Lab 2.

3: Diversity of Kingdom Protista3/5/24 Total: 104 points

Introduction:

With the kingdom Protista we begin our study of Eukaryotes. Perhaps the most strikingly diverse group of organisms on Earth
is that of the Protists, found almost anywhere there is water – from puddles to sediments. The Protist kingdom is made up of a
wide variety of eukaryotic cells. In fact, most Eukaryotes are protists. All protist cells have nuclei and other characteristics
eukaryotic features. Some protists have more than one nucleus and are called “multinucleated”. All other eukaryotic organisms
(including plants, fungi, and animals) probably originated from primitive protists.

Environment: Most protists rely on water. Some are marine (salt water), some are freshwater, some are terrestrial (land
dwellers) in moist soil, and some are parasites which live in the tissues of others. While most protists inhabit water bodies,
some can be found in soil and even living organisms as pathogens.

Metabolism: There is a variety in how protists get their food. Like plants, many protists are autotrophs, meaning they make
their own food through photosynthesis and store it as starch. It is estimated that green protist cells chemically capture and
process over a billion tons of carbon in the Earth’s oceans and freshwater ponds every year. Photosynthetic or “green” protists
have a multitude of membrane-enclosed bags (chloroplasts) which contain the photosynthetic green pigment called
chlorophyll. Many of these organisms’ cell walls are like that of plant cells and are made of cellulose. Others are
“heterotrophs”. Like animals, they eat other organisms or, like fungi, receiving their nourishment from absorbing nutrient
molecules from their surroundings or digest living things. Some are parasitic and feed off of a living host. Some can switch from
one mode to another as their environmental conditions change. Some protists are also known as mixotrophs. This means that
they can derive energy and nutrients through autotrophy and heterotrophy.

Cellular Organization: While most protists are unicellular, there are also colonial and multicellular protists. Protists show a
variety in cellular organization. Colonial protists are single celled (unicellular), groups of single cells living together in a close
and permanent association (colonies or filaments). Some examples of multicellular protists can be found in Seaweed species.

Cellular Specialization: Multicellular protists display cell specialization in similar ways to other multicellular life. That is,
different cells perform different functions. This can be seen in protists like Seaweed which have root-like cells that anchor them
to objects and leaf-like cells that conduct photosynthesis. Since most protists are unicellular, however, cell specialization in
most protists is found within individual cells. Organelles are often modified and have unique properties from one protist to the
next. For example, many protists are multinucleated to compensate for their large size. Additionally, some protists have
modified mitochondria and chloroplasts to suit their specialized functions.

Motility: Most protists are motile and have a variety of external cellular extensions. A group of protists, the ciliates, have tightly
packed rows of specialized short flagella, called cilia, used for moving and feeding. These bacteria-ingesting, motile cells are
probably the best-known protists! Other protists use longer complex whip-like flagella – at times longer than their bodies – for
locomotion. Eukaryote flagella differ from prokaryote flagella in both size and structure. Bacteria flagella are much thinner and
are not made of tiny microtubules. Some move by temporary cytoplasmic extensions, called pseudopods (“false feet”).
Protists also have internal cell motility with cytoplasmic streaming. The cytoplasm, clear gel-like fluid which holds the
organelles, moves around carrying the organelles and substances.

Size: Most protist cells, or groups of cells, are microscopic. They cannot be seen with the naked eye but require a microscope
to magnify their size so they can be viewed. While they tend to be microscopic, protist cells are much larger than bacteria cells.
An average bacterium can range from 3-10 micrometers, while the largest protist cell is nearly 6 inches in length. Due to the
decreased SA:V of large protists cells, they must develop specialized organelles to increase the efficiency of transport.

Relationships: Many protists engage in symbiotic relationships with another organism. In this relationship at least one
organism benefits: mutualism (they both benefit), commensalism (one benefits and one is unaffected) and parasitism (one
benefits and one is harmed). Some protists are parasites, feeding off of a host organism.

