CHAPTER 5 mea Life Processes ic} SEL ree eee ae en alive? If we see a dog running, or a cow chewing cud, or a man shouting loudly on the street, we know that these are living beings. What If the dog or the cow or the man were asleep? We would still think that they were alive, but how did we know that? We see them breathing, and we know that they are alive. What about plants? How do we know that they are alive? We see them green, some of us will say. But what about plants that have leaves of colours other than green? They grow over time, so we know that they are alive, some will say. In other words, we tend to think of some sort of movement, either growth-related or not, as common evidence for being alive. But a plant thatis not visibly growing is, still alive, and some animals can breathe without visible movement. So | using visible movement as the defining characteristic of life is not enough. } Movements over very smalll scales will be invisible to the naked eye— movements of molecules, for example. Is this invisible molecular | movement necessary for life? If we ask this question to professional biologists, they will say yes. In fact, viruses do not show any molecular | movement in them (until they infect some cell), and that is partly why j ‘There is a controversy about whether they are truly alive or not. i Why are molecular movements needed for life? We have seen in earlier classes that living organisms are well-organised structures; they can } have tissues, tissues have cells, cells have smaller components in them, and so on, Because of the effects of the environment, this organised, ordered nature of living structures is very likely to keep breaking down over time. Iforder breaks down, the organism will no longer be alive. So living creatures must keep repairing and maintaining thelr structures. Since all these structures are made up of molecules, they must move molecules around all the time. What are the maintenance processes in living organisms? Let us explore. 5.1 WHAT ARE LIFE PROCESSES? ‘The maintenance functions of living organisms must go on even when they are not doing anything particular. Even when we are just sitting inclass, even if we are just asleep, this maintenance job has to go on The processes which together perform this maintenance job are life processe: Since these maintenance processes are needed to prevent damage and break-down, energy is needed for them. This energy comes from outside the body of the individual organism. So there must be a process to transfer a source of energy from outside the body of the organism, which we call food, to the inside, a process we commonly call nutrition ithe body size of the organisms is to grow, additional raw material will also be needed from outside. Since life on earth depends on carbon: based molecules, most of these food sources are also carbon-based. Depending on the complexity of these carbon sources. different organisms can then use different kinds of nutritional processes. The outside sources of energy could be quite varied, since the environment is not under the control of the individual organism. These sources of energy, therefore, need to be broken down or biilt up in the body, and must be finally converted to a uniform'source of energy that can be used for the various molecular movements needed for maintaining living structures, as well as to the kind of molecules the body needs to grow. For this, a series of chemical reactions in the body are necessary. Oxidising-reducing reactions are some of the most common chemical means to break-down molecules. For this, many organisms use oxygen sourced from outside the body. The process of acquiring oxygen from outside the body, and to use it in the process of break-down of food sources for cellular needs, is what we call respiration. In the case of a single-celled organism, no specific organs for taking in food, exchange of gases or removal of wastes may be needed because the entire surface of the organism is in contact with the environment. But what happens when the body size of the organism increases and the body design becomes more complex? In multi-cellular organisms, all the cells not be in direct contact with the surrounding environment, Thus, simple diffusion will not meet the requirements of all the cells. __ We have seen previously how, in multi-cellular organisms, various body parts have specialised in the functions they perform, We are familiar with the idea of these specialised tissues, and with their organisation in the body of the organism. It is therefore not surprising that the uptake of food and of oxygen ‘will also be the function of specialised tissues. However, this poses a problem, since the food and oxygen are now taken up at one place in the body of the organisms, while all parts of the body need them. This situation creates a need for a transportation system for carrying food and oxygen