable rainfall.

 Low rainfall, less than 250 mm per annum
 Temperatures are very extremes
 High daily range, about 30°C.
 There is high evaporation rate
 There is low humidity (this decrease nocturnal temp).
 Little rainfall during rain season
• Flash floods occur occasionally Vegetation
 Plants are xerophytic ( drought resistant) due to lack of water
 Some plants are succulents: they store water in their stems and leaves ( Hoodia)
 Plants close their stomata during the day to avoid water loss.
 Many plant have waxy cuticle covering their leaves and stems
 Some species of Aloes become dormant during the hot summer months
 Some plants like acacia have rough and very thick protective barks
 Some have deeper roots to get underground water. E.g., Welwitschia

Reasons for lack of rainfall in desert is due to several factor:

 Prevailing trade wind blow from the east across dry land.
 Prevailing wind have to cross mountain ranges, so that rain shadow so that most
deserts lie in a rain shadow .
 Descending air at the tropical warms When winds do blow from the sea they have
to cross a cool surface and so cannot pick up much moisture.

location of the Mediterranean regions

 Found near the Mediterranean sea

 Found at west coast of continents

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Geography notes grade 10 – 11 new curriculumn
  Found between 30° and 40° South and North of the equator.

Mediterranean regions in the world includes

1. California coast
2. Central Chile (coast)
3. South West Cape of South Africa
4. And south and Western Australia
5. And the Mediterranean Coast

Climates of Mediterranean Regions

 Warm dry summer conditions

 Some areas like cape town records higher temperature with low humidity during
summer.
 Prolonged rain and Snow during winter ( e.g. snow occurs in Cedarberg mountains
in the western cape of South Africa.
 Mild winters

Winds that dominates the Mediterranean region

1. Sirocco/ Khamsin: wind that blows from Sahara desert to ward a low pressure which
form over the Mediterranean sea.
Effects of Sirocco
 Dusty and hot and blows during spring
 It destroy crops and vegetation

2. Mistral/Bora: a cold wind that blows down the Rhone valley in France. Occurs most
frequently in winter. It have higher velocity reaching 130 Km per hour and cause more
destructions and cause freezing cold temperatures

3. Berg winds/ Westerly's: a hot dry wind experinced in the western cape of South Africa. It
is a dry wind that blows from a high pressure in the interior (Kalahari High pressure) to a
low pressure at the coast

Vegetation in the Mediterranean region

 Plants are xerophytic (drought resistant) in order to survive the summer drought
 Some are hard leafed, with small hard waxy leaves to reduce transpiration
 Many plants have shiny leaves to reflect sunlight
 Most trees are evergreen and are able to grow during wet winter and dry summer.
 Some plants are protected by thick barks which reduces water loss and protect trees

54
Geography
GeogrAphy SummAry GrAde 10 2019 notes grade – 11
10S. new
Udjo curriculumn
MBA lA OnAnghulo CS PAge 39
 during summer fire.
 Some trees like Olive have deep tap roots to allow them to reach underground
water.
 Some have fibrous roots to capture water from surface. E.g. fog
 Fynbos metabolise energetically during cool morning hours, and slow down the
process during the hot day and continue late afternoon when it is cool

Classification of industries
Primary activities: obtaining raw materials from nature e.g.. Fishing, hunting, forestry
Secondary activities: raw materials are processed into something useful. Manufacturing
Tertiary activities: provision of services eg. Teachers, lawyers, salesman, mechanics
Quaternary activities: refer to new field of information technology ( IT) as well research and
development

 The proportion of the work force of a country which is employed in each of these fields
is often an indication of the level of development of the country.
NB
 Most people in poor countries/Developing countries (LEDCs) are employed in
primary sector and fewer in secondary and tertiary sector and in Developed countries
(rich countries/MEDCs) more people are employed in tertiary and secondary sector
and fewer people are employed in primary sector.

Proportion of people employed in different sector of economy in developing countries

Developed country Developing country

The difference in proportion of the workforce in MEDCs and LEDCS

 More people are employed in primary industries in LEDCS than MEDCs

 Fewer people are employed in secondary and tertiary sector in LEDCs than in
MEDCs.
 MEDCs have higher proportion of tertiary.
 NB: MEDCs specialise more on tertiary because of their higher level of education.
Factors influencing the Location for industries
 Raw materials

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Geography notes grade 10 – 11 new curriculumn
  Transport network
 Markets
 Power supply
 Labor
 Government policies (regional, national)
 Working environment
 Land
 capital
Fishing industry (importance
 Direct job creation
 Foreign exchange from exports
 GRN income through taxes and licenses
 Infrastructure development eg. Harbours
 Indirect job creation by supporting industries
 Foreign investment
 fish is used as food
 Attract tourisms
Factors favoring fish industry in Namibia

 Benguela current: The cold current with more oxygen and therefore more marine life
 Upwelling of cold water: cold nutrient rich water from deeper down is forced to rise
to the surface – bringing large quantities of nutrients like nitrates, phosphates and
silicates to the surface – triggers the growth of phytoplankton – serves as food for
larger and more mobile zooplankton – start of a food chain including fish. (
upwelling is a process whereby cool nutrient rich water is brought to the
surface.
 The length of the coastline: when the coastline is bigger the coastline, it provide a
greater area for fishing.
Types of fish

 Demersal fish: found near the bottom of the ocean. Cape hake, Kingklip, sole,
monkfish, adult horse mackerel, orange roughy and alphonsino.

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Pelagic fish: swim closer to the surface: sardines (pilchards in Namibia), juvenile horse
mackerel, anchovy.

Demersal Fish: they live near the bottom of the ocean.

e.G of Demersal fish: Cape Hake, Kinglip, Sole, Monkfish.

Methods of catching demersal fish:

By trawl net, which are dragged along the bottom of the ocean behind boats.
They are pulled out when they are full

2. Pelagic Fish: they stay close to the surface of the ocean

Examples of pelagic fish: Pilchard, Anchovy, horse Markerel.

Methods of catching pelagic fish:

By purse-sein nets, which are laid from small boats

3. Near shore fish like, Snoeks: are caught with a single line with hooks and baits.

Natural factors influencing fishing

 Red tides: Species of phytoplankton when die poisonous – cause deaths further up in
food chain. Releases toxins into the water which cause damage to fish. (associated
with global warming)
 Fluctuation of water temperatures: during summer, warmer waters off the coast
means less oxygen and fish move to colder deeper waters. Less oxygen and salinity.

Human factors

 waste which enters the ocean eg. Raw sewage rich in phosphate disrupts nutrient
balance.
 Diesel and other oils poison the phytoplankton.
 Over-fishing:
Solution to overfishing
 EEZ 200 miles,
 patrol boats,
 quotas,
 TAC (total allowance catch),
 Minimum mesh size,
 number and size of fish,

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Geography notes grade 10 – 11 new curriculumn
  inspectors,/ inspection
 fines.
 air patrols to detect fishing vessels without licences

Problems faced by fish industry

 Large number of seasonal jobs

 Overfishing
 Illegal fishing
 Quota which depends on available stock
 Pollution and eruption of poisonous gases
 Fluctuating exchange rates
Factors influencing the siting fish processing plant

 Raw material
 Power
 Labour
 Capital
 Transport
 Markets
 water

Problems related to fish industry

 Seasonal jobs
 Fish stock reduced by over-fishing
 Unlicensed foreign boats
 Eruption of poisonous gas
 Changes in sea temperatures
 Small local market
 Changes in exchange rates
 Profits moved to other countries
Inputs, process and out puts in the fishing industries

Inputs/ Raw Materials: raw fish, nets,

Process: cooking, cutting, canning, cooling/freezing, packaging
Outputs or products: canned fish, fillets, fishmeal, fish oil,

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AGRICULTURE

Farming as a system

Farming is referred to as a system, because it has physical, human and economic inputs,
processes and outputs.
Examples of physical inputs
Temperature, precipitation, wind, altitude, slope aspects, soils, growth of seasons, Global
warming.
Nb: global warming rises temperature in cold areas where it was too cold for crops to grow.
Human inputs: Rent, labour, training of workers, farm size,
Economic input: Transport, markets, capital, machinery, government policies, buildings, seed
prices, fertilizers

Processes

Ploughing, spraying, weeding, harvesting, sowing, milking, feeding, irrigation, Slaughtering,

gelding or Castrating, shearing, Marketing.
Outputs: crops, milk, wool, hides, lambs/calves, meat, agricultural waste, pollution etc

Subsistence and commercial farming.

