TechnicalABSTRACT

Fire-Resistive
Design of
Exposed
Timber
Structures
Paul C. Gilham, P.E., Chief Engineer,
Western Wood Structures Inc.

Timber has been successfully used to construct fire-safe build- No building material is “fireproof.” The goal of fire-resistive
ings in the United States, Canada and Europe for more than a design is to provide the proper building materials and struc-
century. And there are good reasons for that: tural fire protection, based on the use of the structure. The
s 7HEN EXPOSED TO ELEVATED TEMPERATURES THE MECHANICAL combustibility of the structure is often a primary consider-
properties of timber offer significant advantages over ation, however it is recognized that the greatest fire threat lies
other structural alternatives. with the types of materials stored in the building.
s )N A lRE TIMBER FORMS A SELF INSULATING CHAR LAYER THAT Modern building codes account for: (1) the type of structure;
provides protection for the unburned portion. (2) the anticipated use of the building; and (3) the number of
s 4IMBER BEAMS AND COLUMNS DO NOT EXPAND APPRECIABLY occupants the building will house. The primary priority related
when heated, and retain a substantial amount of strength to fire safety in building codes is to allow ample time and suf-
when exposed to the extreme temperature levels that ficient exit facilities for the occupants to escape. Next, most
commonly occur in building fires. structures are required to be designed to retain their stability

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 TechnicalABSTRACT

long enough for fire-fighting personnel to perform their duties,

which relates both to helping to evacuate occupants and reduc-
ing the probability of harm to persons as well as fighting the fire
to reduce the probability of economic loss due to damage to the
building or adjacent buildings.
There are several recognized methods for addressing these
priorities with timber construction. Timber members can be
protected from fire exposure by enclosing them within a fire-
resistant assembly. There are many types of fire-resistive wall,
floor, floor-ceiling and roof-ceiling timber assemblies available
for use. For purposes of this article, however, we are limiting
our consideration to the fire-resistive design of exposed timber
members. In North America, there are two code-approved meth-
ods of achieving the required level of fire protection for timber
structures with exposed members. Heavy Timber Construction,
the older of the two methods, is included in the codes based on
a long history of satisfactory fire performance and is elaborated
through descriptive and prescribed details (minimum dimen-
sions and arrangements) for beams columns, arches, and floor
and roof elements. The newer method, which in the U.S. is
termed One-Hour Fire-Resistive Construction, is based on cal-
culating the capacity of timber members exposed to fire. The
calculation methods have been verified by testing members in
accordance with the fire testing requirements of ASTM E-119
(in Canada, ULC S-101).

in construction where the heated vapor could pass through

the structure. As mentioned earlier, timber will develop a char
layer (when exposed to fire) that insulates the inner portion
of the member. In the absence of an outside fuel source, this
char layer prevents oxygen from reaching the char front, which
retards the further degradation of the timber member.
By eliminating the sharp projections, this method provides
fewer points of ignition on the timber elements. Concealed
High school gymnasium with heavy timber roof. Notice the large main and
spaces are prohibited because they can hide smoldering embers,
secondary beams and 2 x 6 (38 x 140 mm) tongue and groove decking. which can later reignite the structure. The floor or roof system is
typically constructed of thick layers of lumber or panel products
or multiple layers of boards arranged so that the hot vapors or fire
Method One: Heavy Timber Construction cannot pass through.
Many large mill buildings were destroyed by fire in the 1800s, Based on its successful utilization for more than 100 years,
resulting in sizable losses to the insurance carriers. The con- this construction method has been recognized by both the
cept of Heavy Timber Construction was originally developed International Building Code (IBC) in the U.S. and the National
by the insurance industry to reduce their liability in the mill Building Code of Canada (NBCC).
industries in the eastern United States. This building method In the U.S., the 2006 IBC included provisions, based on this
utilized large timber members arranged appropriately to method being so effective, to allow roofs to be constructed using
eliminate sharp protruding edges, concealed spaces and gaps Heavy Timber Construction in all buildings where ‘one-hour’

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 TechnicalABSTRACT

In the IBC and NBCC code requirements

for Heavy Timber Construction, the
minimum sizes of the structural
members are listed based on the
location of the member. For example,
in the IBC, the minimum size of a
column carrying floor members is 8 x 8,
and the minimum size of a floor beam
is 6 x 10. For roof beams, the minimum
size is a 4 x 6. These are the nominal
sizes listed in the IBC for the timber
members. For instance, the net size
for a 4 x 6 is 3½ in. x 5½ in. (89mm x
140mm). The requirements for floors
and roof decks are also given in the
codes. In the NBCC, minimum actual
dimensions (in millimeters) are stated.

