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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1. INTRODUCTION Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 1/66
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ROADMAP

Classification of matter Solid

Fluid Liquid

Gas

Concept of continuum

Description of continuum Lagrangian description

Eulerian description

Properties of continuum

AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1. INTRODUCTION Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 2/66
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Properties of continuum Mass density

Relative density

Specific weight

Fluid velocity

Force

Stress

Pressure

Viscosity

Surface tension

Vapor pressure

AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1. INTRODUCTION Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 3/66
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INTRODUCTION

1.1 Classification of Matter

1.2 Concept of Continuum
1.3 Description of Continuum
1.4 Properties of Continuum

AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1.1 CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 4/66
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1.1 CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER

Matter

Solid Fluid

 Relative position of the molecules  Relative position of the molecules

are fixed due to strong can change due to weaker

intermoecular attraction forces. intermolecular attraction forces.

 They have definite shapes and

definite volumes.

Liquid Gas

 Molecules are quite free to change  Molecules are practically

their relative positon due to medium unrestricted due to very weak
intermoecular attraction forces. intermolecular attraction forces.

 They have indefinite shapes, but  They have indefinite shapes and
definite volumes. indefinite volumes.

AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1.1 CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 5/66
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INTRODUCTION

1.1 Classification of Matter

1.2 Concept of Continuum
1.3 Description of Continuum
1.4 Properties of Continuum

AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1.2 CONCEPT OF CONTINUUM Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 6/66
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1.2 THE CONCEPT OF CONTINUUM

 There are two approaches for the description of continuum:
 a) Statistical approach:

 Equations of motion are wriiten for each seperate molecule.

 It is too cumbersome and even impossible for practical calculations.

 Nothing is known about the intermolecular attraction forced.

 It is used statistical mechanics.

b) Continuum approach:

 It is used in most engineering problems.

 The principle interest is the gross behavior of the fluid as a continuous material.

 This is valid whenever the smallest volume of fluid, known as a fluid particle, contains enough number
of molecules for making statistical averages.

 The determining criterion is the Knudsen number, Kn

Molecular mean free path
Kn 
Characteristic linear dimension of the flow field
 Molecular mean free path is the average distance travelled by the molecules between two consequitive
collisions.

 The continuum postulate is valid whenever Kn < 0.01.

AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1.2 CONCEPT OF CONTINUUM Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 7/66
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INTRODUCTION

1.1 Classification of Matter

1.2 Concept of Continuum
1.3 Description of Continuum
1.4 Properties of Continuum

AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1.3 DESCRIPTION OF CONTINUUM Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 8/66
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1.3 DESCRIPTION OF CONTINUUM

 As a fluid particle moves in a flow field, its properties change

(i) from point to point and

(ii) from time to time.

 The description can be made in two ways:

a) Material (Lagrangian) Description:

 An identified fluid particle is followed in the course of time and variation of its properties are
described.

b) Spatial (Eulerian) Description:

 Attention is focussed on a fixed point in space and variation of fluid properties is observed at that
point..

AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1.3 DESCRIPTION OF CONTINUUM Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 9/66
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INTRODUCTION

1.1 Classification of Matter

1.2 Concept of Continuum
1.3 Description of Continuum
1.4 Properties of Continuum

AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1.4 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUUM Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 10/66
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1.4 THE PROPERTIES OF CONTINUUM

1.4.1 Mass Density

m/

Domain of Domain of
molecular continuum
 effects
P

Asymptotic line that

defines the density
 
’
 m/ is the average density.

 The average density approaches an asymptotic value as fluid becomes more and more
homogeneous.

 When  becomes very small, it contains only few molecules and density fluctuates as molecules
pass into and out of this volume.

 The minimum volume ’ satisfies the continuum postulate.

AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1.4 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUUM Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 11/66
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 The mass density at point P is given by

 The density of a fluid is a function of temperature and pressure.

 The density of liquids is slightly affected from these properties so that the density of liquids is almost
constant and they are known as incompressible fluids.

 The density of gases is strongly affected from these properties so that they are called compressible
fluids.

 For a homegeneous fluid, the average density is

 The density has units of kg/m3 in SI system of units.

AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1.4 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUUM Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 12/66
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1.4.2 Relative Density

 The relative density is sometimes referred to as the specific gravity.