Subsistence farming: is a type of farming, where a farmer produces only for family
consumption, and may sell only when there is surplus.
Commercial farming: is a type of farming, where a farmer grow crops and rear animals for sale.
Commercial Subsistence
• High amount and level of technology • Low amount and level of technology
• Higher level of education among • Lower level of education among
farmers farmers
• Lower influence of traditional methods • Higher influence of traditional methods
• Lower % of labour force • Higher % of labour force
• Large average farm size • Small average farm size
• Higher output per hectare • Lower output per hector
• High access to market, efficient • Low access to market
transport. • High variety of crops
• Lower variety of crops

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Choose an example which you have studied of large-scale commercial farming.
Name an area where your chosen farming type takes place. Describe the inputs, processes
and outputs of this/ farming system

(e.g. Large scale cereal growing in Canadian Prairies).

• (e.g. wheat farming in the Canadian Prairies –
Inputs
• deep fertile chernozem soils,
Processes harvesting using combine harvester, cereal crops exported through Great Lakes for
bread making)
• In Namibia, subsistence farming is mostly practiced in the so called communal
areas in the north of Namibia. This includes the regions of Kunene, Okavango and
Caprivi, as well as some regions in the central north such as Omusati, Oshana,
Oshikoto and Ohangwena.
• In these communal areas the subsistence farmers are mostly livestock farmers. They
produce livestock mainly for local (especially their own) consumption. In line with their
traditions, the men and boys take care of the cattle. The women and girls tend to the
arable agriculture (growing crops). As a result of overgrazing, all yields remain low in
these areas.

• Large herd owners have cattle posts away from the village and cropland where animals
are kept. In the communal areas the veterinary services are not adequate, as a result of

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Geography notes grade 10 – 11 new curriculumn
 poor infrastructure, inadequate facilities and lack of qualified staff. Therefore the animal
health services in the north of Namibia are of poor quality.

Main problems experienced by subsistence farmers in the northern Namibia

• Uncontrolled fencing
• Limited land available for communal grazing
• Degradation of land resulting from overstocking
• Regular drought and lack of management that leads to stock losses.
In the small scale mixed cash cropping system, the type of farming is mostly intensive, using
large amounts of labour and/or capital in relation to the area of land utilised in order to produce
a large output per hectare. Outputs are all cash crops entirely sold for profit – as demonstrated
by the diagram below

• SMALL SCALE MIXED CASH CROPPING

Case Study: Brakelsdal Farm (Stellenbosch, South Africa)
This small scale mixed cash crop farm is a part of a family owned business called
Zettler & Sons, a company that owns other smaller farms, with Brakelsdal as its
central managerial point. The staff consists of the three Zetler brothers, five
managers and some office staff.
• The farm is situated in a Mediterranean climatic region with dry warm summers
and cool wet winters, as depicted by the average rainfall and temperatures of the
region on the climate graph below:
• The size of the farm is 45 hectares and it is situated in a river valley with fertile, sandy-
loam soil. The various sources of water include a borehole, farm dam and the nearby
dam at Theewaterskloof.

• Products cultivated on the farm are strawberries, cabbage, broccoli, cucumbers, butternut,
beans and wine grapes. Development of the fields include ploughing, fumigation,
fertilisation, planting, clearing and harvesting on a rotation basis, as is required. Only the
strawberry fields and vineyards are used permanently.

A variety of machinery is implemented here for packing and sorting, as well as tractors for
ploughing and other machinery for spraying and pruning. Seedlings from nurseries local and in
France are mainly purchased for the planting.

The farm’s produce is sold at local markets and stores, as well as a part of it which is exported to
Germany, the UK and Switzerland

• The size of the farm is 45 hectares and it is situated in a river valley with fertile,
sandy-loam soil. The various sources of water include a borehole, farm dam and
the nearby dam at Theewaterskloof.
• Products cultivated on the farm are strawberries, cabbage, broccoli, cucumbers,
butternut, beans and wine grapes. Development of the fields include ploughing,

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Geography notes grade 10 – 11 new curriculumn
 fumigation, fertilisation, planting, clearing and harvesting on a rotation basis, as is
required. Only the strawberry fields and vineyards are used permanently.
• A variety of machinery is implemented here for packing and sorting, as well as
tractors for ploughing and other machinery for spraying and pruning. Seedlings
from nurseries local and in France are mainly purchased for the planting.
• The farm’s produce is sold at local markets and stores, as well as a part of it which
is exported to Germany, the UK and Switzerland.

• Seasonal Labour
•During the planting and picking season 100 extra labourers are collected from Khayelitsha
•Paid R100 per week.
• Casual Labour
•Casual labourers collected as and when required
•Up to 75 workers can be collected at busy times
•Have no contracts, paid R100 per week.
• Many of the characteristics of soil are adversely affected by malpractice of humans.
Unfarmed soil has natural vegetation growing on it, which allows the exchange of

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Geography notes grade 10 – 11 new curriculumn
 nutrients. Crops absorb certain nutrients, humus and water from the soil. If these
are not replaced by the addition of manure or fertilisers and correct irrigation, the
soil will deteriorate and become infertile.
Explain how labour and capital may influence farmers in deciding between small scale
subsistence farming and small scale cash crop farming

Small scale subsistence farming Small scale cash crop farming

• It needs large labour force • More capital intensive

• It is labour intensive • Is more mechanized/ more
• Limited capital machinery used
• Limited use of fertilizers • It needs a small labour force
• Does not need highly skilled labours • Uses more fertiliser
• It needs skilled labour

How do small scale subsistence farmers obtain their capital? And what do they use capital
for?

They obtain capital from;

• Selling their small surplus
• Obtaining a loan
• Increase yield so there is surplus for sale
They use capital for
• Buying fertilizer
• Buying pesticides
• Buying machineries
• Buying better quality seeds
• Provision of water
How do small scale subsistence farmers obtain their capital? And what do they use capital
for?

They obtain capital from;

• Selling their small surplus
• Obtaining a loan
• Increase yield so there is surplus for sale
They use capital for
• Buying fertilizer
• Buying pesticides
• Buying machineries
• Buying better quality seeds
• Provision of water
Strategies to improve the output in large scale commercial farming (case study: Molopo
Cattle ranching in Botswana)

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Geography notes grade 10 – 11 new curriculumn
 • Increasing the area used for commercial ranching to increase the output of the
existing ranches
• Have more mixed smallholder farms, communal game ranching and eco-tourism
• Communal land has been subdivided and fenced in some areas in order to
encourage farmers to change from their traditional way, to a more commercial
approach.
• Increasing the area used for commercial ranching to increase the output of the existing
ranches

• Have more mixed smallholder farms, communal game ranching and eco-tourism

• Communal land has been subdivided and fenced in some areas in order to encourage
farmers to change from their traditional way, to a more commercial approach.

• Economic diversification: which include changing from traditional beef production to

horticulture, tree crops, small stock and poultry, this create more jobs.

• Encourage more people to enter commercial farming as well as into small holdings for
intensive crop farming near to main towns.

Factors that causes food shortages

• High population growth

• Unreliable rainfall and droughts
• Political instability and wars
• Pests such as locust
• Poor farmers not affording expensive machinery
• increased soil erosion
• Changes to cash crops
• HIV and AIDS
• Rural –urban migration
Problems related to food aid
• Might encourage countries to spend on prestigious projects
• May lead to dependence rather than self-reliance
• Food sold may ruin local agriculture
• Donor agencies may use aid as a political weapon for favours
• Some political leaders use aid as political tool to ensure obedience
• Aid may be supplied with strings
• Often aid does not reach the needy
• Does not solve the underlying economic problems
Farming and the environment
• Pesticides kill some of the living organisms in the ecosystem
• Fertilizer may poison ground water
• Fertilizer may cause eutrophication-algae in water
• Animal manure may pollute water

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Geography notes grade 10 – 11 new curriculumn
 • Natural vegetation cleared for farmland
• Cleared land increase soil erosion
• Wildlife habitats are destroyed
• Irrigation can lead to salination of soil
• Overgrazing leads to bush encroachment

STRATEGIES FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE

• Breeding plants through scientific processes to have higher content of nutrients,

drought resistant and disease resistant for production of higher yields.

• Mixed cropping by planting a mixture of crops, soil maintains balance while plants
provide cover to protecting soil from erosion and evaporation.

• Using organic fertiliser of natural substance enriches soil and increase growth,
providing better yield. Planting crops in same soil year after year, exhausts soil and
depletes nutrients – have to be replaced by fertiliser – Natural fertiliser enables soil to
retain water, allows better drainage and aeration in wet periods – help to bind loose soil
reducing erosion vulnerability.

• Case Study: Farming Methods Leading to Desertification in Namibia

• Namibia is one of the world’s driest countries, situated between the Namib Desert in the
west and the Kalahari Desert in the east. The relatively small piece of fertile land
situated in between, has to meet the needs of the population, of which about 70% rely on
it for food supplies. This land, however, is still susceptible to drought, deforestation and
desertification.