This 1476-ft. (450m) building is used to store potash, a chemical used in fertilizer. The glulam arches span 161 ft. (49m) and are spaced at 32 ft. (9.75m) on
center. The glulam purlins are 3 1⁄8 in. x 16 ½ in. (79mm x 419mm) and are spaced at 48 in. (1219mm) on center. The roof sheathing is 1 1⁄8 -in. (28.6mm) thick
plywood. This building design qualifies as Heavy Timber Construction.

roof construction is permitted. In Canada, in the 1985 NBCC, E-119 fire test. In this test, a temperature-time curve is followed
provisions were included that allowed for roofs of Heavy Timber where the tested components are heated to 1600° F. Each com-
Construction on all buildings, regardless of area or minimum fire ponent must be able to carry its design loading throughout
resistance requirements, where the building height is not more the 60-minute test to be considered a one-hour component.
than two storeys and the building is sprinklered. Timber members and all connections must offer the same pro-
Timber connectors allowed by the building codes may also be tection. This can be accomplished by placing the connections
used in the Heavy Timber Construction method. This includes within a one-hour rated wall, protecting the connections with
wall boxes and fabricated metal connectors. These connectors a minimum of 1½-in. (38mm) timber covering or by providing
have proven to be sufficiently resistant to fire so that no further connections that are kerfed into the timber, leaving a minimum
protection is required. Refer to IBC section 602.4 and NBCC, 1½-in. (38mm) covering. The bolts connecting the wood to the
Division B, Article 3.1.4.6 for additional information on Heavy steel must be countersunk and plugged with 1½-in. (38mm)
Timber Construction. thick plugs. Additionally, the minimum nominal size of a timber
member is 6 in. (152mm). For glued laminated (glulam) timbers,
Method Two-A: One-Hour Fire-Resistive Construction an additional tension lamination must replace a core lamination
In the U.S., in One-Hour Fire-Resistive Construction, every com- and the words, “Fire-Rated One Hour” must be stamped on the
ponent of the building must meet the requirements of the ASTM member.

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 TechnicalABSTRACT

been incorporated into Chapter 16

of the National Design Specification
(NDS) for Wood Construction
2x furring member attached to
beam used to fasten gypsum
(U.S.). Using the same assump-
wallboard. tions as Lie in regard to reducing
the member section and converting
from the allowable strength to the
Beam Beam
ultimate capacity of the member,
this method calculates an effective
char rate based on the length of
time a member is exposed to fire.
Tests have shown that the rate of
Steel connection is protected Steel Column Cap -
within a one-hour rated wall Wrap steel with 2x for char declines with increased time
fire protection of exposure due to the insulating
effect of the char layer. However,
where Lie’s method calculated an
allowable time of exposure for
STEEL CONNECTION PROTECTED STEEL CONNECTION PROTECTED
BY ONE-HOUR FIRE-RATED WALL BY 2X WOOD COVERING
a given member size, the newer
method allows the designer to cal-
culate the allowable capacity of
the member based on the reduced
member size, using the average
ultimate strength of the member.
In 1977, T.T. Lie, of the National Research Council of Canada, The allowable stresses given in the National Design
developed equations yielding the allowable time for timber mem- Specification for Wood Construction (U.S.) are based on the
bers based on results of the required fire exposure. Lie calculated Working Stress Design method. These values have been reduced
the reduced size of the timber members based on the observed from the measured ultimate stresses for wood. In order to apply
char rate and the reduction of the strength of the member for the this method of calculating the fire resistance of a timber member,
region beyond the char front. Next he adjusted the strength of the designer must calculate the ultimate stress for the member
the member from an allowable stress to the ultimate strength of by multiplying the allowable stress by an adjustment factor that
the members. Finally, these relationships were combined to pro- accounts for the variation of the material and other adjustments.
duce an equation that yields the time a given member can safely Accepted by the latest U.S. building codes, this method
support the applied load. Lie developed equations for beams and allows the design of bending members, columns, tension mem-
columns with three and four sides exposed to fire. Refer to UBC bers and members subjected to combined bending and axial
Standard 7-7 for the equations used in this method. load. It also provides a method for designing timber decks for a
In Appendix D of Division B of the NBCC, similar design one-hour fire rating, and for checking members for more than
equations are described that can be used to determine the fire a one-hour fire rating. Refer to AWC Technical Report #10 for
resistance rating of glulam beams and columns. further information.

Method Two-B: AWC Technical Report #10 Conclusion

In 2001, the American Wood Council (AWC) developed a The slow-burning characteristics of large timber members
revised method of designing fire-rated timber members. This have long been recognized as an advantage in designing fire-
method is described in the AWC Technical Report #10 and has safe buildings. The U.S. and Canadian building codes recognize
two methods of achieving fire safety using exposed timber
members. Heavy Timber Construction, with a long history of
Birchwood Community Church in
successful performance, uses a prescriptive method of specify-
Anchorage, Alaska. These glulam ing minimum sizes of members to obtain a fire-resistive
arches were sized to achieve a design. One-Hour Fire-Resistive Construction uses the observed
one-hour rating. The roof-ceiling char rate of timber exposed to fire to calculate the size of tim-
assembly will have two layers of bers necessary to meet the code-required protection. These
5
⁄8 -in. (16mm) gypsum wallboard
attached to the bottom of the roof
methods give building designers the necessary tools to incor-
joists. The steel connections will be porate the beauty of exposed timber members into a
covered with 2x wood blocking. fire-resistive structural framing system.

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