1.4.3 Specific Weight

 It is the force exerted by the gravity field on an unit volume of the fluid or it is the weight of the fluid per
unit volume.

 It is defined as

where g is the gravitational acceleration.

 It is not as useful as density since gravitational acceleration changes with

(i) location and

(ii) altitude

 It is mostly used in hydraulic engineering.

 It has units of N/m3 in SI units.

AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1.4 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUUM Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 13/66
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1.4.4 Fluid Velocity

z

’
V(x, y, z, t)
P

 The fluid velocity V(x, y, z, t) at a point P(x, y, z) is defined as the instantaneous velocity of the center of
gravity of the volume ’

where N is the number of molecules inside ’,

mi is the mass of the i’th molecule and
Vi is the velocity of the i’th molecule.

AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1.4 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUUM Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 14/66
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1.4.5 Forces Acting on a Body of Fluid

External force acting on a fluid

Body forces Surface forces

 They may have any orientation

 They are distributed over the
with respect to the surface of the
entire volume of fluid.
body.
 They are defined as the force per
unit mass of the fluid.

 They are caused by gravitational

fields, magnetic field and
electrostatic fields.
Normal force Tangential or shear force

 It acts perpendicular to the surface.  It acts parallel to the surface.

AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1.4 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUUM Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 15/66
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z z

F6
F
F1 F1 Ft
F5

t
F2 F2 Fn
II
O y O n
I I y

x x A
F3 F4 F3

where Fn is the normal component of F

Ft is the tangential component of F

AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1.4 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUUM Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 16/66
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1.4.6 Stress
z
 The force acting on area A is F F
F1 Ft

t
F2 Fn
 The normal stress, , is O n
I y
F

x A A
F3
 The shear stress, , is

where A' represents the minimum area for which the continuum postulate is valid.

 If the internal forces, which are acting over area A of the cutting plane, are uniformly distributed,

and

AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1.4 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUUM Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 17/66
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1.4.7 Pressure
 Pressure is defined as the normal component of a force acting on an area divided by that area.

 It has the same magnitude as the normal stress, but it acts in a direction opposite to the unit normal
vector of this area.

 Pressure at a point is independent of direction, whenever the fluid is at rest.

z0 pxAx
peAe

peAecos
n

pyAy k
j y
i y0

x0
pzAz
x

 The prism is small enough so that the pressure on each face may be assumed constant.

AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1.4 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUUM Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 18/66
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 For a fluid at rest, sum of the forces acting on the body of fluid must be equal to zero.

z
or in scalar form
z0 pxAx
peAe

n peAecos
 Hence, in the y-direction 
pyAy k
j y
i y0

x0
pzAz
x
where Ay is the area of the prism in the xz plane,
py is the average pressure on the area Ay
Ae is the area of the inclined surface,
pe is the average pressure on the area Ae
 is the angle between the normals of the surface Ay and Ae
y0 is the intercept of the prism faces on the y-axis

AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1.4 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUUM Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 19/66
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 From the geometry of the prism

or in scalar form z

z0 pxAx
peAe

n peAecos

 As y0  0, fbyy0/3  0, therefore in the limit
pyAy k
j y
i y0
 Similarly

x0
pzAz
x
 Hence

 Therefore, the pressure at a point is equal in all directions for a fluid at rest.

 Pressure has units of N/m2 in SI system which is called as Pascal (Pa).

AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1.4 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUUM Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 20/66
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1.4.8 Viscosity
1.4.8.1 Definition of Viscosity
 The heaviness of a fluid can be measured by using the properties of density and specific weight.

 However, these properties are not sufficient for describing the fluids when they are flowing.

 For example, although water and oil have approximately the same value of density, they behave
quite differently as they flow.
 Therefore, an additional property is required for describing the fluidity of a fluid.
B B’ F

y Block 

x
A

 The angle of  is known as the shear strain.

 Within the elastic limit of the solid material, the applied shear stress  = F/A is proportional to .

 By Hooke’s law

where G is the modulus of elasticity in shear.

AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1.4 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUUM Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 21/66
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Viscous Fluids

AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1.4 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUUM Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 22/66
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B B’ B’’ U0 F

t0 t1 t2

u(y)
y

x
A

 A better definition of a fluid may now be given:

 A fluid is a substance that cannot sustain a shear stress when it is at rest. But it deforms
continuously under the application of a shear stress no matter how small is the shear stress.