from one place to another in the body. When chemical reactions use the carbon source and the oxygen for energy generation, they create by-products that are not only useless for the cells of the body, but could even be harmful. These waste by- Products are therefore needed to be removed from the body and discarded outside by a process called excretion, Again, ifthe basic rules for body ScienceSPU SEER Tren ns are followed, a specialised tissue for nsportation system tory Uss al (o maintain design in multi-cellular organi excretion will be developed, which means that the ti will need to transport waste away from cells to Unis exe Let us consider these various processes, so sen lie, one by one. Why ts diffusion insufficient to meet the oxygen requirements of mull cellular organisms like humans? ‘ ‘What criteria do we use to decide whether something alive? a“ What are outside raw materials used for by an organism? What processes would you consider essential for maintaining lif 5.2 NUTRITION When we walk or tide a bicycle, we are using up energy are not doing any apparent activity, energy is needed to maintain a state of order in our body, We also need materials {rom outside in order to grow, develop, synthesise protein and other substances needed in the body. This source of energy and materials is the food we eat. Even when we How do living things get their food? The general requirement for energy and materials 1s common in all organisms, but i is fulfilled in different ways. Some organisms use simple food material obtained from inorganic sources in the form of carbon dioxide and water. These organisms, the autotrophs, include green plants and some bacteria. Other organisms utilise complex substances. These complex substances have (o be broken down into simpler ones before they can be used for the upkeep and growth of the body. To achieve this, organisms use big-catalysts called enzymes. Thus, the heterotrophs survival depends directly or indirectly on autotrophs. Heterotrophic organisms include animals and fungi. 5.2.1 Autotrophic Nutrition Carbon and energy requirements of the autotrophic organism are fulfilled by photosynthesis. It is the process by which autotrophs take in substances from the outside and convert them into stored forms of energy. This material is taken in the form of carbon dioxide and water which is converted into carbohydrates in the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll, Carbohydrates are utilised for providing energy to the plant. ‘We will study how this takes place in the next section. The carbohydrates which are not used immediately are stored in the form of starch, which > serves as the internal energy reserve to be used as and when required by the plant. A somewhat similar situation is seen in us where some of the energy derived from the food we eat is stored in our body in the form of glycogen. rat onas, ! Figure 5.1 Gross section ofa leaf 4 Figure 5.2 Variegated leaf a) before and (b) ees 0, +60, +6H,0 6CO, +12H,0 CoH0, Let us now see what actually happens during the process of photosynthesis. The following events occur during this process Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll (i) Conversion of light energy to chemical energy and splitting of water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen (i) Reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrates, These steps need not take place one after sy the other. immediately. For example, desert cutie plants take up carbon dioxide at night and prepare an intermediate which is acted upon ‘by the energy absorbed by the chlorophyll during the day Let us sec how each of the components of the above reaction are necessary for photosynthesis, Ifyou carefully observe a cross-section of a leaf under the microscope (shown in Fig. 5.1), you will notice that some cells contain green dots. These green dots are cell organelles called chloroplasts which contain chlorophyll. Letus. do an activity which demonstrates that chlorophyll is essential for photosynthesis. Upper epidermis = Take a potted plant with variegated leaves ~ for example, money plant or crotons. = Keep the plant in 4 dark room for three days so that all the starch gets.used up. -= Now keep the plant in sunlight for about six hours. = Pluck a leaf from the plant. Mark the green areas in it and trace them ‘on a sheet of paper. = Dip the leaf in boiling water for a few minutes. ™ After this, immerse it in a beaker containing alcohol. ™ Carefully place the above beaker in a water-bath and heat till the aleohol begins to boil. = What happens to the colour of the leaf? What is the colour of the solution? = Now dip the leaf in a dilute solution of iodine for a few minutes. = Take out the leaf and rinse off the iodine solution. = Observe the colour of the leaf and compare this with the tracing of the leaf done in the beginning (Fig. 5.2). ™ What can you conclude about