• The people of communal areas in the north use wood as fuel for energy. As the
population increases and with it the demand for wood, dead trees and branches are
depleted and they start chopping down live trees to supply their needs. The lack of trees
creates a lack in soil fertility over time, leading to increased soil erosion and eventually
desertification.

• The other serious environmental problem in the communal areas especially, is

overgrazing, which also contributes to the serious negative effect on the land.

Some negative effects or consequences of overgrazing:

• •Local resources become exhausted – poor people have no alternative

• •Rural poverty increases

• •Cattle removed from villages to graze, crop land around village is left without manure –

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Geography notes grade 10 – 11 new curriculumn
 become less fertile

• • increased Soil erosion.

Forest Management Techniques.

• ◦Agro Forestry = the combination of forestry and agriculture, which enables the farmer to
continue farming and use the trees for other purposes like fuel and building timber. This
is applicable to highly erodable flooding areas, economically marginal and environmental
sensitive lands

• ◦Reforestation = the process of regular and repeated replanting of trees after they have
been removed for use.

• ◦Sustainable Harvesting = the use of resources in such a way that they can be used
continuously without being destroyed or damaged.

Case Study: Machakos – Can Agriculture be Sustainable in Kenya

Kenya falls within the dry Sahel region, which stretches from west to east across Africa,
south of the Sahara Desert. Repeated droughts have rendered the region extremely dry
over the years. Savannah is the natural ecosystem of this region, but in some parts the
farmland has turned into desert to the extent that it has replaced neighbouring savannah
land, which once had vegetation of a variety of grasses, trees and shrubs.

Problems in Machakos

• Land over utilised, leading to the place to become more like a desert
• Population is growing too fast and this lead to more land cleared for agriculture,
this increase erosion.
• Most areas are overgrazed because of large number of animals kept at small areas.
• The country have steep slopes which increases erosion further.

Solutions to the problems in Machakos( Kenya

• Change from cattle herding to settled farming,

• Dug dams, planted trees and constructed terraces up the steep hillsides to trap
rainfall and prevent soil washing away.
• Intercropping cowpeas and sunflowers with maize to improve soil fertility
• Change from subsistence farming to commercial farming

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Geography notes grade 10 – 11 new curriculumn
Farms can also be grouped according to the way farmers use their land, as

intensive farming extensive farming

• This involve spending a lot of time and • This is where farmers use large area of
money on the farm land to produce land to rear animals and produce crops.
high yields. The farm is small in Less machinery and labour is needed
relation to the number of people than in intensive farms. An example is
employed or capital involved, e.g. ranching.
market gardening in Netherland.

Main feature of intensive farming

• The farms are small

• There is maximum use of land
• High yield per square area
• It has a small labour force
• Make use of machinery, fertilizer, pesticides
• They use farming methods such as multicropping, intercropping
• It needs a lot of capital
• They use high quality seeds
• They are market oriented
Other forms of farming

• Pastoral or stock farming: farming with animals

• Arable farming: growing of crops
• Mixed farming: combination of pastoral and arable
• Shifting agriculture: when farmers move from one place to another.
• Nomadic: shifting following rain pattern
• Sedentary farming: is when farmers stay in one place to grow their crops.

Physical inputs
• Temperature (length of growing season)
• Precipitation (variability and reliability)
• Wind (evapotranspiration, moisture)
• Altitude (growing seasons, wind and rain)
• Relief (steep slope, runoff, teraccces)
• Soil and drainage (quality)
• Global warming (drought)
• Growing season
• aspects
Human inputs

• Land tenure (private, commercial, communal, subsistence)

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Geography notes grade 10 – 11 new curriculumn
 • Inheritance law (subdivision of land)
• Farm size
• Labour (skilled and unskilled)
• Training/education

Economic input

• Transport (cost per distance, perishables)

• Communications (tel. email links to markets and service providers)
• Fuel (increase with distance), energy
• Markets, farm buildings, pestcides
• Capital (expenses for machines, seeds, fertiliser, land infrastructure)
• technology

Government involvement

• Marketing boards
• Subsidies
• Loans
• Trade agreements
• Central planning
• Import duties
• Training
• Agricultural services

Physical inputs
• Temperature (length of growing season)
• Precipitation (variability and reliability)
• Wind (evapotranspiration, moisture)
• Altitude (growing seasons, wind and rain)
• Relief (steep slope, runoff, teraccces)
• Soil and drainage (quality)
• Global warming (drought)
• Growing season aspects
• emperature (length of growing season)
• Precipitation (variability and reliability)
• Wind (evapotranspiration, moisture)
• Altitude (growing seasons, wind and rain)
• Relief (steep slope, runoff, teraccces)
• Soil and drainage (quality)
• Global warming (drought)
• Growing season
• aspects

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Geography notes grade 10 – 11 new curriculumn
Human inputs

• Land tenure (private, commercial, communal, subsistence)

• Inheritance law (subdivision of land)
• Farm size
• Labour (skilled and unskilled)
• Training/education
Economic input

• Transport (cost per distance, perishables)

• Communications (tel. email links to markets and service providers)
• Fuel (increase with distance), energy
• Markets, farm buildings, pestcides
• Capital (expenses for machines, seeds, fertiliser, land infrastructure)
• Technology
• Transport (cost per distance, perishables)
• Communications (tel. email links to markets and service providers)
• Fuel (increase with distance), energy
• Markets, farm buildings, pestcides
• Capital (expenses for machines, seeds, fertiliser, land infrastructure)
• technology

Government involvement

• Marketing boards
• Subsidies
• Loans
• Trade agreements
• Central planning
• Import duties
• Training
• Agricultural services
Farming and the environment
• Pesticides harm ecosystem
• Fertiliser may poison ground water
• Fertiliser may cause eutrophication-algae in water
• Animal manure may pollute water
• Sewage used as fertiliser can spread deseases
• Natural vegetation cleared for farmland
• Cleared land increase soil erosion
• Wildlife habitats are destroyed
• Over Irrigation can lead to salination of soil
• Overgrazing leads to bush encroachment

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Geography notes grade 10 – 11 new curriculumn
How can we solve these problems

• Limit the use of pesticides

• Use biological control on pesticides (remember the micro organism story by Harald
during his visit in Ponhofi 2013)
• Use organic fertilizers
• Reforestation and afforestation
• Contour ploughing
• Reduce the number of live stocks
• Reduce population growth by family planning

Soil erosion: is the removal of the fertile top layer of the soil, by wind or water

Types of soil erosion

• Sheet erosion: caused by water flowing down a slope and remove materials from
the whole slope. It occurs during the sheet flows.Gully erosion: when water
erodes a deep channel which is extended uphill, often quiet rapidly.
• Rill erosion: water flowing overland carves numerous small gullies known as rills.
• Wind erosions: once vegetation are cleared, wind is able to blow top soil, leaving
bare rocks or infertile soil behind.

Effects of soil erosion

• Silting up of dams, rivers and lakes damage water quality

• Soil become infertile, as the top fertile soil has been displaced.
• Formation of gullies, dongas and rills on land
• Silting up of rivers may increase the chances of floods.
• Leads to expansions of deserts
• Limited plant growth
• Death of animals and plants (loss of species)

Soil erosion is influenced by:

• Deforestation: lack of vegetation exposes soil to erosion

• Over cultivation and overgrazing
• steeper the slope which increase runoff which increase soil erosion.
• Deep ploughing and plough up and down slopes
• Absence of organic matter makes the soil loose and prone to erosion.
• Monoculture

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Geography notes grade 10 – 11 new curriculumn
Preventing soil erosion
• By using contour ploughing
• Using strip cropping – leaving un-ploughed land with grass in between crops
• Keeping the soil rich in organic materials
• Keeping the soil covered by plants
• Preventing overstocking and overgrazing
• Using crop rotation
• Planting wind breakers – indigenous plants
• Minimizing deep ploughing
• Building erosion walls on slopes to reduce run-off

Relationship between increased food production and economic and social development

Economic
• People healthy improve, which leads to high productivity and greater profit.
• More money invested in farming to buy equipment's
• Surpluses of raw materials for processing industry create a market for
manufacturing
• More jobs are created

Social
• More and better food is produced, which contributes to better diets
• More money is made, which increases the living standard of the people.

Opportunities and constraints to be considered when developing a land for agriculture

(environmental factors)

• Temperature: consider optimum temperature that will allow the crops to grow. In
low temperature most crops do not grow well.
• Precipitation and water supply: The mean annual rainfall of an area determine the
types of crops to be grown. Few crops may grow in areas with less annual rainfall.
• Wind: strong winds increase evapotranspiration rate which allows the soil to dry
out and become vulnerable to erosion and then unproductive. E.g. Khamsin. Other
like Fohn and chinook are beneficial for they melt snow.
• Altitude: few crops can at height exceeding 300 m above sea level, as they are
controlled by the decrease in temperature with height.
• Angle of slope: steeper slopes are prone to erosion and have poor development of
soil than gentle slope.
• Aspects: Adret slope (south facing slope in the northern hemisphere) have higher
temperature and dry soil than Ubac slopes (those facing north, and face away from
the sun and mostly permanent in shade). Crops an trees grow well in Adret slopes.
• Soil (edaphic factors): the growth of crops can be determined by the soil depth,
stoniness, water retention capacity, aeration, texture, structure, ph, leaching and
mineral content of the soil.

