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Science 8 Module 3 Powerpoint

1. John Dalton was the first to use the term "atom" and proposed early theories including that atoms are tiny, solid, indivisible particles and that elements are distinguished by the type of atom. 2. J.J. Thomson discovered the electron through experiments with cathode rays and proposed a "plum pudding" model where electrons were embedded in a uniform positive charge. 3. Ernest Rutherford discovered the nucleus through alpha particle scattering experiments, establishing that the mass is concentrated in a very small, positively charged nucleus. 4. Niels Bohr incorporated Max Planck's quantum theory into the Rutherford model, proposing electrons orbit in discrete shells and jump between them, emitting or absorbing packets of energy.
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
49 views82 pages

Science 8 Module 3 Powerpoint

1. John Dalton was the first to use the term "atom" and proposed early theories including that atoms are tiny, solid, indivisible particles and that elements are distinguished by the type of atom. 2. J.J. Thomson discovered the electron through experiments with cathode rays and proposed a "plum pudding" model where electrons were embedded in a uniform positive charge. 3. Ernest Rutherford discovered the nucleus through alpha particle scattering experiments, establishing that the mass is concentrated in a very small, positively charged nucleus. 4. Niels Bohr incorporated Max Planck's quantum theory into the Rutherford model, proposing electrons orbit in discrete shells and jump between them, emitting or absorbing packets of energy.
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Atoms are the building blocks

of most matter.
Learning Targets
At the end of this topic, you should have:
▪ named and described the structure of atoms, including its mass, and
locations of protons, neutrons, and electrons inside an atom;
▪ identified the electric charge of an atom and its subatomic particles;
▪ located the atomic number in a periodic table of elements;
▪ identified the subatomic particles associated with mass number;
▪ determined the number of neutrons from the mass number;
▪ interpreted shorthand notations for isotopes and atoms;
▪ inferred that ions are formed from the removal or addition of
electron/s;
▪ evaluated the net electric charge of an atom; and
▪ determined the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons in a
particular atom.
John Dalton (1766-1844)
He was the son of an English weaver from Eaglesfield in Cumbria. When he wasn’t
carrying out investigations, he was probably teaching at the Presbyterian college in
Manchester. In 1807, John Dalton was the first person to use the word atom to describe
the smallest particle of any element.

What did Dalton do?


Dalton studied gases and discovered that elements
combine with other elements to make compounds.
He had to guess how many atoms joined together to
make the compound. He was able to calculate the
relative weights of particles using data from his own
observations and measurements. Individual particles
were too small to weigh. He had to make some
assumptions to explain his observations eg the
atmosphere of heat surrounding the solid particle
was used to explain why some elements were solids
and some gases. Solid compounds had less heat
than gaseous ones.
John Dalton (1766-1844)
1. All matter is made up of tiny particles called
atoms.
2. Each atom is a solid particle with no spaces,
surrounded by an atmosphere of heat.
3. Atoms cannot be made or destroyed.
4. Atoms of the same elements are alike with
the same mass, color etc.
5. Atoms of different elements have different
masses, colors etc.
6. Atoms can join to form larger particles in
compounds.
John Jacob Berzelius (1779-1848)
Berzelius was an orphan from Sweden, brought up by a mean stepfather. He
worked on his farm and lived in a room which was also the potato store. His
stepfather made sure that the potatoes did not freeze during winter, so at
least this meant that Berzelius kept warm too. From high school, he went on
to university where he became interested in experimental chemistry.
What did Berzelius do?
Berzelius heard about Dalton’s theory and set about
making his own relative atomic weight
measurements. But, from previous experiments
carried out by Humphrey Davy, he knew how many
atoms were in the compounds. He knew that when
electricity was passed through water, twice as much
hydrogen was collected at the negative terminal than
oxygen at the positive terminal. So, he concluded that
water was made from two atoms of hydrogen and one
of oxygen
John Jacob Berzelius (1779-1848)
1. All atoms are spherical.
2. All atoms are the same size.
3. Atoms have different weights.
4. Atoms joined together in fixed
proportions, by an
electrochemical reaction.
Some atoms are positive and
others are negative.