the presence of starch in various areas of the leaf? SelenceNow, let us study how the plant Guard cells obtains carbon dioxide. In Class 1X. , we had talked about stomata (Fig. 5.3) which are tiny pores present on the surface of the leaves. Massive amounts of gaseous exchange takes place in the ee leaves through these pores for the purpose of photosynthesis. But it is CChioroplast | important to note here that exchange of gases occurs across the surface of stems, roots and leaves as well. Since « ® large amounts of water can also be lost through these stomata, the plant Figure 5.3 (a) Open and (b) closed stomatal pore closes these pores when it does not need carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. The opening and closing of the pore is a function of the guard cells. The guard cells swell when water flows into them, causing the stomatal pore to open. Similafly the pore ‘closes if the guard cells shrink . = Take two healthy potted plants which are nearly the same size. Keep them in a dark room for Now place each plant on separate glass plates. Place a watch-glass containing potassium Bell jar- Iv hydroxide by the side of one of the plants. The potassium — Watch-glass hydroxide is used to absorb | “mule carbon dioxide. areake ® Cover both plants with separate ea belljars as shown in Fig. 5.4. Use vaseline to seal the bottom Figure 5.4 Experimental set-up (a) with potassium of the jars to the glass plates 50. fuydraxide (b) without potassium hydroxide that the set-up is air-tight. = Keep the plants in sunlight for ” ee as check for the presence of starch as in the above activity. ice of the same amount of starch? formed above, can we design an is essential for photosynthesis? en up from the soil by the slike nitrogen, phosphorus, ol. Nitrogen ts an essential sr compounds. This is(a) istaken upa taken up in the form of inorganic nitrates ones eta ee organic compounds which have been prepare atmospheric nitrogen. 5.2.2 Heterotrophic Nutrition Bach organism 1s adapted (o its environment. The form of nutrition _ differs depending on the type and availability of food material as well as how IUs obtained by the organism. For example, whether the food Source 1s Stationary (such grass) or mobile (such as a deer), would allow for differences in how the food 1s accessed and whats the nutritive apparatus Used by a cow and a lion, There is a range of strategies by which the food ts taken in and used by the organism. Some organisms break-down the food material outside the body and then absorb It Examples are fung! luke bread moulds, yeastand mushrooms. Others fake tn whole material and break it down inside-their bodies. What c an be taken in anti broken down depends on the body design and functioning. Some other organisms derive nutrition from plants or animals without idlling them. This parasitic nutritive strategy is used by a wide variety of organisms like cuscuta (amar-bel), ticks, lice, leeches and tape-worms, 5.2.3 How do Organisms obtain their Nutrition? Since the food and the way it is obtained differ, the digestive system is different in various orgs ‘anisms. In single-celled organisms, the food Nucleus may be taken in by the entire surface. But as the complexity of the eee) organism increases, dite, a the food particle formin; rent parts become specialised to perform cxample, Amoeba takes in food using ‘ensions of the cell surface which fuse over ig 8 food-vacuole (Fig, 5.5). Inside the food- vacuole, complex subs different functions. For temporary finger-like ext enters our body? We shall discuss this Process here, Science‘We eat various types of food which has to pass through the same digestive tract, Naturally the food has to be processed to generate particles which are small and of the same texture, This is achieved by crushing the food with our teeth, Since the lining of the canal is soft, the food is also wetted to make its passage smooth, When we eat something we like, our mouth ‘waters’. This is actually not only water. but a fluid called saliva secreted by the salivary glands, Another aspect of the food we ingest is its complex nature. If iis (o be absorbed from the alimentary canal, it has to be broken into smaller molecules. This is done with the help of biological catalysts’ called enzymes. The saliva contains an. enzyme called salivary amylase that breaks down starch which is a complex molecule to give simple sugar. The food is mixed thoroughly with saliva and moved around the mouth while chewing by the muscular tongue, Itis necessary to move the food in a regulated manner along the digestive tube so that it can be processed properly in each part, The lining of Gali bladder canal has muscles that contract "r="! rhythmically in order to push the food forward. These peristaltic movements occur all along the gut. From the mouth, the food is taken to the stomach through the food-pipe or oesophagus. The