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Geography notes grade 10 – 11 new curriculumn
Cultural factors

• Land tenure: this refer to land ownership in an area, whether individual can own
the land or only rent, and pay in cash tenancy or share copping
• Farm size: inheritance laws tends to reduce farm sizes so that people can only
operate at a level of subsistence farmers.
• Inheritance laws and fragmentation of holdings: in several countries inheritance
laws divide lands once a farmer die into small pieces to cater for his sons. This
reduces output.

Economic factors

• Transport: what type of transport is available and the time taken as well as cost of
moving raw materials to the farm and farm produce to the market.
• Market: Is there market available to sell market produce?
• Capital: availability of finance to sponsor farming.
• Technology: technological developments such as new strains of seeds, cross-
breeding of animals, improved machineries, may provide optimal conditions for
farming.
• The state: government involvement by providing subsidy also influence farming.

Methods of increasing agricultural output

• Land reform: distribution of land to individual farmers, landless labourers. This

have increase production in areas like China.
• Green revolution: this refer to application of Morden farming techniques to
developing countries.
• Appropriate technology: this seeks to develop small scale, sustainable projects
which are appropriate to the local climate, environment, wealth, skills and needs for
local people.
• Irrigation: this help in increasing the output. This allow for the provision of water
in dry areas as well as during dry periods and reduce crop failure.

Green revolution

• This refer to application of Morden farming techniques to developing countries. It

Involved high-yielding variety (HYVs) of plants developed by cross breeding and
genetic engineering which are more resistant to diseases and drought and therefore
increase output and shorter growing season.

Benefits of green revolution

• Crop production increase 6 times more
• Greater food security in rural areas as reserves can build up
• Drop in food prices due to increased production

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Geography notes grade 10 – 11 new curriculumn
 • Some areas may harvest more than one crop due to shorter growing season
• Many HYVs produce more fruit or seed and less wasteful foliage – trees smaller
and less exposed to wind
• Many farmers have become wealthy
• HYVs are more disease and drought resistant

Problems of Green revolution

• HYVs exhausts soil because they needs more nutrients than conventional crops.
• Large amount of expensive fertilizer is needed
• Fertilizers often make farmers ill
• Pesticides poison water supplies
• Less foliage means less straw for building and grazing
• Although some HYVs are drought resistant some require more water than
conventional crops
• Irrigation canals led to increase in malaria and bilharzia
• Only people who afford could mechanize production
• Mechanized farming leads to job losses
• Increased GMs led to strong criticisms

Appropriate technology: is technology suitable to the state of development of the country

concerned

5 main aims of appropriate technology/ intermediate technology.

• To provide jobs
• To produce goods for local markets
• To replace imported goods with local goods which are of the same quality but the
same price or cheaper
• To use local resources, labour, materials and finance
To provide communities with services like health, water, housing, roads and education

Types of irrigation
1. flood,
2. sprinkler,
3. drip irrigation
Problems of using irrigation:
• expensive to set up,
• wasteful use of water,
• cause salinization,
• desertification of marginal land,
• overuse of ground water
• It extends the area of cultivation
• Extend growing seasons
• Increased output/yield
• Allow greater variety of crops
• Increase income
• Allow cultivation in dry areas
• Reduces chances of crop failure because of drought.
• Crops are grown in marginal land

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Geography notes grade 10 – 11 new curriculumn
Soil Conservation and land management strategies

Soil conservation means reducing the amount of soil erosion and maintaining soil fertility.
Measure to conserve the soil.
1. Cut off drains: they are dug across a slope and intercept the run off, carrying it safely
down the slope without any erosion of fields or damage to crops.

2. Retention ditches: they are dug along a contour and are supposed to catch and hold
water long enough for it to soak into the soil.

3. Contour ploughing: this is ploughing and planting along a contour rather than straight
up and down a slope. This reduces the speed of run off and prevent soil being washed
away. This can be used together with grass barrier strips, which are strips of unploughed
land which are left at intervals on a slope.

4. Bench terraces: created by digging a trench along a contour and throwing the soil up
hill to form an embankment. The embankment is then stabilised with grass. Crops are
planted in spaces between the embankments.

5. Crop rotation: because intensive cultivation soon exhaust the nutrients in the soil,
crop rotation can be used. Some crops add nutrients such as legumes while others are
selective like potatoes.

6. Controlled grazing: by limiting the number of animals, overgrazing can be prevented.

Feedings paddocks may also be used, so that while animals are in one paddock, the other
one is given time to recover.

7. Reforestation: planting areas which have been denuded of trees, the effect of erosions
can be reduced. This can be done with indigenous trees for they are in harmony with the
soil and are more likely to protect the soil against erosion than alien species.

8. Cover Cropping: in areas where tree & crops like coffee and rubber are grown in
rows, crops should be planted between the rows to reduce soil erosion.

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Geography notes grade 10 – 11 new curriculumn
 LEISURE AND TOURISM

Leisure: resting and relaxing instead of working

Tourism: traveling to other places for leisure

Types of leisure and tourist activities in Namibia

Land tourist activities:

Abseiling, adventure racing, bird watching, camel trails, caving, 4X4 trail, hiking, back-packing,
guided wilderness trails, hunting, rock climbing, quad biking, sand boarding and star gazing.
Water: rock and surf- Angling, shark-angling, fresh water angling, canoeing and rafting, diving
and snorkeling.
Air: hot air ballooning, micro lighting, paragliding, skydiving
• Local or domestic tourism: travelling to visit areas within your own country
• International tourism: travelling to visit areas outside your own country. Travelling from
one country to another.

Locating important tourist attraction places in Namibia

Reason for growth or increase in international tourism

• More leisure time/longer paid leave / holidays
• Marketing/advertising on TV, magazines
• Interest in new activities – diving, trekking
• Popularity of exotic places
• Package deals take away hassles
• Relaxed visa requirements
• Early retirement – healthy enough to travel
• Telecommunications/easier booking worldwide/internet
• Advances in transport technology and infrastructure – cars. Aeroplanes, routes
• Growth of grey tourism (elders)
• Greater affluence
• Increase in ecotourism

Reasons Africa losses on tourism

• Negative publicity about HIV and AIDS
• New attractions in developed countries
• New resorts in north Africa
• Fear of terrorism
• Higher prices deter people
• Many may prefer luxury to bush camps
• Political unrest generalized to all countries
• Long distance from richer countries
• Lack of publicity about attractions
• Mugging of tourists
• Negative publicity about wars

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Geography notes grade 10 – 11 new curriculumn
Benefits of tourism
• Increase in Foreign exchange into the country
• Direct employment/earn money
• Indirect employment – building, transportation, escorts
• Training of local people
• Boost market for local craft industries
• Environment protected
• Infrastructure improved e.g. Roads for transportation
• Local culture preserved / preservation of cultural heritage
• Different cultures meet / improve cultural understanding
• Market for local produce
• Government earn taxes/ diversifies economy

Problems related to tourism

• Environment often spoiled by development
• Local people cannot afford tourist facilities and are often excluded from tourist areas
• Agriculture may be neglected
• Social problems such as Crime, drugs and prostitution increase
• Money could have been spend improving living standards
• increase in local traffic congestion/atmospheric pollution from traffic;
• loss of local culture/traditional way of life;
• Pressure on available resources such as water supplies;
• loss of valuable agricultural land to building tourist facilities

Craft industry

• Is a traditional ways of making product using simple technology.

e.g. Wood Carving in Okahandja.

Characteristic of Craft industry

• Is organised on a small scale
• It is labour intensive and use simple technology
• Uses raw materials obtained from the local environment
• They produces products for local markets and tourist

Importance of craft industry in developing countries

• Provide self employment

• Products are sold to tourist which may contribute to export trade
• When craft industries are located in rural areas it may discourage rural-urban migration
• Training of labourers encourage the development of craft industry

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Geography notes grade 10 – 11 new curriculumn
How tourism has changed the natural environment
• Destruction of ecosystem
• Loss of species/aquatic life/plants
• Loss of habitat
• Visual pollution/landscape change
• Water/sea pollution
• Pressure on natural supply of water
• Preservation of areas of beauty

Problem facing the tourism industry in Namibia and other LEDCs

• Insufficient infrastructure ( good roads, railways airports etc).