Dalton could not accept


Berzelius’ electrochemical Berzelius thought that chemical symbols
combination, but at the same should be letters. He took the first letter of the
time could not explain why Latin name of each element. When the letters
atoms joined together in fixed were the same, he used both the first letter
proportions. and the next different letter. Berzelius’
symbols are used in today’s Periodic Table.
Joseph John Thomson (1856–1940)
Thomson was born near Manchester. His ambition was to be an engineer but instead
he was awarded a scholarship in chemistry. The scholarship was in memory of John
Dalton. At the age of 28, Thomson became professor at the Cavendish Laboratory,
Cambridge University.

What did Thomson do?


In 1897 Thomson discovered the electron, while he was investigating the conductivity
of electricity by gases at very low pressures. After collecting data for twenty years,
Thomson was convinced that electrons were negative particles of electricity. He even
measured the mass of the electron.

However, he still needed more evidence to convince the scientific world, so he asked
Wilson to try and take a photograph of an electron. It took him until 1911 to build a
suitable camera, which was sealed in glass chamber in which electrons could be
produced. The experiment was successfully carried out and the electron was
photographed. JJ Thomson was worried about telling the world his new theory of the
atom, because until now the atom was thought of as a single solid particle.
Joseph John Thomson (1856–1940)
Atoms consisted of rings of negative electrons
embedded in a sphere of positive charge (the
plum pudding model).
▪ The positive and negative charges balance to
make the atom neutral.
▪ The mass of the atom was due to the nucleus.
▪ The mass of an electron was 1/1840 of the
mass of hydrogen, the lightest atom.
▪ There were 1840 electrons in an atom of
hydrogen.
Ernest Rutherford (1871–1937)
Rutherford was born near the village of Nelson, New Zealand. His father was an odd-
job man and simple farmer. Rutherford obtained an honors degree in mathematics and
science from the University of New Zealand before gaining a scholarship that took him
to work with JJ Thomson at the Cavandish laboratory in Cambridge.

What did Rutherford do?


Rutherford studied radioactive atoms and found that they were not stable. By this time
a lot was understood about radiation. Rutherford carried out his investigation in the
dark. He used positively charged radiation to bombard the atom and watched to see
where the radiation particle went. The radiation always left a glow. The glow showed
that most particles went straight through the atom, some were slightly deflected, while
others bounced back in the same direction.

After doing many calculations, Rutherford concluded that the radiation could only
come back if that atom had a hard positively charged core at the center of the atom.
He called this the nucleus. If the atom was 100 m, the size of a football pitch, the
nucleus would be the size of a pea placed in the center of the pitch.
Ernest Rutherford (1871–1937)
1. The atom consists mainly of space.
2. The mass of the atom is concentrated in the
nucleus, which is a small core at the
3. center of the atom.
4. The nucleus has positive charges.
5. Electrons move around the nucleus like
planets orbiting the sun.
6. The atom is neutral as it has the same
number of positive charges and negatively
7. charged electrons.
Niels Bohr (1885–1962)
Niels Bohr was born into a scientific family. His father was a
professor of physiology and his brother a distinguished
mathematician. After obtaining his Ph.D. from the University
of Copenhagen, Denmark, he accepted an invitation to work
with Rutherford, at Cambridge.

Bohr was very intelligent and had an amazing imagination.