stomach isa large organ which expands when food enters it. The muscular wallls of the . ‘Tongue Mouth (Buceal exeityh Occophagus ‘smal ‘intestine stomach help in mixing the food eure lc umn aratencd thoroughly with more digestive juices. The digestion in stomach is taken care of by the gastric glands present in the wall of the stomach. These release hydrochloric acid, a protein digesting enzyme called pepsin. and mucus. The hydrochloric acid creates an acidic medium which facitates the action of theenzyme pepsin. What other function doyou niece by the acid? The mucus protects the inner lining of the stomach from the action of the acid under normal conditions. We Life Processes asy have often heard adults complaining about ‘acidity’. Can this be relateg At has been discussed above? i The fxit of food from the stomach ts regulated by a sphincter musele a 8 into the small intestine. Frony (yj. vhfeh releases it in small amourits tnt ie rom BER Ue Toad Twa he small Ttestine: This 1s the longest pary ts of the alimentary canal whieh is Aited eerie ace besioe ad extensive colling, The length of the smal oy animals depending on the food they eat. Herbivores ating grass need 3 Jongersmalll Intestine (o allow the cellulose to be digested. Meat 1S caster to digest, hence carnivores like tigers have a shorter small intestine. ‘The small intestine is the site of the complete digestion of carbohydrates, proteins and fats. IL receives the secretions Of the liver and pancreas for this purpose. The food coming from the stomach {g acidic and has to be made alkaline for the pancreatic en, MES to act Bile juice from the liver accomplishes this in addition to acting on fats, ats Afe Present in the intestine in the form of large globules whit makes {difficult for enzymies to act on them, Bile salts break them down intg smaller globulesincreasing the efficiency of enzyme action: This ts sir} to the emulsifying action of soaps on dirt that we have learnt about in Chapter 4. The pancreas secretes Pancreatic Juice which contains cnvymes like trypsin for digesting proteins and lipase for breaking down suiulsited fats, The walls of the small intestine contain glands which secret intestinal juice. The enzymes Present in it finally convert the Proteins to amino acids, complex car Dohydrates into glucose and fats into fatty acids and glycerol Digested food is taken up by the walls of the intestine. The inner lning of the small intestine has numerous Onger-like projections called , villi which increase the Surface area for absorption. The vilir arerichly- Supplied with blood vessels which tale the absorbed foot to eactrand from the body via the anus, The exit of thi: by the anal sphincter. ie so G MATA AAA AAAn KAA " Dental caries as ScienceWhat are the differences nutrition? between autotrophic nutrition and heterotrophic Where do plants get each of the raw materials rex What js the role of the acid in our stomach? What is S the function of digestive enzymes? How Is the small intestine designed to absorb digested food? uired for photosynthesis? Prehkar A * Take some freshly prepared lime water in a test tube, bk fubber—> “Tube = Blow air through this lime water. es : ~ = Note how long it takes for the lime water (0 turn milly. = Use a syringe or pichkarito pass air ‘Test tube eontalniog through soine fresh lime water oa a taken in another test tube (Fig, 5.7). “ = Note how tong it takes for this lime water (o turn milly. @ ie) = What does this tell us about the Figure 8.7 amount of carbon dioxide in the air (a) Air being passed tnto lime water with a piehkari/ that we breathe out? syringe, (b) air being exhaled into lime water Activity 5.5 = Take some fruit juice or sugar solution and add some yeast to this, Take this mixture in a test tube fitted with a one-hoied cori, © Fit the cork with a bent glass tube. Dip the free end of the glass tube into a test tube containing freshly prepared lime water. What change,is observed in the lime water and how long does it take for this change to occur? = What does this tell us about the products of fermentation? We have discussed nutrition in organisms in the last section. The food material taken in during the process of nutrition is used in cells to provide energy for various life processes. Diverse organisms do this in different ways — some use oxygen to break-down glucose completely into carbon dioxide and water, some use other pathways that do not | involve oxygen (Fig. 5.8). In all cases, the first step is the break-down of glucose, a six-carbon molecule, into a three-carbon molecule called ~pyruvate. This process takes place-In-the cytoplasm. Further, the “pyr ‘may be converted into ethanol and carbon dioxide. This process takes place in yeast during fermentation. Since this process takes place in the absence of air (oxygen), it is called anaerobic respiration. Break- down of pyruvate using oxygen takes place in the