 It is an experimental fact that the fluid particles which are in direct contact with the solid boundary,
has the same velocity as the boundary itself.

 In other words, the fluid sticks to the solid boundaries.

 This is known as the no-slip condition.

u = 0 at the lower plate

u = U0 at the upper plate

 Therefore, u increases as y increases and u = u(y)

AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1.4 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUUM Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 23/66
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No-slip Condition

AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1.4 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUUM Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 24/66
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B E B’ C F C’
B B’ B’’ U0 F

t0 t1 t2
dy 
u(y)
y

x A A’ D D’
A dx
x

 ABCD is translated to A’EFC’ and rotated to A’B’C’D’

uA = u(y)
and
uB = u(y + dy)

 By Taylor series expansion

 Since dy is infinitesimally small, second and higher order terms can be neglected

AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1.4 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUUM Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 25/66
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 Noting that

and y

B E B’ C F C’
 Then the shear strain is

dy
d
 But for small angles tan d  d

A A’ D D’
dx
 The rate of shear strain is x

 For Newtonian fluids, the shear stress is proportional to the rate of shear strain or velocity gradient.

Newton’s law of viscosity

where the coefficient of proportionality, , is known as the coefficient of viscosity, absolute viscosity,
dynamic viscosity (since it involves force) or simply the viscosity. of the fluid.

 The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to shear and angular deformation.

 The viscosity has units of N.s/m2 or Pa.s.

AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1.4 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUUM Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 26/66
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Example 1.1

The space between two parallel plates separated by a distance of h is filled with glycerin, as shown in
the figure. Glycerin is a Newtonian fluid with an absolute viscosity of . It is desirable to pull the
upper plate with a surface area of A at a constant velocity of U0. Assume that the pressure is constant.
Determine the
a) velocity profile,
b) shear stress distribution,
c) force required to pull the plate and
d) power required to pull the plate.

U0

y Glycerin h

AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1.4 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUUM Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 27/66
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Solution of Example 1.1

U0 U0

y h
Glycerin

a) For a Newtonian fluid, the velocity distribution is linear

subject to the boundary conditions

b) The shear stress can be obtained from Newton’s law of viscosity

AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1.4 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUUM Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 28/66
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Solution of Example 1.1

U0 U0

y h
Glycerin

c) The shear stress is constant

Then the force required to pull the upper plate is

d) The power required to pull the upper plate since it is moving at constant velocity

AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1.4 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUUM Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 29/66
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Example 1.2

Two long parallel plates of area A, which are separated by a distance of h, are pulled at constant
velocities in opposite directions, as shown in the figure. There is a Newtonian fluid of viscosity 
between the plates where the pressure is constant.
a) Determine the velocity distribution in the fluid between the plates. Sketch the distribution.
Find the location where the velocity is zero.
b) Find the shear stress variation between the plates.
c) Find the force required to pull the lower and upper plates.
d) Find the power required to pull the lower and upper plates.

U0

Fluid  h
y

2U0

AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1.4 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUUM Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 30/66
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Solution of Example 1.2

U0
U0

Fluid  h
y

2U0 2U0

a) For a Newtonian fluid, the velocity distribution is linear

subject to the boundary conditions

The velocity is equal to zero

AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1.4 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUUM Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 31/66
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Solution of Example 1.2

U0
U0

Fluid  h
y

2U0 2U0

b) The shear stress can be obtained from Newton’s law of viscosity

c) Since the shear stress is constant, the forces required to pull lower and upper plates are

d) The power required to pull the lower and upper plates since they are moving at constant
velocity

AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1.4 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUUM Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 32/66
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Example 1.3
Magnet wire can be insulated by coating it with varnish. For this reason, it is drawn at a speed of U0
through a circular die with a diameter of do. The wire with a diameter of di is centered in the die, as
shown in the figure. The varnish with a viscosity of  completely fills the space between the wire and
the die for a length of L. Determine the force required to pull the wire. Assume that the varnish is a
Newtonian fluid, the velocity profile is linear and the pressure is constant.