He was not afraid to build on the idea of Max Plank, that
energy came in little packets called quanta, and apply this
to Rutherford’s model of the atom.
What helped Bohr?
Bohr based his investigation on Max Plank’s
idea. He imagined the electron orbiting the
nucleus unless it was disturbed by some
outside force, when it jumped to a different
energy level. A packet of energy was either
gained or lost.
Niels Bohr (1885–1962)
1. Most of the mass of an atom is in the central nucleus that contains
protons.
2. The electrons are arranged in definite shells or energy levels and orbit the
nucleus.
3. The electron shells are a long way from the nucleus.
4. When one shell is full a new shell is started. This is called the electronic
configuration.
5. Atoms with full shells are not very reactive.
6. Electrons determine the reactivity of the atom.
Chemists Not Happy
While Bohr‘s model of the atom could explain the spectrum of the hydrogen atom,
chemists didn‘t think it would explain the reactivity of the other chemical elements.
His theory was based on incomplete physical data and mathematical calculations.
Many chemists favored Lewis’ theory. The American‘s octet theory was based on
real chemical data. Lewis proposed that the fixed nucleus was surrounded by cubic
shaped electron shells. The electrons were fixed in the corner positions.
Present Day Models of the Atom
▪ The up-to-date model of the atom is based on what is known as
quantum mechanics and the atom is described by a complicated
equation called the Schrodinger equation.
▪ It helps to know a lot of math, understand probability and
have a good imagination to picture Schrodinger’s model
of the atom.
▪ Today, most people are happy to accept a slightly
modified model of Bohr’s atom, because it can be used
to explain the spectra and the reactivity of the elements.
The modified model of the Bohr atom includes neutrons,
which were discovered by Sir James Chadwick in 1932.

The neutron is a neutral


particle with the same
mass as a proton. It is also
found in the nucleus.
Modelling the Atom Today

Where the electrons go?


▪ The first shell can hold up to 2 electrons.
▪ The second and third shells can each hold up to 8 electrons.
▪ The fourth shell can hold up to 18 electrons.
▪ The arrangement of electrons in the atom is known as the electronic
configuration.
▪ The electronic configuration for Li is 2.1. This means Li has 2 electrons in the first
shell and one in the second shell.
Modelling the Atom Today
Modelling the Atom Today
Atoms are the building
blocks of most matter.
Everything you see, hear,
taste, feel, or smell in the
world around you is made
of atoms. Shoes, ships,
mice, lead, and people
are all made of atoms.
Atoms Are Small

Atoms are so small that there are about 1023 atoms


in a gram of water (a thimbleful).
Atoms Are Small
The number 1023 is an enormous number.
There are more atoms in a thimbleful of water than there
are drops of water in the world’s lakes and rivers.
Atoms Are Small
Atoms are perpetually moving, and they migrate from one
location to another.
In solids the rate of migration is low, in liquids it is greater,
and in gases migration is greatest.
Drops of food coloring in a glass of water spread to the
entire glass of water. Toxic materials in an ocean spread
to every part of the world’s oceans.
Atoms Are Small
In about six years, one of your exhaled breaths becomes
evenly mixed in the atmosphere.
At that point, every person in the world inhales an average
of one of your exhaled atoms in a single breath.
And this occurs for each breath you exhale!
Atoms Are Small
There are as many atoms in a normal breath of air as
there are breathfuls of air in the atmosphere of the world.
Atoms Are Small
Atoms are too small to be seen—at least with visible light.
Light is made up of waves, and atoms are smaller than
the wavelengths of visible light.
The size of a particle visible under the highest
magnification must be larger than the wavelengths of
visible light.
Atoms Are Small
Information about the
ship is revealed by
passing waves. The
passing waves reveal
nothing about the chain.
Atoms Are Small
A ship is much larger than the water waves that roll on by it.
Water waves can reveal features of the ship. They diffract as
they pass the ship, while there is no diffraction for waves that
pass the anchor chain.
Waves of visible light are too coarse compared with the size of
an atom to show details of the atom’s size and shape.
Atoms Are Small
think!
Does your brain contain atoms that were once part of Albert
Einstein? Explain.
Atoms Are Small
think!
Does your brain contain atoms that were once part of Albert
Einstein? Explain.

Answer:
Yes. However, these atoms are combined differently than they
were before. Many of the atoms that compose you will be part of
the bodies of all the people on Earth who are yet to be! In this
sense, at least, our atoms are immortal.
Atoms Are Small

How small are atoms?