mitochondria, This Life Processes 87process breaks up the three-carbon pyruvate molecule to give three molecules of carbon dioxide. The other product {s water. Since this process takes place in the presence of air (oxygen), it Is called aerobic respiration. The release of energy in this aerobic process Is a lot greater than in the anacrobic process, Sometimes, when there 1s a lack of oxygen in our muscle cells, another pathway for the break-down of pyruvate {s taken. Here the pyruvate is converted into lactic acid which {s also a three-carbon molecule, This build-up of lactic acid in our muscles during sudden activity causes cramps [Ethanol + Carbon dioxtde + Energy (im yeast” (a-carbon molecule - in terion Lack of ygen Giacose SES tyne (AY Laetio aeid + neray {Garton museie un) (:carhon molecule) Presence of Energy ooiten Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy (in mitochondrta) Figure 5.8 Break down of glucose by various pathways i The energy released during cellular respiration is immediately used to synthesise a molecule called ATP which is used to fuel all other activities in the cell. In these processes, ATP is broken down giving rise toa fixed amount of energy which can drive the endothermic reactions taking place in the cell, ATP is the energy currency for most cellular processes. The energy released during the process of respiration is used to make an ATP molecule from ADP and inorganic phosphate. ADP+® S221, app-® = ATP ®): Phosphate Endothermic processes in the cell then use this ATP to drive the reactions. When the terminal phosphate linkage in ATP is broken using water, the energy equivalent to 30.5 kJ/mol is released, ‘Think of how a battery can provide energy for many different kinds of uses. It can be used to obtain mechanical energy, light energy, electrical energy and so on. Similarly, ATP can be used in the cells for the contraction of muscles, protein synthesis, conduction of nervous impulses and many other activities. More to Know! Since the aerobic respiration pathway depends on oxygen, aerobic organisms need to ensure that there is sufficient intake of oxygen. We have seen that plants exchange gases through stomata, and the large inter-cellular spaces ensure that all cells are in contact with air; Carbon. dioxide and oxygen are exchanged by diffusion here. They can go into SclenceNasal passage Aveo! = Respiratory yonehioles Figure 5.9 Human respiratory system Within the lungs, the passage divides into smaller and smaller tubes which finally terminate in balloon-like structures which are called alveoli (singular-alveolus). The alveoli provide a surface where the exchange of gases can take place. The walls of the alveoli contain an extensive network of blood-vessels. As we have seen in earlier years, when we breathe in, we lift our ribs and flatten our diaphragm, and the chest cavity becomes larger as a result Because of this, air is sucked into the lungs and fills the expanded alveoli, The blood brings carbon dioxide from the rest of the body for release into the alveoli, and the oxygen in the alveolar air is taken up by blood in the alveolar blood vessels to be transported to all the cells in the body. During the breathing cycle, when air faken in and let out, the lungs always contain a residual volume of air so that there is sufficient time for oxygen to be absorbed and for the carbon dioxide to be released. When the body size of animals is large, the diffusion pressure alone cannot take care of oxygen delivery to all parts of the body. instead, respiratory pigments take up oxygen from the air in the lungs and carry it to tissues which are deficient in oxygen before releasing it. In human beings, the respiratory pigment is haemoglobin which has a very high afinity for oxygen. This pigment is present in the red blood corpuscles. Carbon dioxide is more soluble in water than oxygen is and hence is mostly transported in. the dissolved form in our blood. Sctenceventeide Septum {atvicing wall) Figure 5.10 ‘Schematic sectional view of the human heart Our pump — the heart ‘The heart is a muscular organ which is as big as our fist (Fig. 5.10). Because both oxygen and carbon dioxide have to be transported by the blood. the heart has different chambers to prevent the oxygen-rich blood from.niixing with the blood containing carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide-rich blood has 16 reach the lungs for the carbon dioxide to be removed, and the oxygenated blood from the lungs has to be brought back to the heart, This oxygen-rich blood is then pumped to the rest of the body. We can follow this process step by step (Fig. 5.11). Oxygen-rich blood from fi the lungs comes to the thin-walled upper chamber of the heart on the left, the left atrium. The left atrium relaxes ‘when itis collecting this blood. It then contracts, while the next chamber, thelefi ventricle, relaxes, so that the blood