• Inadequate utilities (electricity, water, communications) and other services.( health care
and security)
• Tourism requires high investment, maintaining costs for transport system are high.
• Poor representation of the country as a tourist attraction
• Inadequate tourism information services
• Negative publicity including HIV/AIDs.
• Inadequate accommodation offered to tourists

Solutions to the above problems

• Encourage private companies and MNCs to invest in tourism industry.e.g on

accomodations
• Invest in the infrastructure like roads to make them better for the tourists
• The government should always sent representatives to countries to advertise the tourist
attraction that Namibia offers
• Improve the country’s information, by engaging more in international media with
adverts for our tourist attraction sites.

Eco-tourism
it is when the development of tourism take place but at the same time the environment is
protected

Reason why the ecosystem is becoming more important in the world.

• Governments realised that tourism may spoil an area and therefore the development need
to be protected.
• Both the natural environment and human environment has features which needs to be
protected, e.g. woodland, wildlife, old buildings. Etc.
• Involves appreciation of nature and indigenous cultures
• Tourist package should include education and interpretation
• Organized for small group of people, specialized and locally owned business
• Minimizing negative impacts on the natural and socio-cultural environment – wildlife
disturbance, noise
• Support the protection of natural scenery for the benefit of managers – limited number of
tourist

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Geography notes grade 10 – 11 new curriculumn
 • Provides local employment for locals
• Increasing local and visitor awareness of conservation

Features of ecotourism

• The environment is often protected

• Includes guided tours
• Limit the number of tourists
• Education about environmental protection
• Limited development of tourist facilities

Conservation of forests.
what should be done do conserve forests

• Government should apply certain laws to discourage further deforestation such as

penalties and obtaining licences for cutting down trees
• Develop agroforestry where trees are grown along side food crops
• Afforestation can be applied on more regular basis where restocking of trees is
undertaken
• Warden and rangers can be appointed to patrol forests and enforce rules and regulations
People must be educated about the importance of trees and be made aware of the environmental
conservation

Why will the conservation of forests be difficulty

• Lack of awareness about the importance of trees

• Increased population leads to deforestation
• Forest is a mean of incomes for the poor
• Higher demand for land for commercial purposes ( industry, mining and resoivour)
• Increased demand for timber.

For a named tourist attracting area, describe the benefits for the local people

Choose from the 3

1. Etosha National Park
2. Skeleton Coast of Namibia
3. Namib Naukluft Park

Benefits to the people of a named tourist attracting area

• People obtain direct employments (only)

• Encourage preservation of cultural heritage
• Growth in tourism boost local craft industry

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 • Local people trained and get skills that can be used in other sectors of economy
• Government earn tax
• Tax earned can be used to improve infrastructures like roads, schools etc.
• Employed people get income which improves their living standard

How can we encourage sustainable tourism/ ecotourism

• Reducing the number of tourists
• Tourism education regarding environmental issues
• Ensure wild life is conserved
• Limited number of tourist firms (companies)
• Employing people to clean up insensitive areas on regular basis
• Restricting access to sensitive areas.

Differences between Renewable and non-renewable

Non-renewable resources: they are those that can only be used once and must sooner or latter
become exhausted. Such as oil, coal, natural gas, fuel wood (uranium is a mineral)
Renewable resources: they are sustainable and can be replenished by nature given enough time:
solar, wind, hydro, waves. Biogas/mass are from remains of living plants and animals

Significance of non renewable energy

The non-renewable includes, oil, coal and natural gas. They are collectively called fossil fuels.
• Fossil fuels produced 88% of the world’s commercially produced energy in the mid
1990’s.
• Most consumption of fossil fuels takes place in the developed world. They are important
because they are always cheaper and easy to obtain and they are relatively efficient.

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Significant of renewable energy

• Renewable energy utilises the power of nature to provide energy.

• e.g. of renewable sources of energy are:

1. Hydro electricity
2. Wind power
3. Solar power (in tropical countries)
4. Geothermal power
5. Tidal power
6. Biomass (burning agricultural waste to produce gas or converting the waste into
combustible fuel.

growing significance of alternative (renewable) energy supplies

• They are renewable

• There is a variety to select from
• There is security of supply ( countries do not depend on others)
• Much less pollution than fossil fuels
• Falling costs with improvement in technologies
• Construction time may be shorter except for major Hydro electric plants
• Developing countries may use them to cut down on costly oil import

Problems with alternative (renewable) energy sources)

• A considerable amount of research into new technologies is still required

• Large investments have already been made in transport types and machines in using
fossil fuels.
• They only contribute a small amount of energy at the present time, apart from
biomass and hydro electricity

Factors influencing the location of HEP (requirement of HEP)

• A steep slope: to enable water to turn the turbines which generate electricity
• Sufficient and constant supply of water (in areas where there is short supply, huge
storage dams are constructed to store water when there is a shortage.
• A very large capital expenditure : building large hydro-electricity project is an
expensive proposition.
• The dam should be build on impervious rocks to reduce infiltration.
• The area should be seismically stable with no risks of earthquakes.
• A dam need to be set in an area which offers the largest possible catchment(drainage
basins) area to increase the amount of water available.
• A deeper, steep sided valley high in mountainous areas is preferable because it reduces

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 the rate of evaporation.
• Mountainous areas with snow or permanent glaciers increases of permanent water supply.
• A large market for electricity.
•
Describe how the hydro electricity is produced

• Water is stored in a dam and is let out by opening control gates.

• water flows through penstock and turns the turbine
• The turbine turn on the generator to produces Alternate Current (AC)
• The transformer changes AC to Direct Current (DC)
• The power lines take electricity to consumers
• Water is taken back to the river by tailraces.

Advantages of hydro-electric
• It is Renewable
• Often produced in mountainous areas so the population little disrupted
• Relatively cheaper form of power
• Produces little pollution
• Dams can be multi-purpose – domestic water, irrigation or transport
• Dams can control flooding
• Dams reduces the effects of drought

Disadvantages of hydro-electric
• Initial building costs are very high
• Environmental group protests against H.E.P
• Many people may loss homes
• Animals Habitats are destroyed
• Decaying plants produce greenhouse gases
• Silt deposits reduce dam capacity
• Silt blocked from reaching low – lying farms
• Dams disrupt river transport system
• Collapsing dams may have devastating effects.
•

Major hydro-electric power schemes on the map of Southern Africa

COAL POWER

Advantages:
• Coal reserves are expected to last another 300 years
• Giant excavators allow coal to be strip mined at an economical rate
• Many power stations are next to coal mines
• Coal can produce electricity, heat and coke for steel

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Disadvantages
• Most easily accessible reserves of coal have been mined out
• Deeper-lying deposits are dangerous and expensive to mine
• The burning of coal produces pollutants like sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide and
carbon monoxide
• Some gases released during the burning of coal contributes to Acid rain and global
warming
• Strip mining for coal destroys large area of environment
• Coal is dirt and expensive to transport
•

Nuclear Power (produced from burning uranium. It is also non renewable)

Advantages:
• Technology reduces the risk of accidents
• Does not produce greenhouse gases
• Waste can be stored safely
• Many governments and investors favor nuclear power
• There are still Large reserves of uranium
• Small amount of uranium produces huge amount of energy

Disadvantages

• Possible radiation leaks can happen in the event of an accident.

• Nuclear power station are expensive and they take long time to construct.
• It is difficulty to dispose off nuclear waste. The radio active material has to be
stored, reproccessed and disposed off safely.
• Nuclear waste have a long life and can remain dangerous for thousand of years.
• The cost of closing down old nuclear power station is very high

The danger of nuclear power

Case study on Chernobyl (ukrane)

• Happened on 25 April 1986, during an experiment. Engineers at the site forget

to take some precautions and it entered in an explosions.
• Some people were killed, including more than 30 fire fighters

• Hundreds of people living around the power station were ill with radiation sickness

• An area of 30 km from Chernobyl was declared unsafe and was abandoned

• 50 000 square km of good farm land was lost because their soil was affected by radio-
activities

• Over 100 000 people had to be sent away from the area

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 • New houses and work has to be found for the relocated people

• The sale of local agricultural products such as milk, dairy products and vegetables was
banned

• Dykes has to be built to prevent radio – active waste water from entering the rivers

• Buildings in Kiev, were washed 3 times a day to remove radio-active dusts for 12 months
after explosions

• Possibly many people living in other parts of Europe were affected by radio- activity and
became ill as a result

• Radioactive dust settled on large areas of Europe

Solar energy
production of energy from the Sun.

Solar energy converted to electricity by photo-voltaic cells

Advantages
• No finite resource involved
• After the installation cost, the cost is free
• The technology is constantly improving making the supply more efficient
• No expensive power line and electricity sub stations
• It is pollution- free.
• Cheap in tropics countries.
• Suitable for small scale production in rural areas

Disadvantages of solar power

• It is still an expensive proposition, even though prices are constantly reducing.