Atoms Are Recyclable

Atoms in your body have been around since long


before the solar system came into existence, more
than 4.6 billion years ago.
Atoms Are Recyclable
Atoms are much older than the materials they compose.
Some atoms are nearly as old as the universe itself.
Most atoms that make up our world are at least as old as the
sun and Earth.
Atoms Are Recyclable
Atoms cycle and recycle among innumerable forms, both
living and nonliving.
Every time you breathe, some of the atoms that you inhale are
exhaled in your next breath; others become part of you.
Most leave your body sooner or later.
Most people know we are all made of the same kinds of
atoms, but we are actually made of the same atoms.
Atoms Are Recyclable
think!
World population grows each year. Does this mean the mass of
Earth increases each year? Explain.
Atoms Are Recyclable
think!
World population grows each year. Does this mean the mass of
Earth increases each year? Explain.

Answer:
The mass of Earth does increase by the addition of roughly
40,000 tons of interplanetary dust each year. But the increasing
number of people does not increase the mass of the Earth. The
atoms that make up our body are the same atoms that were
here before we were born.
Atoms Are Recyclable

For how long have the atoms in your


body been around?
Evidence for Atoms

Brownian motion is evidence that atoms exist, as it


results from the motion of neighboring atoms and
molecules. They bump into the larger particles we
can see.
Evidence for Atoms
The idea that matter is made of
atoms goes back to the Greeks in
the 400s B.C.
It was revived in the early 1800s
by John Dalton, who explained
the nature of chemical reactions
by proposing that all matter is
made of atoms.
However, he had no direct
evidence for their existence.
Evidence for Atoms
A Scottish botanist, Robert
Brown, found the first fairly direct
evidence for the existence of
atoms in 1827.
Looking through a microscope at
pollen grains floating in water, he
noticed that the grains were in a
constant state of agitation.
Brownian motion is the
perpetual jiggling of particles that
are just large enough to be seen.
Evidence for Atoms
More direct evidence for the existence of atoms is
available today.
Images of atoms can be made with an electron beam, not
with visible light.
Although an electron beam is a stream of tiny particles
(electrons), it has wave properties, with a wavelength
more than a thousand times smaller than the wavelength
of visible light.
Evidence for Atoms
The strings of dots are
chains of thorium atoms
imaged with a scanning
electron microscope.
Evidence for Atoms
With a different kind of microscope—
the scanning tunneling microscope—
you can see individual atoms.
Even greater detail is possible with
newer types of imaging devices that
are presently revolutionizing
microscopy.
Images with today’s devices help us
to construct better models of the
atom and make predictions about the
natural world.
Evidence for Atoms
A scanning tunneling microscope created this image of
uranium atoms.
Evidence for Atoms

How does Brownian motion provide


evidence for the existence of atoms?
The Atomic Nucleus

The mass of an atom is primarily concentrated in


the nucleus.
The Atomic Nucleus
An atom is mostly empty space.
Almost all of an atom’s mass is packed into the dense
central region called the nucleus.
This was demonstrated in Ernest Rutherford’s now-
famous gold foil experiment.
The Atomic Nucleus
When a beam of charged particles was shot through a
thin gold foil, most particles went straight through the
thin foil.
However, some particles were widely deflected.
Some were even scattered back almost along their
incoming path.
Atomic Nucleus