is transferred to it. When the “muscular elt ventricle contracts in its turn, the blood 1s pumped out to the botly, De-oxygenated blood comes from the body tothe upper ‘chamber on the right, the rightatrium, asitrelaxes: As the right atrium contracts, the corresponding lower chamber, the right ventricle, dilates. This transfers blood to the right ventricle, which in turn pumps it to the hings for oxygenation. Since ventricles have to pump blood into various organs, they have thicker muscular walls than the atria do, Valves enstire that blood does not flow backwards when the atria or ventricles contract Oxygen enters the blood in the lungs The Separation of the right side and the left side of Pulmonary vein from lungs artery to lungs <> Vena cava. Aorta To body From body Capillaries in| body organs apart rom the lungs Figure 5.11 ‘Schematic representation of transport and exchange ‘efoxygen and carbon dioxide the heart is useful to keep oxygenated and de- oxygenated blood from mixing. Such separation, allows a highly efficient supply of oxygen to the ‘body. This is useful in animals that have high “energy needs, such as birds and mammals, which constantly use energy to maintain their body “Temperature. In animals that do not use energy for this purpose, the body temperature depends on the temperature in the environment. Such animals, like amphibians or_many reptiles have three-chambered hearts, and tolerate some mixing of the oxygenated and-de-oxygenated blood streams. Fishes, on the other hand, have only two: ‘chambers to their hearts, and the blood is pumped to the gills. is oxygenated there, and passes directly to the rest of the body. Thus, blood goes only once through the heart in the fish during one cycle of passage through the body. On the other hand, it goes through the heart twice during each cycle in other vertebrates. This is known as double circulation. ScienceBlood pressure ‘The force that blood exerts against the wall of a vesse! Is called blood pressure, This pressure is much greater in arteries than In veins. The pressure of blood inside (he artery during ventricular systole (contraction) is called systolic pressure and pressure In artery during ventricular diastole (relaxation) Is called diastolic pressure, The normal systolic pressure Is about 120 mm of Hg and diastolic pressure Is 80 mm of Hg. neu Tielow 120, 120 abber ent Inflated seit le / Blood pressure is measured with an instrument called sphygmomanometer. High blood pressure is also called hypertension and is caused by the constriction of arterioles, which results in increased resistance to blood flow. It can lead to the rupture ofan artery and internal bleeding. ‘The tubes - blood vessels Arteries are the vessels which carry blood away from the heart to various ‘organs of the body. Since the blood emerges from the heart under high rressure, the arteries haye thick, elastic walls. Veins collect the blood from different organs and bring it back to the heart, They do not need thick walls because the blood is no longer under pressure, instead they” have valves that ensure that the blood flows only in one direction. (On reaching an organ or tissue, the artery divides into smaller and smaller vessels to bring the blood in contact with all the individual cells. _The smallest vessels have walls which are one-cell thick and are called cal #exchange of material between the blood and surrounding ~ cells takes place across this thin wall. The capillaries then join together to form veins that convey the blood away from the organ or tissue. Maintenance by platelets What happens if this system of tubes develops a leak? Think about siturations when we are injured and start bleeding. Naturally the loss of blood from the system has to be minimised. In addition, leakage would lead to a loss of pressure which would reduce the efficiency of the Life Processes . &pumping system. To avoid this, the blood has platelet cells which circulate around the body'and plug these Teaks by helping to clot the blood-at these points of injury, Lymph There is another type of fluid also involved in transportation. This is called lymph or tissue fluid. Through the Pores present in the walls of capillaries some amount of plasma intercellular spaces in the t which join to form large lymph vessels that finally open into larger veins, impli carries digested and absorbed fat from intestine and drains excess uid rom extra cellular space back into the blood. 