• Affected by seasons/angle of the sun/night

• Only real efficient in tropical areas

• Needs back up in cloudy periods

• Not always possible when the demand is high

• It doesn’t work at Night.

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Namibia’s energy policy: the Namibia energy policy have the following goals

• Effective energy sector governance

• Security of supply
• Social upliftment
• Investment and growth
• Economic competitiveness and efficiency.
• Sustainability.

Electricity and green house gases

• Burning coal produce large amount of Carbon dioxide which is a green house gas.
Which contribute highly to global warming.
Natural gas

• Advantages • Disadvantages
• Easier to combust • Limited reserves new sources more
• Easy to transport difficult to obtain
• Less harmful to environment • Terminals and refineries take up space
• Cleaner and cheaper than oil • Gives off N2O – acid rain
• Safer than nuclear power • Prices increase
• Electricity and heating

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Fuel wood

• Provides fuel and shelter for poor people

• Can be replenished; but
• Can lead deforestation, desertification and soil erosion
• Breathing smoke causes health problems
• Hard-work to gather wood (increased pop)
• Greenhouse gases released
• Reduce oxygen supply

Geothermal power

• Used in Iceland, New Zealand, Kenya and several countries in central America
where volcanic activity is closer to surface.
• Boreholes drilled into the crust to areas where rocks are heated by volcanic activity.
• cold water is pumped down pipes, heated by rocks
• And returned to the surface as steam
• The steam turn the turbine and generate electricity
• hot water may be used for heating homes and business – renewable.

Problems of geothermal

• Hot water contains chemicals dissolved out of the rocks – causes corrosion of pipes
and machinery – smell causes discomfort to residents – disposal of polluted water

Why oil is still a major energy source

• Large oil reserves

• Large scale production
• Most world economies are based on oil
• Demand for transport uses in cars
• Coal decline
• Oil less polluting than coal
• New energy sources cannot produce enough/ expensive
• More reliable than alternate sources of energy

What is meant by fossil fuel?

Refers to fuel formed from fossilised remains of plants or animals.

Goals for Namibia’s energy policy
• Effective energy sector governance
• Social upliftment
• Security of supply

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 • Investment and growth
• Economically competitive and efficiency
• Sustainability

Namibia energy sector’s link with SADC

• Namibia obtain bulk of its energy from Zimbabwe.

• Most of Namibia’s oil comes from middle east through refineries in South Africa.
• Other power supplies are Ruacan hydro-electric plant, the coal fired power station
in Windhoek and the diesel powered stations in Walvis Bay and Katima Mulilo

More plans for power stations in Namibia

• Wind farm planned for Luderitz, as well as hydro electric plant for Epupa and Popa.
• There are hopes for the Kudu Gas off the coast near Oranjemund for gas fired
power station (to produce electricity from gas)

Why did Namibia changed buying electricity from South Africa to Zimbabwe

• The demand for electricity in Namibia ia expected to increase by 2020, with

increased demand in South Africa too, ESCOM is unable to export electricity to
its neighbour. Therefore Namibia needed to make another plan.
NB: DRC is believed to have untaped sources of Hydro electricity, Namibia hopes to benefit
from the in Future

Best site for wind power in Namibia

Coastal areas are the best sites because:

• Little vegetation cover to intercept the wind
• Strong coastal wind caused by greater differences in temperature of the sea and land
• No disturbance with population

Why is Gobabeb the best area for Solar energy production in Namibia

• It is in the desert with little vegetation cover.

• There is high amount of insolation
NB:
•solar energy will be expensive on a large scale because Namibian population is
isolated, and erecting poles to take power to people may be expensive.
•Other parts do not have longer hours of sunshine's which also affect the Solar power
production

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Impact of political unrest in the middle east to the Namibian economy

• With political unrest in the middle east (Iraq) the supply of oil is not assured
• Price of oil will continue to rise and it will affect prices of other goods in the
country
• In times of conflicts, oil shipments may be disrupted, this may increase oil prices.
• The economy of Namibia may be seriously damaged
• With political unrest in the middle east (Iraq) the supply of oil is not assured

• Price of oil will continue to rise and it will affect prices of other goods in the country
• In times of conflicts, oil shipments may be disrupted, this may increase oil prices.

• The economy of Namibia may be seriously damaged

NB

• The middle east countries are the most oil producers.

• MEDCS are the most consumers of oil, because they have many industries, machines that
uses more energy (Europe and North America)

• There are large numbers of cars that need oil to run.

HIV, AIDS and Population growth

• HIV breaks down the immune system

• Spread by bodily fluid – semen, blood, milk, sharing needles, unprotected sex,
transfusion of infected blood, from mother to mother if infected
Anti-retroviral can slow down the HIV virus – no cure

Effects on population pyramid

• Smaller numbers of young female adults in early 20s – males become few in late
20s and 30s – few children in 5+ age groups
• Effects of HIV and AIDS on economy
• Work force sickly, labor shortage, loss of young adults, strain on medical aid, strain
on pension schemes, lack of qualified teachers, children leave school to support
families, orphans need care, money diverted from development to medicines

Strategies to reduce the impact of HIV/ AIDS

• AIDS awareness campaigns
• Roads Displays ( the use of large billboards has helped in spreading the massage)
• Advertising campaigns on TVs and radio
• Free condoms distribution

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 • Free testing and counseling
• Anti-retroviral drugs
• Church groups are also involved in fighting AIDS e.g. Catholic Aids Action

Government role in fighting HIV/Aids

• Provide information about the pandemic to schools, so that they can be included in
their school curriculum.
• Provide condoms to all citizens of the country
• Provision of care and support to people who are affected, especially orphans and
vulnerable people.
• Set up some strategies that help people on the prevention, e.g. free education in
rural areas to all communities.
• Promotion of the use of condoms.
• Providing Anti-Retroviral drugs to the people who are infected.

Role for Non Governmental organisation and Private sectors

• Provide funds to people who are affected ( Orphans) and people who are infected
• They mostly focus on teaching the children about the epidemic diseases and
counselling people who are infected. (e.g Ombetja Yehinga)
• Private sectors are encouraged to adopt AIDS policy that is applied to workers.
Instead of dismissing people that are HIV positive that are HIV positive, they are
encouraged to give counselling and support.

Role of churches in fighting Hiv /Aids

• They organise programmes to fight against the disease. E.g Catholic Aids action)
• They focus on helping orphans and vulnerable people, e.g. organising feeding
programs for orphans and provide clothing.
• They also involved in counselling the infected people.
• Churches also teach people to abstain before marriage.

Roles of individuals in fighting Aids

• Some members of private individual's have opened orphanages for Aids orphans
and receive support from school and churches.

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The impacts that the use of condoms have on the population growth, structure and
economy of Namibia

Population Growth: It will decline due to High death rate and reduced birth rate.

Population Structure: there will be reduced middle group, because the middle group is the
victim of HIV, fewer young age group, due to reduced birth rate as a result of HIV/ Aids and The
old age group is stable, as few of them are infected, however, there will be low life expectancy
due to AIDS

Economic of the country: Deaths and illness due to AIDS pandemic will have a negative
influence on the available work force of Namibia, this will result in an increased in the cost of
labour.

• Employers will be faced with rapidly rising illness and death rates among their
employees.
• There will be reduced productivity of the labour force.
/
Impact of the Anti-Retroviral Drugs

On the Population Growth: It will increase because people will be engaged into sexual activities
because they know that there are medicines to help them live longer
Population Structure: It will be stable in the middle age and old age group and it will be high at
the younger group because more people will be born.

The economy: it will be low. Because the government will have to buy more medicines for the
people who are infected.
• The government will tae responsibility of providing Education, Food, ARVS etc.
• It will decrease the labour force, which will decrease the economy of the country.

Settlement Studies

Settlement is a place where people live

Difference between Rural and urban settlement

Rural settlement: it refers to the countryside – away from towns and cities, it is classified as
single functional.
We find only primary activities
Urban Settlement: It refers to town and cities and is classified as Multifunctional.
We mostly find secondary and tertiary activities

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 Dispersed linear Clustered/ Nucleated

Nucleated/clustered Settlement pattern

 A buildings are grouped together around a central feature.

Why does nucleated settlement form?

❖ Traditional and culture e.g around Igwe
❖ People settle near a water point
❖ In a bad drained area people settle at dry point site
❖ In mountains, they settle at flat area
❖ Bridging point
❖ Surrounded by farmland
❖ On hill top for farming reason
❖ At main junctions

Linear Settlement pattern

Buildings are usually found along the line of communication such as the road, along a river.
Reasons
 Along the road/ river for communication
 Foot of highland areas
 Edge of fertile agricultural land

Factors that influence site, growth and function of rural and urban settlements
 Water supply
 Wet-point settlements – found around water points like wells
 Dry-point settlements – found above the flood level in areas prone to flood

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  Building materials such as wood or stone
 Food supply – may be farming, fishing, hunt
 Relief (flat areas easy to build
 defence (flat topped mt), fuel supply

Why do settlement grow?