The occasional large-angle scattering of alpha particles


from the gold atoms led Rutherford to the discovery of the
small, very massive nuclei at their centers.
The Atomic Nucleus
Rutherford reasoned that within the atom there had to be
a positively charged object with two special properties.
• It had to be very small compared with the size of
the atom.
• It had to be massive enough to resist being shoved
aside by heavy alpha particles.
Rutherford had discovered the atomic nucleus.
The Atomic Nucleus
The nucleus occupies less than a trillionth of the volume of
an atom.
Atomic nuclei are extremely compact and extremely dense.
If bare atomic nuclei could be packed against one another
into a lump 1 cm in diameter, it would weigh about a billion
tons!
The Atomic Nucleus
Electrical repulsion prevents such close packing of atomic
nuclei. Each nucleus is electrically charged and repels the
other nuclei.
Only under special circumstances are the nuclei of two or
more atoms squashed into contact. When this happens, the
violent reaction known as nuclear fusion takes place.
Fusion occurs in the core of stars and in a hydrogen bomb.
The Atomic Nucleus
Nucleons
The principal building blocks of the nucleus are nucleons.
• Nucleons in an electrically neutral state are neutrons.
• Nucleons in an electrically charged state are protons.
• Atoms differ from one another by the numbers of
protons.
• Atoms with the same number of protons are atoms of the
same element.
The Atomic Nucleus
Charge
The Atomic Nucleus
Isotopes
For a given element, the number of neutrons will vary.
Atoms of the same element having different numbers of
neutrons are called isotopes of that element.
The Atomic Nucleus
The nucleus of the hydrogen atom has a single proton.
• When this proton is accompanied by a neutron, we
have deuterium, an isotope of hydrogen.
• When two neutrons are in a hydrogen nucleus, we
have the isotope tritium.
Every element has a variety of isotopes. Lighter elements
usually have an equal number of protons and neutrons, and
heavier elements usually have more neutrons than protons.
The Atomic Nucleus
Atomic Number
Atoms are classified by their atomic number, which is the
number of protons in the nucleus.
• The nucleus of a hydrogen atom has one proton, so its
atomic number is 1.
• Helium has two protons, so its atomic number is 2.
• Lithium has three protons, so its atomic number is 3, and
so on.
The Atomic Nucleus
Electric Charge
Electric charge comes in two kinds, positive and negative.
• Protons in the atom’s nucleus are positive.
• Electrons orbiting the nucleus are negative.
Positive and negative refer to a basic property of matter—
electric charge.
The Atomic Nucleus
Like kinds of charge repel one another and unlike kinds
attract one another.
• Protons repel protons but attract electrons.
• Electrons repel electrons but attract protons.
Inside the nucleus, protons are held to one another by a
strong nuclear force, which is extremely intense but acts
only across tiny distances.
The idea that atoms are
indivisible changed in 1896
when the French physicist
Henri Becquerel discovered
that some unused
photographic plates had
been exposed by particles
coming from a piece of
uranium. Understanding
how atoms can change
requires looking deep into
the structure of the atom—
into the atomic nucleus.
The Atomic Nucleus

The principal role of the neutrons in an atomic


nucleus is to act as a sort of nuclear cement to
hold the nucleus together.
The Atomic Nucleus
It would take 30,000 carbon nuclei to stretch across a single
carbon atom.
The nucleus is composed of particles called nucleons—
electrically charged protons and electrically neutral neutrons.
Neutrons and protons have close to the same mass, with the
neutron’s being slightly greater.
Nucleons have nearly 2000 times the mass of electrons.
The mass of an atom is practically equal to the mass of its
nucleus alone.
The Atomic Nucleus
The positively charged protons in the nucleus hold the
negatively charged electrons in their orbits.
The number of protons in the nucleus therefore determines
the chemical properties of that atom.
The positive nuclear charge determines the possible
structures of electron orbits that can occur.
The number of neutrons has no direct effect on the electron
structure, and hence does not affect the chemistry of the
atom.
The Atomic Nucleus
The number of electrons that surround the atomic nucleus
is matched by the number of protons in the nucleus.
The Atomic Nucleus
Nucleons are bound together by an attractive nuclear force appropriately called the
strong force.
• The nuclear force of attraction is strong only over a very short distance
(large force vectors).
The Atomic Nucleus
Nucleons are bound together by an attractive nuclear force appropriately called the
strong force.
• The nuclear force of attraction is strong only over a very short distance
(large force vectors).
• When two nucleons are just a few nucleon diameters apart, the nuclear
force they exert on each other is nearly zero (small force vectors).
The Atomic Nucleus
Nucleons are bound together by an attractive nuclear force appropriately called the
strong force.
• The nuclear force of attraction is strong only over a very short distance
(large force vectors).
• When two nucleons are just a few nucleon diameters apart, the nuclear
force they exert on each other is nearly zero (small force vectors).
• This means that if nucleons are to be held together by the strong force, they
must be held in a very small volume.
• Nuclei are tiny because the nuclear force is very short-range.
The Atomic Nucleus
Meanwhile, the electrical force acts as a repulsive
force between protons that are not in direct contact
with one another.
Stability is due to a tension between the strong force’s
tendency to hold the nucleus together and the
electrical force’s tendency to blow it apart.
A nucleus needs a certain balance of neutrons and
protons for stability.
The Atomic Nucleus
Although the nuclear force is strong, it is only barely strong
enough to hold a pair of nucleons together.
• For a pair of protons, which repel each other electrically,
the nuclear force is not quite strong enough to keep
them together.
• When neutrons are present, the attractive strong force is
increased relative to the repulsive electrical force.
• The presence of neutrons adds to the nuclear attraction
and keeps protons from flying apart.
The Atomic Nucleus
The more protons there are in a nucleus, the more neutrons
are needed to hold them together.
• For light elements, it is sufficient to have about as many
neutrons as protons.
• For heavy elements, extra neutrons are required.
• For elements with more than 83 protons, even the
addition of extra neutrons cannot completely stabilize the
nucleus.
The Atomic Nucleus
A strong attractive nuclear
force acts between nearby
protons A and B, but not
significantly between A
and C. The longer-range
electrical force repels
protons A and C as well as
A and B.
The Atomic Nucleus