Organelles: There are many internal organelles that can be identified in protist cells. Generally, there is a large nucleus,
containing chromatin material, which is clearly visible. Also visible are various vacuoles or microcavities, that contain fluid or
air that is enclosed in a membrane in the cell’s cytoplasm. Careful focusing with the microscope will usually show a number of
food vacuoles – colored blobs – that freely circulate in living cells. Often you can observe other “granular inclusions” - crystals
and other solid particles also circulate about in the cytoplasm.

Secondary Endosymbiosis: Primary endosymbiosis (the type you are

most familiar with) occurs when a eukaryotic cell engulfs and
absorbs a prokaryotic cell, such as a smaller cell that undergoes
photosynthesis (eg. cyanobacteria). Secondary endosymbiosis
occurs when a eukaryotic cell engulfs and absorbs another
eukaryotic cell. Many of the plastids, such as the chloroplast, in the
more complex protists (such as the mixotrophs) are a product of
secondary endosymbiosis where a protist engulfs and absorbs
another protist. The most apparent piece of evidence for secondary
endosymbiosis is the presence of more than two membranes
around organelles.

Classification: Protist classification has recently been updated

due to more accurate genetic sequencing. Prior to the
update, protists were classified based on their likeness to
other eukaryotes (plants, fungi and animals), or their
movement patterns. Due to updates to genetic sequencing,
protists can be divided into four broad supergroups. Keep in
mind, some of these groups are not monophyletic and are not
necessarily similar in respect to DNA sequences. As new
information is discovered, the classification system might
change.

Below are the four supergroups used to classify protists:

 Excavata
 SAR (Stramenopile, Alveolata, Rhizaria)
 Unikonta
 Archaeplastida (Algae)

Pre-Lab Questions: (2 points each)

1. Describe general characteristics of protists that make them different from prokaryotes.
Protists have a nucleus and are eukaryotic whereas prokaryotes do not have a nucleus.
2. Why do you think most protists are found in aquatic environments? Hint: Think osmosis.
To live, they require a wet atmosphere.
3. Describe the terms autotroph, heterotroph and mixotroph.
Autotrophs generate their own energy sources (producers)
Heterotrophic: requires the energy of other creatures (consumers).
Mixotrophic: possess both autotrophic and heterotrophic dietary modalities
4. Colonial protists are often considered as a steppingstone to multicellular
eukaryotic life. Why might this be?
They are groupings of single cells that live together in intimate, long-term relationship;
they are single-celled (unicellular) organisms (colonies or filaments).

5. Compare and contrast cell specialization in unicellular and multicellular protists.

Multicellular cells require distinct specialized cells in order to live, whereas unicellular cells are capable of supporting
all internal tasks.
6. Describe the different structures used by protists to move. How are they different than those found in bacteria?
 Flagella spirals, enabling it to rotate in a corkscrew pattern on its axis. Cilia go through the surrounding fluid in a
manner like to a whip.

7. Calculate the SA:V for the eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells to the right. Without any cellular specialization, which would
be more efficient with cell transport of protein?

The prokaryote's surface area to volume ratio makes it more effective in transporting proteins between cells. Prokaryotic=3.33,
Eukaryotic= 1.

8. Protists tend to have much larger cells than bacteria. Describe how some protists overcome the limits to cell size (SA:V)
to maintain cellular efficiency.
Organelles are found in larger cells and aid in their operation.

9. Describe the process of secondary endosymbiosis. What is the best piece of evidence to evaluate whether secondary
endosymbiosis has taken place?
When a eukaryotic cell swallows a cell that has already undergone primary endosymbiosis, secondary endosymbiosis takes
place.
10. What are the four supergroups used to classify protists? Why do our classification systems for protists keep changing?
Red algae, green algae, unikonts, SAR, and excavata. Protists are classified into four major supergroups that differ from one
another based on differences in their DNA sequences, hence the classification scheme is subject to constant modification due
to current genetic sequencing.
11. Based on the phylogenetic tree, which of the four supergroups gave rise to plants?
Archaeplastida
12. Based on the phylogenetic tree, which of the four supergroups gave rise to animals?
Opisthokonts

Identifying Excavata: (20 points)

1. Draw the representative protists for this group that
are viewed under the microscope in the circle to Specimen: Chilomastix Mesnili
the right. Trophozoites w.m.
Total magnification: 40x
2. What characteristic is the basis this supergroup’s Defining characteristics: Olive
name? green and has flagella

The feeding groove that was "excavated" on one side of the cell body.