 On a gentle sloping land

 Near water supply (river)
 Away from rivers that tends to flood (at dry point)
 Fertile soil for crop growing
 At mining sites (resources like gold)
 Near road junctions/roads for transport
 Near aerodrome landing area
 On high ground for protection
 Bridging point (where transport routes crossed rivers)
Reasons for distribution of settlements
 On /Near cultivated land
 Away from steep areas
 On gentle sloping land

Types of Urban settlement

 Town: small urban settlement

 City: A bit bigger
 Conurbation: Several towns and cities joined together
 Megapolis: Joining of conurbation

Land use in urban areas

1. CBD (Central Business district)
2. Transition Area/ Twilight/zone of decay
3. Industrial areas
4. Residential areas
/
CBD (Central Business District)

Characteristic of CBD
 Most accessible part of a city
 Where transport routes meet
 There is traffic congestion
 High concentrations of pedestrians
 High land values (expensive land)
 Tall buildings

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  limited open spaces
 More air pollution
 Limited parking
 Most important commercial area
 High order functions
 Low order functions such as , shops, cafes etc.
 Financial, professional, administrative and entertainment services.

Functions of a CBD
 High-order retail function – boutiques
 Many retail functions – shops such as supermarkets, clothing stores, furniture shops
 Numerous banks and other financial institutions like insurance
 Many professional services like doctors, lawyers, architects
 Administration functions like municipal offices and post offices
 Entertainments like theatres
 Hotels and restaurants

 Large parking garages

 Low order functions like cafes, hairdressers, fast-food shops, pharmacies

Problems of CBD
 Have become inaccessible
 Traffic Congestion
 Pollution, noise
 Limited of business
 Little or no of maintenance in the city center
 Development of shopping malls in suburbs
 Shortage of land and high land value
Solution to shortage and high price of land
 Skyscraper office blocks

Causes of traffic congestion

 Physical separation between place of work and place of residence

 Insufficient street patterns
 Severe during rush hours
 Inadequate public transport
 Narrow roads in city center
 Intensive land use

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Traffic congestion (solutions)

 Improve traffic management, e.g traffic circles

 Increase off street parking (multi-storey car parks)

 Build bypasses to improve traffic flow

 Build out of town parkings

 One way street

 Widen roads

 Encourage business to stagger their opening and closing hours

 Toll roads, road pricing

 Close off the city Centre to all vehicles

 Encourage public transport



importance of public transport

 Reduce traffic congestion

 Saving time
 Saving transport cost
 Reduction of accidents
 Reduction of stress levels creating of pleasant urban environment
 Reduce air and noise pollution
 Saving of space

How does traffic congestion influence the economy

 People late to work,

 Time wasted sitting in traffic
 Waste time looking for parkings
 Buildings and maintaining of roads
 Higher fuel cost

How does traffic congestion influence people

 Accidents may occurs
 Increase stress level
 Cause respiratory sickness, e.g, asthma

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How does traffic influence buildings and the environment

 Loss of properties for road building and widening

 Vibration damage properties
 Air pollution increased by exhaust fumes
 Increased noise from cars, lorries
 Loss of land for road widening

Causes of air pollution in urban areas

 Exhaust gases from vehicles (carbon monoxide)
 Industries (sulphur dioxide)
 Domestic fire – fuel wood

Solutions to air pollution

 Use filters on chimney at power stations
 Increase the availability of renewable energy sources to reduce the use of wood and
coal
 Increase the use of alternate sources of energy
 Use unleaded petrol
 Use public transport
 Fit catalytic convertors
 Washing coal before use
 Set smokeless zones
 Fines
 Alternative sources of energy

Why is CBD mostly occupied by offices, shops and public buildings

 High cost of land

 Can only be afforded by shops and offices
 Large sphere of influence
 Because they need a central position
 Accessibility/ links with all parts of town

Why do some people prefer to live near the Expensive CBD

 Close to entertainment areas
 Close to work
 Less time to travel to work
 Low cost to travel to work

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Why do many people prefer to live far away from CBD,e.g Katutura

 Expensive near CBD

 More noise
 Too polluted
 Overcrowded
 Traffic congestion
 Occupied by shops and offices

Away from CBD

 There is more space
 Land is cheaper
 Near to open countryside
 Employment in surburban industrial areas

Transition area/twilight zone/zone of decay

 It is the area just outside CBD

 Land value are higher but buildings are old and derelict (neglected/deserted)
 Areas of redevelopment in cities
 Mixed land use: industrial, commercial and residential areas
 Industrial areas
 Small light industries near the CBD, e.g printing, clothing etc
 Planned industrial estate nearer to residential areas on the outskirt of cities
 Planned industries includes consumer goods and electro-technical goods.

Why most inner city has been considered zone of decay or decline

 Most city authority and business has invested in the CBD, and much less is spent in
the inner city and the environment here is a growing problem. Their large area of
waste land has become dumping grounds. Big factories are derelict monuments of
the industrial revolution.
 Terraced houses built for the better-off people in Victorians times are now derelict
and boarded up.
 Empty buildings has become favourite targets for vandals and paint sprays.

Heavy industry

 Large leveled land

 Cheaper land
 Air and noise pollution
 Use bulk raw material

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  Products are bulky
 Need transport routes (e.g car assembly plants)
Gentrification: when old buildings or poor looking places are improved to attract higher income
people to live in

Old and new industrial areas

 Old industrial are found near town centre

Reasons
 Due to convergence of roads and railways
 Town centre was most accessible
 Often near railways
New industrial areas
 Edge of the city
 Near motor ways
 Away from congested areas
 More space
 Cheaper land
 Where it is accessible

Residential area or suburbs

 All the outer areas up to the edge of built-up areas.

 With houses increasing in size becoming more modern, changing from terraced to
semi detached and detached houses toward the outskirt
 Small shopping centres with everyday convenient goods.

Residential areas

Four types due to varying income of people within cities

Low income –high density
 High density(flats)
 Social and economic problems
 People earnings ‘less’ money
 Located at less attractive areas: near industries (low land value)

Middle income (medium density)

 Semi-attached housing; one building with two units with a single common dividing
wall
 Row housing- one single building divided up into smaller units
 Small two bedrooms homes on a small plot of land

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High income – low density

 Best locations in the city (waterfront areas, elevated grounds with view away
 From pollution, outskirt of cities (MEDC) near CBD (LEDC)
 Individual large houses with 3-4 bed rooms on large piece of ground
 Wealthy people
 Expensive land
 Social prestige (status)

Informal settlement (squatter/Shanty towns)

Features of informal settlement

 Very dense settlement
 No planning, no trees
 Unmade/dirty roads
 Variety of building materials, scrap
 Buildings in dilapidated condition
 Little uniformity in design of building
 Little open space

Factors encouraging informal settlements

 Population increase
 In-migration from smaller towns
 Poverty, small unproductive farms
 Decreasing soil fertility
 Lack of employment
 Natural disasters,

Informal settlements (problems)

 shortage of clean water
 shortage of sanitation
 No affordable medical services
 Pollution of various types
 Higher Crime rates
 Discrimination and resentment by other residents who object to taxes
 Dangers of fires spreading quickly
 Limited of job opportunities
 Fewer education facilities
 Dangers of infectious diseases spreading easily
 Built in low-lying areas -flooding

Solutions squatter settlements

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  Influx control – but violation of human rights
 Improving the rural areas
 Building simple brick homes to replace squatter shacks - provide loans to squatters
 Provide basic services like pre-paid running water and cheaper electricity
 Self-help schemes –equipment's and plots for people to make own bricks,
 Improving schools, clinics, sanitation
 Provide basic building materials, plan settlements.
 Improve transport system
 Create employment opportunities

Rural-urban fringe
Is the area around the edge of a city where the green fields and open spaces of the country side
meet the continuous built-up areas of the city.
 Rural and urban land use is mixed
Functions
 Air pot
 Power stations
 Sewerage farms
 Dairy farms
 Open spaces
 Important in urban redevelopment and planning
 Includes parks and recreational areas within and surrounding cities
 Green belt are developed to:
 Preserve land and conserve country side for farming
 To prevent the effects of urban sprawl

Outlying commercial areas

As the growth of cities led to people living in outlying suburbs, commercial areas started
developing within the suburbs.
Disadvantages of urban sprawl
Good agricultural land is lost
 Nearby villages become suburbanizes

Controlling urban sprawl

 Declaring a green belt within which most development will be forbidden ( e.g
London)
 Build new towns beyond the green belt

Reason for growth and change in rural-urban fringe: (push factor)

 House in the city are close together with few open space
 Air quality is poor in the city
 Shortage of land for new offices an buildings

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Pull factor
 Land cheaper so people can build bigger houses
 Factories can occupy large spaces with more spaces for workers to park their cars
 Closer to main roads and motor ways allows for quicker and easier customer
contacts.
 New development on the outskirt of the city are favoured by greater personal
mobility allowed by cars.