Where is the mass of an atom


primarily concentrated?
Electrons in the Atom

The arrangement of electrons in the shells about


the atomic nucleus dictates the atom’s chemical
properties.
Electrons in the Atom
Electrons that orbit the atomic nucleus are identical to the
electrons that flow in the wires of electric circuits.
They are negatively charged subatomic particles.
The electron’s mass is less than the mass of a proton
or neutron, so electrons do not significantly contribute to the
atom’s mass.
Electrons in the Atom
In an electrically neutral atom, the number of negatively
charged electrons always equals the number of positively
charged protons.
When the number of electrons in an atom differs from the
number of protons, the atom is no longer neutral and has a
net charge.
An atom with a net charge is an ion.
Electrons in the Atom
The classic model of the atom consists of a tiny nucleus
surrounded by orbiting electrons.
Electrons in the Atom
Attraction between a proton and an electron can cause a
bond between atoms to form a molecule.
• Two atoms can be held together by the sharing of
electrons (a covalent bond).
• Atoms also stick to each other when ions of opposite
charge are formed, and these ions are held together by
simple electric forces (an ionic bond).
Electrons in the Atom
Just like our solar system, the atom is mostly empty space.
The nucleus and surrounding electrons occupy only a tiny
fraction of the atomic volume.
The electrons, because of their wave nature, form a kind of
cloud around the nucleus.
Compressing this electron cloud takes great energy and
means that when two atoms come close together, they repel
each other.
Electrons in the Atom
Scientists use a model to explain how atoms of different
elements interact to form compounds.
The shell model of the atom depicts electrons as orbiting in
spherical shells around the nucleus.
There are seven different shells, and each shell has its own
capacity for electrons.
Electrons in the Atom
The shell model of the atom pictures the electrons orbiting in
concentric, spherical shells around the nucleus.
Electrons in the Atom
The periodic table is a chart that lists atoms by their atomic
number and by their electron arrangements.
As you read across from left to right, each element has one
more proton and electron than the preceding element.
As you go down, each element has one more shell filled to
its capacity than the element above.
Electrons in the Atom
The atomic number, above the chemical symbol, is equal to the number
of protons in the nucleus. The number below is the atomic mass.
Electrons in the Atom
Each row in the periodic table corresponds to a different
number of electron shells in the atom.
Elements are arranged vertically on the basis of similarity in
the arrangement of outer electrons.
Elements in the same column are said to belong to the same
group or family of elements.
Electrons in the Atom
Elements of the same group have similar chemical
properties because their outermost electrons are arranged in
a similar fashion.
These properties include
• melting and freezing temperatures
• electrical conductivity
• the taste, texture, appearance, and color of substances
• how the element reacts with other substances
Electrons in the Atom

What does the arrangement of electrons


around the nucleus determine?

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