3. Describe special features of organelles in this group.

What makes the mitochondria of some “highly Specimen: Euglena w.m.
reduced?” Total magnification: 100x
Defining characteristics: One
nucleus, light green and has
These species' mitochondria enable them to survive in
sphere like shape
low-oxygen environments and enable anaerobic respiration,
which results in decreased mitochondria like mitosomes and
hydrogenosomes.

4. Explain what makes the flagella special in this supergroup. Which phyla has these highly modified flagella?
Typically, an excavate has two, four, or more
flagella. The unique flagella of the phylum
Kinetoplastids have a spiral or crystalline rod.
5. What are some parasites in this super group? Specimen: Trypanosoma
Some parasites in this group are Trichomonas Gambiense Blood Smear Rat
Vaginalis and Giardia Intestinalis Total magnification: 40x
Defining characteristics: Parasitic,
 6. Describe secondary endosymbiosis in Euglenids.

Secondary endosymbiosis occurred in euglenids when the organism consumed a photosynthetic eukaryote.

Identifying SAR: (20 points)

1. Draw the representative protists for this group that

are viewed under the microscope in the circle to Specimen: Foraminifera Strew
the right. Total magnification: 40x
Defining characteristics: Dark
2. What three clades are part of this supergroup? Green, external shell
Rhizaria, Stramenopile, Alveolata

3. Describe some members of the Stramenopila clade.

They are diatoms, gold algae, brown algae

4. Describe some members of the Alveolata clade.

Some members are dinoflagellates, ciliates,

apicomplexans Specimen: Plasmodium Vivax
5. Describe some members of the Rhizaria clade. Total magnification: 40x
Defining characteristics: Dark
They are cercozoans, radiolarians, forams Pink, spherical
6. While the members of SAR are diverse, how are
scientists able to classify them in the same
supergroup?

Relationships between secondary endosymbiosis and

DNA sequence data in red algae
Specimen: Paramecium
Caudatum
Total magnification: 40x
Defining characteristics: Multi
nucleus, long, has cilla

Identifying Unikonta: (20 points)

1. Draw the representative protists for this group

that are viewed under the microscope in the circle Specimen: Taenia Dipylidium
to the right. Total magnification: 40x
Defining characteristics: Multi
2. What other organisms belong to the same nucleus
supergroup that are not protists?
Fungi

3. What is a pseudopod and how is this structure

distinct in Unikonta?
Specimen: Pond Water
Total magnification: 100x
 Extensions of the cytoplasm, pseudopodia have a lobed or tube-shaped structure.
4. Describe some of the fungus-like members of this group.

They are water molds-spores , slime molds-multiple nucleus

5. Describe some of the animal-like members of this group.

The amoezoba has pseudopodia.

Identifying Archaeplastida: (20 points)

1. Draw the representative protists for this group that

are viewed under the microscope in the circle to Specimen: Eudorina w.m.
the right. Total magnification: 100x
Defining characteristics:
2. Explain how primary endosymbiosis relates to the Spherical, green, clustered
evolution of this supergroup.

The plasmid-containing eukaryote, which developed from

initial endosymbiosis, was devoured by nonphotosynthetic eukaryotes.

3. Describe non-protists that are classified in the

same supergroup.

Some non protists in this group are Red Algae, Land Specimen: Volvox Sexual Stages
Plants, Green Algae w.m.
4. What metabolic process are the members in this Total magnification: 100x
group known for? Defining characteristics: Spherical
and blue
has mitochondria with flat cristae and no
centrioles. includes photosynthetic plasmids with a main endosymbiotic origin.