Settlement hierarchy

 Arrangement of settlements according to size and importance.

NB: a city contains more functions than a large town more than a small town.
Therefore, the more the functions, the higher its place on the urban hierarch,
The larger the population of a settlement, the more functions are offered

People visit sometimes shops in far from their towns for the following reasons

 More services
 Bigger varieties
 Higher order goods
 Physical barriers
 Higher in hiraerchy

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Geography notes grade 10 – 11 new curriculumn
  Threshold population – Minimum number of people needed in an area to support a
function or service.

 Range of function – maximum distance from which a shop (function) draws customers.

 Sphere of influence –an area from which a function draws its customers (hinterland)

 Gentrification: when old buildings or poor looking places are improved to attract higher
income people to live in

 Urban sprawl: the continuous growth of towns and cities outward to occupy agricultural
land.

Rural-urban fringe

 Dividing line between the city and the surrounding countryside. – transition zone
where some urban and some rural functions are found e.g. golf course, riding stable,
small holding, water purification

New towns as an alternative to urban problems.

Most new towns separated from old one by green belts were built to solve urban problems(e.g.
London).

Reasons for building new towns

 To stop urban sprawl
 To reduce overcrowding in overcrowded cities
 To facilitate decentralisation of industry from main cities
 Many homes has been destroyed during the war leaving many slums

Consequences building new towns

 Loss of some best farmland
 Loss of wildlife habitat
 Urban road congestion spreading to rural
 Strain on sewage not made for higher population

Impact of the motor vehicle on urban areas

 Urban sprawl
 Many cities become star shaped

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Geography notes grade 10 – 11 new curriculumn
  Commercial ribbon development as shops and business developed along routes
 Rural-urban fringe developed
 Cities begun to merge, conurbation
 New feature, multi-storey parking garages, highways, elevated roads, traffic jams

Map work

Coordinates (six figure referencing)

Differences between latitudes and longitude lines

Latitudes lines: lines running horizontal from W to E,

latitudes lines south of the equator are labeled S, because they are increasing toward the south.

Longitude lines
lines running vertically from N to S.
Longitude lines East of the Greenwich Meriadian are labeled E, because they are increasing
toward the E.

Finding coordinates

 We use Degrees ˚, Minutes ’ and seconds ’’.

In
1˚ there are 60’
1’ there are 60’’
To write down coordinates
Write down
The degrees, minutes, seconds and the direction, of the Latitude lines, followed by the degrees,
minutes, seconds and direction of the longitude lines

Measuring distances

 To measure a straight distance, use a ruler

 To measure a curved distance: use a piece of paper
NB: know how to calculate map distances and convert them to real distances
In
1km = there is 100 000 centimeters

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Geography notes grade 10 – 11 new curriculumn
1km = there is 1000 meters
1m = there is 100cm Determining height in maps

Heights in maps are shown by:

1. Spot height e.g., .954
2. Contour lines = these are lines joining places with the same height.

Contour intervals are differences between adjacent contours

3. Trigonometrical beacons.
Reasons for position of a trigonometrical beacon on a map?
 At highest point
 On top of a mountain
 Clear area in all direction (it is a 360 degree view)

Calculation Gradient

 Find the VI (vertical interval, which is difference in height)

 And horizontal distances (HD)
To calculate gradients all units must be in meters.
Formula for gradient is =
VI
gradient = HD
Example, point A lies 800 meters above sea level and point be is 600 m above sea level. The
distance between them is 2cm. The scale of the map is 1:50 000. find the gradient

Therefore

 VI = 800 – 600 =200

 VI-200 mm
To get HD
HD = 2cm X scale = 2cm x 50 000 = 1000 m
conversion unit 100 000
Therefore gradient = VI 200
HD 1000 = 1:5

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Two types of features in the maps

1. Natural features/ physical and

2. Man made features

Natural features
 Rivers, rapids, waterfalls, eyots
 springs and fountains
 Seasonal marshes
 Hills and mountains
 Bushes
Man made features
 Roads and tracks of different kinds
 Airports, aerodrome and landing strips
 Railway lines with cutting, embankments or tunnels
 Trigonometric beacons
 Power lines
 Buildings (schools, police stations, clinics, hospital, post offices
 Dams and weirs (dam walls)
 Boreholes and wind pump/mills, wells
 Orchards, vineyard and plantations

Describing the relief of an area

Check for the followings (you will be provided with contour maps on slopes)
 River valleys
 Steep sided upland
 Ridges
 Mountainous
 Cliffs
 Flat land
 Gentle sloping
 Concave slopes
 Convex slopes
 The highest point (find it from the posistion of thr trig. Beacon

Drainage features

 A drainage basin: is the area drained by a river and its tributaries.

 A watershed: is the boundary of a drainage basin
 Pattern of drainage:
1. Dendritic
2. Trellis
3. Radial

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Drainage density (refers to number of streams)
High density= many rivers in area
Low density= few streams in an area

Describe the drainage of a river

 Dentritic/ trellis/ radial (find drainage pattern first)

 High / low density (find whether low or high)
 1 or 2 main rivers (find how many main rivers are there)
 Tributaries
 Name physical features of a river
 State direction of the river
 Give name of the main river

Describe the physical features of a river (natural features)

 Variable widths
 Meanders
 Tributaries
 Steep/ gentle gradients
 Braided streams/ eyots
 Rapids
 Waterfalls
 Direction of flow, e.g. river is flowing to east

 How to determine the direction of a river flow

Look at the river confluence
 Spot heights (river flows from high land to low land)
 Dam walls
 Contour line values
 Bending of contours (in valleys)

Coastal features
 Cliffs
 Wave cut platforms
 Stacks
 Bay
 Headland
 Beach
 Spit
 Bars
 Sand dunes
 marshes

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Interpreting human landscape

 Settlement patterns (find out whether pattern is:

1. Linear = in a line
2. Nucleated = clustered
3. Dispersed=spread

Services provided by a settlement

NB: provide services and not functions
Only give what is in the map
 Hospital
 Post office
 Police station
 District admiration office
 Railway service
 sewages

Identifying leisure or recreation services from a map (look for)

 Sport fields
 Golf course
 Swimming pools
 Rifle range
 Recreational ground
 Racing tracks
 Hotel and motels
 Clubs
Reasons for the distribution of a settlement.
 On or near cultivated land
 Few huts or none or none in area of bush
 Near track or roads
 On gentle sloping land
 Avoiding steep slopes and highlands.

Describe the site of a settlement

1. At a flat/ gentle
2. Near river for water supply.

Give reason for the growth of a settlement

 Gentle sloping land
 Water supply from the river

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  Mining
 Railway connection
 Road or road junctions
 Near aerodrome landing area

How is the physical communication difficulties overcome in the map.

 Embankments (levelling especially by filling a hole with sand for the road or
railway to go straight) Cuttings
 Tunnels
 Draining the land

Reasons for location of airport

 Low-lying land
 Large space
 Unobstructed area
 Away from built-up area
 Near a road for transport

Describe the land use of an area

 Agriculture
 Mining
 Industries
 Power production
 Water supply
 Forestry
 Tourist attraction
 Road and railway
NB: always use map evidences to describe what land is used for

Farming
 There are 3 different types of farming
1. Arable: growing crops only
2. Pastoral: farming with animals only
3. Irrigation farming: use irrigation to water crops

Evidence that Agriculture is taking place in a mapped area

It is If there are:
 Orchards

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  Plantations
 Irrigations
 Cultivated land

Evidence of irrigation farming

 Furrows
 Canals
 wind pumps
 Pipelines /underground pipe lines
 Reservoirs
 Holding dams
Evidence that there is arable farming
 Cultivation
 Orchard and plantation
Evidence that there is pastoral farming
 Diptanks
 Kraals
NB give evidence from the map and not keys because not all keys are in the map

Give reasons for the cultivated land

 Leveled land
 Near river to provide water for irrigation
 At a well drained area

Evidence from the map that land is used for mining:

 Quarries
 Mine dumps
 Excavation
 mining trenches
 Name of the mine
 Roads and railways
 Power lines

Industrial activities in the mapped area

 Electrical lines
 Cooling towers
 Railway sidings

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Evidence of municipal services
 Water supply
 Sewage ponds
 Power lines

Evidences and transport and communication

 Roads (state whether national routes etc)

 Railways
 Rivers
 Airports, aerodrome, landing strips
 Harbors

Describe the road patterns

 Grid/block/ square patterns
 Radial
 Irregular (with no shape)
 NB: always state which side of the map is each pattern found
 NB: now also directions, photographs, and bearings

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