Varnish
Die

U0
do di
Wire

AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1.4 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUUM Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 33/66
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Solution of Example 1.3

Varnish
Die

U0
do di
Wire

L Wire U0

For a Newtonian fluid, the velocity distribution is linear

0.5(do  di)
z
subject to the boundary conditions

The shear stress can be obtained from Newton’s law of viscosity

Then the force required to pull the wire is

AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1.4 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUUM Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 34/66
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Example 1.4
A cylinder having a radius of r and a length of L, rotates coaxially inside a cylindrical bearing of the
same length and a radius of R. Glycerin, which is a Newtonian fluid with a viscosity of , fills the
space between the two cylinders. Assume that the velocity profile in the glycerin is linear. If the
constant angular velocity is , then determine the power required to rotate the inner cylinder. The
pressure is constant.

Glycerin
Bearing

R r 

Cylinder

AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1.4 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUUM Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 35/66
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Solution of Example 1.4

Glycerin
Bearing

R r 

Cylinder

L
Cylinder r

For a Newtonian fluid, the velocity distribution is linear

z R–r

subject to the boundary conditions

Bearing

The shear stress can be obtained from Newton’s law of viscosity

AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1.4 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUUM Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 36/66
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Solution of Example 1.4

Glycerin
Bearing

R r 

Cylinder

L
Cylinder r

The force required to rotate the cylinder

z R–r

The torque required to rotate the cylinder Bearing

Then the power required to rotate the cylinder

AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1.4 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUUM Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 37/66
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Example 1.5

Two parallel flat plates are pulled in opposite directions, as shown in the figure. The gap between the
plates is filled with two Newtonian fluids, which do not mix. The lower half is filled with liquid 1 having
a viscosity of , while the upper half is filled with liquid 2 having a viscosity of 2 . The pressure is
constant and the gravitational effects can be neglected.

a) Determine the velocity profiles in liquids 1 and 2.

b) Find the location where the fluid velocity is zero.

3U0

Fluid 2 2 h

y
Fluid 1 
h
x
2U0

AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1.4 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUUM Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 38/66
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Solution of Example 1.5

3U0
3U0
u2
Fluid 2 2 h
V
y
Fluid 1 
h
x u1
2U0
2U0

a) Both fluids are Newtonian fluid, so that the velocity distributions in both of them are linear.
Their slopes will be different since they have different viscosities

subject to the boundary conditions




and at the interface



AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1.4 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUUM Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 39/66
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Solution of Example 1.5

3U0
3U0
u2
Fluid 2 2 h
V 2
y
Fluid 1 
h
x u1
2U0
2U0 1

Since the fluid element at the interface is moving at constant velocity, the net force acting on it
should be zero. Hence


Solving these four equations simultaneously for A, B, C and D

and

Hence
and

b) The velocity is equal to zero

not valid since fluid 2 exists in the region h < y < 2h

AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1.4 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUUM Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 40/66
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1.4.8.2 Classification of Fluids According to the Behavior of Their Viscosity

 All fluids in nature are not all Newtonian.

 The general relation between the shear stress and the angular shear strain is given by the power law..

where A and B are constants and they depend on the type of the fluid.

Elastic
solid Dilatant or shear
Bingham thickening fluid
plastic
Newtonian
fluid

1
1
Pseudoplastic or
Ideal shear thinning
fluid fluid
du
dy

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Fluids

Inviscid (Ideal or Nonviscous) Fluids Viscous (Real) Fluids

 They do not possess viscosity,  = 0.  They all possess viscosity.

 They are imaginary and only used for

mathematical treatment.

 All fluids in nature are viscous.

Newtonian Fluids Non-Newtonian Fluids

 Shear stress is directly proportional to  They obey power law.

shear strain.

 A = , B = 0 and n = 1 in the power law.

 Viscosity is time independent.

 Water, air, oil and gasoline.

AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1.4 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUUM Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 42/66
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Non-Newtonian Fluids

Time Independent Time Dependent

Dilatant or Shear Bingham Psudoplastics or Thixotropic Rheopectic

Thickening Fluids Fluid Shear Thinning Fluids Fluids Fluids
  increases as  They require a   decreases as   decreases as   increases as
du/dy increases. certain minimum du/dy increasses. time elapses. time elapses.
stress before they  A = (du/dy)1-n, B
 A = (du/dy)1-n,  Paint is  Gypsum
start flowing. = 0 and n < 1 in subjected to high
B = 0 and n > 1 in suspension in
the power law.  Thereafter, they the power law. shear by the solids.
exibit a linear brush decreasing
 Butter, printing  Rubber and  Betonite
relationship between the viscosity so
ink suspension
 and du/dy paints.
that the brush
marks
 A = , B = 1 and n =
dissappear.
1 in the power law.
 Lipstick, paints
 Sewege sludge and
drilling mud.

AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1.4 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUUM Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 43/66
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No-Newtonian Behavior

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Can You Walk on Water? (Non-Newtonian Fluid Pooı)

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1.4.8.3 Kinematic Viscosity

 The kinematic viscosity, , is defined as the ratio of the absolute viscosity to the mass density.

 The SI unit of kinematic viscosity is m2/s.

1.4.8.4 Variation of Viscosity with Temperature

(i) Liquids

 Viscosity results from cohesive forces (the intermolecular attraction forces between the molecules of
the same material).

 As temperature increases, distance between molecules increases so that the cohesive forces
decreases.

 Therefore, viscosity decreases as temperature increases.

(ii) Gases

 In a gas, cohesive forces are very weak, but molecules interact with each other by collisions during
their rapid movement.

 Therefore, viscosity increases as temperature increases.

AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1.4 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUUM Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 46/66
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Capillary Tube Viscometer

AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1.4 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUUM Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 47/66
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Rotating Viscometer

AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1.4 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUUM Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 48/66
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1x100
1.0E+00
8
6
4
3
2 Glycerine
1x10-1
1.0E-01
8
6
4 Castor oil
3
2
1x10-2
1.0E-02
8
6 Aniline Crude oil s = 0.86

Absolute viscosity (Pa.s)..

4
3
Mercury
2
1x10-3
1.0E-03
8 Kerosene
Ethyl alcohol
6
4
3
2 Water
Carbon tetrachloride
Benzene
1x10-4
1.0E-04 Gasoline (s = 0.68)
8
6
4 Carbondioxide Helium
3
2
1x10-5
1.0E-05
8 Air
6 Hydrogen
4
3
2
1x10-6
1.0E-06
-20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
o
Temperature ( C)

AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1.4 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUUM Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 49/66
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1x10-3
1.00E-03
8
6
4
3
Helium
2
Hydrogen
1x10-4
1.00E-04 Glycerine
8
6
4

Kinematic viscosity (m. /s)

3 Air and oxygen

2
2

1x10-5
1.00E-05 Carbon dioxide
8
6
4 Kerosene
3
Crude oil s = 0.86
2
Benzene Ethyl alcohol
1x10-6
1.00E-06
8
6
4 Water
Gasoline s = 0.68
3
2 Mercury Carbon tetrachloride

1.00E-07
1x10-7
-20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
o
Temperature ( C)

AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1.4 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUUM Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 50/66
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1.4.9 Surface Tension

 The molecules of a liquid is held together by forces of attraction known as cohesion..

 Although the cohesive forces are small, they enable the liquid to withstand small tensile forces.

 The forces of attraction between

(i) two inmiscible liquid molecues,

(ii) liquid and solid molecules and

(iii) liquid and gas molecules

are known as adhesion..

 A surface of contact (interface) between a liquid and a gas is known as a free surface.

 Under the absence of gravity and other external forces, a particle of unconfined liquid assumes a
perfectly spherical shape.
B

A C

AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1.4 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUUM Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 51/66
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 It is easy to see that it requies a certain work to bring a molecule from the center to the surface of
the droplet.

 When the area of the droplet is increased by introducing more fluid, molecules has to move from the
interior to the surface.

 This work is proportional to the increase in the surface area.

 This energy is expressed in terms of work per unit area and known as surface tension.

 It is denoted by  and units of N/m in SI system.

Injector


Liquid

AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1.4 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUUM Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 52/66
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Floating Razor Blade

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 In reality, there is no physical tension in a liquid free surface, it is only for mathematical convenience
that the free surface is treated as a membrane with a uniform tensile force of  pulling parallel to the
surface.

 A surface tension always exists whenever there is a density discontinuity between

(i) a liquid and another liquid

(ii) a liquid and a gas.