5.4.2 Transportation in Plants We have discussed earlier how plants take in simple compounds such as CO, and photosynthesise energy stored in than chlorophyil-containing PANE er, he other kings offraq mateaad needed for building plant bodies will also have to be taken up separately. For plants, il-contacting organs and chlorophyll- containing organs are small, energy and raw materials can easily diffuse {oall parts of the plant body, But if these distances become large because eq Changes in plant body design, diffusion processes will not be eeinc ne to provide raw material in leaves and energy in roots. A proper system of transportation is therefore essential in such situations: Energy needs differ between different body designs. Plants do not Wnove, and plant bodies have a large proportion of dead cells in many tissues. As a result, plants have low ‘energy needs, and can use relatively slow transport systems. The distances over which transport systems have to operate, however, can be very large in plants such as very tall trees. Plant transport systems will move energy stores from leaves and raw materials from roots. These two pathways are constructed as independently organised conducting tubes. One, the xylem moves water. and minerals obtained from the soil. The other, phloem transports Products of photosynthesis from the leaves where they are synthesised to other parts of the plant. We have studied the structure of these tissues in detail in Class IX. Transport of water In xylem tissue, vessels and tracheids of the roots, stems and leaves are to form a continuous system of water-cor 1g eats aca Dae Eonmt rere contact “With the soil actively take up fons. This creates a difference in the “concentration of these fons between the root and the soil. Water therefore. San ScienceMoves into the root from the soil (o eliminate this difference. This means that there is steady movement of water into root xylem, creating a column of water that is steadily pushed upwards. However, this pressure by itself is unlikely to be enough to move water over the heights that we commonly see in plants. Plants use another strategy to move water in the xylem upwards to the highest points of the plant body, » Take two small pots of approximately the same size and having the same amount of soil, One should have a plant in it, Place a stick of the same height as the plant in the other pot. © Cover the soil in both pots with a plastic sheet so that moisture cannot escape by evaporation. Cover both sets, one with the plant and the other with the stick, with plastic sheets and place in bright sunlight for half an hour Do you observe any difference in the two cases? Provided that the plant has an adequate \ supply of water, the water which is lost through the stomata is replaced by water from the xylem vessels in the leaf, In fact, evaporation of water molecules from. the cells of a leaf Creafes.a-suction which:pulis water ‘from the xylem cells of roots. The loss of water in the form of vapour from the aerial parts of the plant is known as transpiration, ‘Thus, transpiration helps in the absorption and upward movement of water. and minerals dissolved init from_roots to the leaves. It also helps_in_ temperature regulation. The effect of root pressure in ‘transport of water is more important at night. During the day when the stomata are open, the transpiration Pull becomes the major driving foree in the movement Figure 5.12 of water in the xylem, ‘Movement of water during transpiration in d'tree Transport of food and other substances So far we have discussed the transport of water and minerals in plants. Now let us consider how the products of metabolic processes, particularly Photosynthesis, are moved from leaves, where they are formed, to other Parts of the plant. This transport of soluble products of photosynthesis _s called translocation and it occurs in the part of the vascular tissue known as phloem. Besides the products of photosynthesis, the phloen _tansports amin ackisanLother substances. These Sean ‘pecially delivered to the storage organs of roots, fruits and seeds and to growing organs. The translocation of food and other substances takes place in the sieve tubes with the help of adjacent companion cells both k in upward and downward directions,gneryy. Material like sucrose is transferred into phloem thaswe tning “eneny from ATP. This increases the osmotic pressure of the tasue ‘causing water to move Into It, This pressure moves the material in the phloem (o Ussties whieh have less pressure, This allows the phloem to Move material according (o the plant's needs. For example, tn (he spring, Sua stored th root or stem tissue would be transported to the buds which need energy to grow: What are the components of the transport system in human beings? What are the functions of these components” & Why fs it necessary to separate oxygenated and 1 deoxygenated blood in mammals and birds? What are the components of the ¢ ANsport system in highly organised plants? How are water and minerals transported tn plant How ts food transported in plants? 