Discrete Mathematics: Tutorial 1 Solutions Basic Set Theory

1. Two sets are equal if they have the same members. Is {1, 2} = {2, 1}? Yes, both sets have 1 and 2 as their only members. Suppose U = {1, 2, 3, 4}. Is {1, 3} = {x | x U and x is odd}? Yes, because the odd members of U are precisely 1 and 3, so both descriptions single out the same elements of U . Is = {}? No, because has no members at all, whereas {} is a set which does have a member, namely the element . Its like the difference between a paper bag with nothing inside it (the set has nothing inside it) and a paper bag which has another paper bag inside it (the set {} has the set inside it). 2. We must not confuse members and subsets. Is {3} {{1}, {2}, {3}}? Yes, by inspection we can see that {3} is the third thing listed as an element of {{1}, {2}, {3}}. Is 3 {{1}, {2}, {3}}? No, when we inspect the set {{1}, {2}, {3}} we nd that its members are {1} and {2} and {3}. These are its only three members. The unadorned 3 is not listed as a member of {{1}, {2}, {3}}. Is {3} {{1}, {2}, {3}}? No. For {3} to be a subset of {{1}, {2}, {3}}, all the members of {3} would also have to be members of {{1}, {2}, {3}}. But 3 is a member of {3}, and we have just seen that 3 is not a member of {{1}, {2}, {3}}. How many members does {2, {3, 4}} have? By inspecting {2, {3, 4}} we see that it has two members, namely 2 and {3, 4}. How many subsets does {2, {3, 4}} have? We can build the subsets of {2, {3, 4}} by throwing away zero, one, or more of its members. If we throw away no members, we get the subset {2, {3, 4}}. If we throw away one member, then it could be 2 that we throw away, giving the subset {{3, 4}}, or it could be {3, 4} that we throw away, giving the subset {2}. If we throw away two members, we get the subset . So we have been able to build four subsets. And since these are all the possible ways to build subsets, there are just 4 subsets of {2, {3, 4}}. 3. Suppose our universal set is U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. Let X = {1, 3, 5} and let Y = {2, 4}. Find 1

 the powerset of X, P (X): P (X) = {, {1}, {3}, {5}, {1, 3}, {1, 5}, {3, 5}, {1, 3, 5}} X Y: X Y = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} X Y: X Y = X Y: X Y = {1, 3, 5} {2, 4} = {1, 3, 5} = X X: X = U X = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} {1, 3, 5} = {2, 4, 6} (X Y ) : (X Y ) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} = {6} (X Y ) : (X Y ) = = U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} = U X Y: X Y = {(1, 2), (1, 4), (3, 2), (3, 4), (5, 2), (5, 4)} 4. For each of the following, say whether it is true or false: X Y means that the elements of X are smaller than the elements of Y and so {1, 2} {3, 4}. False. If X Y we know that X wont have more members than Y , so in that sense X will not be bigger than Y , but the individual members of X are required to belong to Y themselves rather than to be less than the members of Y . X Y means that, for every possible element x, if x X then x Y . True. X Y = {x | x X or x Y or both} True. X Y = {x | x X or x Y but not both} False. For example, if X = {a, b} and Y = {b, c} then X Y = {a, b, c}. We do not omit b just because it happens to belong to both X and Y . X Y = {x | x X and x Y } True. X Y = {x | x X and x Y } False. For example, if X = {a, b} and Y = {b, c} then {b} X and {b} Y . But X Y = {b}, not {{b}}, in other words {b} is not a member of X Y . {3} {1} = {2} False. The operation being performed is relative complementation, not subtraction of numbers. 2

 {3} {1} = False. {3} {1} = {3} Relations

1. Let A = {a, b} and B = {1, 2, 3}. Give two examples of relations from A to B. In each case, give the domain and the range of the relation, and draw an arrow diagram representing the relation. Let R = {(a, 2)} and let S = {(a, 1), (a, 2), (b, 3)}. Then the domain of R is {a} and the range of R is {2}, while the domain of S is {a, b} = A and the range of S is {1, 2, 3} = B.

2. Let C = {a, b, c, d}. For each of the following combinations of properties, give one example of a relation on C possessing those properties, and draw a digraph representing the relation. reexive on C, but not symmetric and not transitive There are many examples, but they all share the same sort of reasoning. The relation must be reexive on C, and so must contain the ordered pairs (a, a), (b, b), (c, c), and (d, d). We cannot merely take these reexive pairs, because we must ensure that the relation is not symmetric. So we need a pair whose mirror image is not in the relation. So add to the relation the pair (a, b) but dont put in (b, a). Now we cannot stop yet, because we must ensure that the relation is not transitive. So we need to ensure that the relation has, say, the pairs (a, b) and (b, c) and then carefully neglect to put in the pair (a, c). Our solution is therefore the relation R = {(a, a), (b, b), (c, c), (d, d), (a, b), (b, c)}.

 not reexive on C and not symmetric but transitive One possible solution: let R = {(a, b)}. Now R is certainly not reexive. Nor is R symmetric, since the mirror image of (a, b) does not belong to R. But R is indeed transitive. Why? Well, for R to fail to be transitive, we have to be able to nd two pairs of the form (x, y) and (y, z) in R, for which no pair (x, z) belongs to R. But we cant nd two pairs of the form (x, y) and (y, z) to start with, so there is no way to make R fail the test.

not reexive on C but symmetric and transitive One possible solution: let R = {(b, b), (b, c), (c, b), (c, c)}. Now R is not reexive on C because (a, a) R. By inspection we see that R is symmetric, since every pair in R / has its mirror image in R as well: (b, b) is its own mirror image, as is (c, c), while (b, c) and (c, b) are mirror images that both belong to R. Finally, let us consider whether R is transitive. Simply take every possible combination of the form (x, y) and (y, z) in R and see whether (x, z) is in R. For (b, b) and (b, c), we nd that (b, c) R. For (b, c) and (c, b), we nd that (b, b) R. For (c, b) and (b, c), we nd that (c, c) R. For (b, c) and (c, c), we nd that (b, c) R. For (c, b) and (b, b), we nd that (c, b) R. For (c, c) and (c, b), we nd that (c, b) R. So R is transitive.

 reexive on C, symmetric, and transitive. One possible solution: let R = {(a, a), (b, b), (c, c), (d, d)}. Then R is clearly reexive on C. Also, every pair in R is its own mirror image and therefore the mirror images all belong to R, so R is symmetric. Finally, R is transitive since there is no way to nd pairs of the form (x, y) and (y, z) in R for which (x, z) R. /

Another possible solution: let S = {(a, a), (b, b), (c, c), (d, d), (a, b), (b, a), (c, d), (d, c)}. Clearly S contains all the pairs needed for reexivity. Clearly the mirror image of each pair of S also belongs to S. And nally, S is transitive because if we check every combination of the form (x, y) and (y, z), then we nd that (x, z) S. For example, looking at (c, d) and (d, c), we see that (c, c) S.

True. 5