 The magnitude of surface tension depends on the nature of both substances and, in general, it is a
function of temperature and pressure.

 Since surface tension depends on intermolecular attraction forces, it decreases with temperature.

 Pressure has negligible effect on surface tension.

 An important feature of the surface tension is that it creates a pressure difference across a curved
interface between two fluids (at least one of them must be liquid)

AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1.4 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUUM Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 54/66
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B dS1
A A
dS2

A C B

r1 r2
d 2

d 1

AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1.4 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUUM Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 55/66
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po
B
d1/2 d1/2
dS1
A A A A
dS2 dS2
dS2 pi
B
r1 r1

d1
r1 r2
d2

d1 d1/2

AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1.4 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUUM Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 56/66
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po
B
d2/2 d2/2
dS1
A A B B
dS1 dS1
dS2 pi
B
r2 r2

d 2
r1 r2
d 2
d2/2
d 1

AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1.4 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUUM Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 57/66
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po po

d1/2 d1/2 d2/2 d2/2

A A B B
dS2 dS2 dS1 dS1
pi pi

r1 r1 r2 r2

d1 d2

d1/2 d2/2

The force balance in the vertical direction yields

Since d1/2 and d1/2 are very small angles

Also, dS1 = r1d1 and dS2 = r2d2, so that

AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1.4 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUUM Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 58/66
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Simplifying

where r1 and r2 are principal radii of curvature

pi is the pressure on the concave side and
po is the pressure on the convex side.

For a spherical surface, r1 = r2 = r

For a cylindrical surface, r1 = r and r2  

r1 r2

AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1.4 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUUM Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 59/66
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Example 1.6
When a bottle of soda water is opened, small gas bubbles are observed to form in the liquid as a
result of the reduced pressure. Assuming the surface tension between the liquid and the gas as 0.076
N/m, calculate the pressure difference between the inside and outside of a bubble of diameter 0.0001
m.

Solution

po
pi

d = 0.0001 m

AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1.4 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUUM Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 60/66
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Fluid a
ab

 ac
Liquid b
 P

bc
Liquid c

(i) Equilibrium exists whenever

abcos + bccos = ac

then liquid b does not spread over liquid c.

Example: Fluid a: air, liquid b: olive oil, liquid c: water

(ii) No equilibrium is possible when

ac > ab + bc

then liquid b spreads over liquid c..

Example: Fluid a: air, liquid b: gasoline, liquid c: water

AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1.4 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUUM Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 61/66
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Fluid a Fluid a
ab
ab
Liquid b Liquid b 

ac
bc P bc P ac
Solid c Solid c

where  is the angle of contact or wetting angle.

 This angle is measured from the solid-liquid interface to liquid-fluid interface through the liquid.

 ac - bc can either be positive or negative.

(i) If ac - bc > 0, then  < /2 and liquid b wets the solid surface c.

Example: Fluid a: air, liquid b: water, solid c: glass

(i) If ac - bc < 0, then  > /2 and liquid b does not wet the solid surface c.

Example: Fluid a: air, liquid b: mercury, solid c: glass

AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1.4 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUUM Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 62/66
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Contact Angle

AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1.4 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUUM Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 63/66
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Example 1.7

The vertical cylinder of diameter d is pulled up from an inviscid liquid. Assume that the angle of
contact is  and the surface tension for the liquid in presence of air is . Find the force, F, required to
pull the cylinder at a constant velocity at the instant that it leaves the liquid, if the mass of the cylinder
is m. Neglect buoyant and viscous effects.

F F

z
Air

d  
 Liquid  

mg
Solution

To pull the cylinder at a constant velocity

Hence

AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1.4 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUUM Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 64/66
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1.4.10 Vapor Pressure

 The pressure exerted on the free surface of a liquid by its vapor is known as vapor pressure.

Vapor
Vacuum pv

Liquid Liquid

 The liquids with higher vapor pressure are known as volatile liquids and they have higher tendency
to evaporate.

 The liquids with lower vapor pressure are known as non-volatile liquids and they have lower
tendency to evaporate.

 Liquids may also be boiled by lowering the pressure acting on them.

AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1.4 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUUM Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 65/66
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THANK YOU FOR YOUR ATTENTION

AEE 211 FLUID MECHANICS 1. INTRODUCTION Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 66/66