5.5 EXCRETION We have already discussed how organisms get rid of gaseous wastes generated during photosynthesis or respiration, Other metabolic activities 4 Senerate nitrogenous materials which need to be removed, The biological Process involved in the removal of these harmful metabolic wastes from the body ts called excretion, Different organisms use varted strategies to do this, Many unicellular organisms remove these wastes by simple ; diffusion from the body surface into the surrounding | : Paes water, As we have seen in other processes, complex . awtery mult-cellular organisms use specialised organs to perform the same function, att kidney 5.5.1 Excretion in Human Beings ‘The excretory system of human beings (Pig. 5.13) includes a pair of kidneys, a pairof ureters, a urinary leturcter bladder and a urethra, Kidneys are located. the Vena cava -abdomen, one on either side of the backbone. Urine Produced in the kidneys passes through the ureters into the urinary bladder where it is stored until it is Uremnte released through the urethra, » HoW is urine produced? The purpose of making Urine fs to filter out waste products {rom the blood, “MUSE AS CO, is removed from the blood in the hangs, ~ nitrogenous Waste such as urea or uric acid-are Temoved from blood in the kidneys. It is then no Surprise (hat the baste Mtration Whit in the kidneys: elt renal vein ova Urinary bladder———————— like in the lungs, ts a cluster of very thin-walled blood capillaries, Each capillary cluster in the kidney 1s associated with the cup-shaped end of a coiled tube called Bowman's capsule that collects the filtrate (Fig. 5.14), Each Kidney has large numbers of these fltration-units-called-nephrons packed close together, Some substances in the initial filtrate, such as glucose, amino acids, salts and a major amount of water, are selectively re-absorbed as the urine flows along the tube. opal vein « | 4The amount of water re-absorbed depends on how much a excess water there is iit (iE TaxIy,-and-on-how much of dissolved waste there is to be excreted. The urine forming ineach kidney eventually enters a longtube. the ureter, which connects the kidneys with the urinary bladder, Urine is stored in the urinary bladder until the presstu of the expanded bladder leads to the urge to pass it out | through the urethra. The bladder is muscular, so itis L under nervous control, as we have discussed elsewhere. gureaus As a result, we can usually control the urge to urinate, Srusturcara ep ater Captaris \, Artificial kidney (Hemodialysis) Kidneys are vital organs for survival, Several factors like infections, injury or re blood flow to kidneys reduce the activity of kidneys. This leads to accumulation of - poisonous wastes in the body, which can even lead to death. In case of kidney failure, an artificial kidney can be used. An artificial kidney is a device to remove nitrogenous waste products from the blood through dialysis. ‘Artificial kidneys contain a number of tubes with a semi-permeable lining, suspended ina tank filled with dialysing fluid. ‘Line from artery |4This fluid has the same osmotic topump Tubing made of a pressure as blood, except that itis selectively permeable 1 “gevoid of nitrogenous wastes, The patient's blood is passed through these tubes. During this passage, the waste products from. the blood _pass into dialysin ‘The purified blood is pumped back into the patient. 2 function of the kidney, but itis Line rom “different since there.is no re- aon ch | absorption involved. Normally. in a healthy adult, the initial filtrate in the kidneys is about 180 L daily. Fresh Uscddsysing | However, the volume actuall using solution is excreted is only a litre or two oe excesssults) _] because the remaining filtrate is re- absorbed in the kidney tubules. More to Know!ae aco fer Dens us act of donating suffers from oped (s). Donation of an organ may be done by the Preat at tis done ad his/her family, Anyone regardless of age or gender can become an organ and tissue donor. Organ transplants can save or transform the life of a person. Transplantation is required because recipient's organ has been damaged or has failed by disease or injury. In organ ‘transplantation the organ is surgically removed from one person {organ donor) and transplanted to another person (the Tecipient). Common (ransplantations include corneas, kidneys, heart, liver, pancreas, lungs, intestines and bone marrow, ‘Most organ and tissue donations 5.5.2 Excretion in Plants Plants use completely differen strategies for excretion than thont of animals. Oxygen itself can pe thought of as a waste prodys generated during photosynthesis We have discussed carlter hoy Plants deal with oxygen as wei, as CO,, They can get rid of excess Water by transpiration. For other wastes plants use the fact that many of their tissues consist of deaq cells, and that they can even lose some Parts such as leaves. Many plan waste products are stored in cellular vacuoles. Waste products may be stored in leaves that falloff Other waste products are stored ag resins and gums, especially in olq xylem. Plants also excrete some waste substances into the sof around them, Science