machines

Article
Experimental Investigation of the Flow, Noise, and Vibration
Effect on the Construction and Design of Low-Speed Wind
Tunnel Structure
Salem S. Abdel Aziz 1,2, *, Essam B. Moustafa 1 and Abdel-Halim Saber Salem Said 2,3

1 Mechanical Engineering Department, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
2 Mechanical Power Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Zagazig University,
Zagazig 44519, Sharkia, Egypt
3 Department of Mechanical and Material Engineering, University of Jeddah, Jeddah 23218, Saudi Arabia
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +966-01-538-582-392

Abstract: A wind tunnel is needed for a lot of research and model testing in the field of engineering
design. Commercial wind tunnels are large and expensive, making them unsuitable for small-scale
aerodynamic model testing. This work aims to experimentally investigate the effects of flow, noise,
and vibration on constructing and designing a low-speed wind tunnel structure. The flow uniformity
in the wind tunnel has been tested by measuring the velocity profiles inside the empty test section with
a pitot-static tube at various fan frequencies. The experiment results showed a good flow uniformity
of more than 90% across the test section area, and the maximum wind velocity achieved was about
25.1 m/s. Due to the stability of the flow near the exit test section, the vibration measurement revealed
that the entrance portion has larger vibration fluctuations than the exit part. Furthermore, as the axial
fan frequency increases, the noise level increases. At 40 Hz, the noise level enters the hazardous zone,
which has an impact on the person who performs the measurement process. The resonance of the
wind tunnel structure is an important measurement test that affects vibration measurement.

Keywords: low-speed wind tunnel; vibration; measurements; design; uniformity; noise

Citation: Abdel Aziz, S.S.; Moustafa,
E.B.; Salem Said, A.-H.S.
Experimental Investigation of the
Flow, Noise, and Vibration Effect on 1. Introduction
the Construction and Design of
A wind tunnel is an important experimental device in various engineering and en-
Low-Speed Wind Tunnel Structure.
vironmental applications, including aerodynamic aircraft models, wind turbine models
Machines 2023, 11, 360. https://
in renewable energy, tall building model testing in civil engineering, and fluid dynamics
doi.org/10.3390/machines11030360
research [1–5]. A wind tunnel is designed to generate airflow by using a fan unit to mea-
Academic Editor: Francesco sure aerodynamic parameters on the test object and do research in this field. There are
Castellani various design types of wind tunnels for different applications, as no single tunnel fits all
Received: 7 February 2023
purposes. Wind tunnels can be classified based on air speed in the test section or tunnel
Revised: 2 March 2023 configuration [6]. Wind tunnels based on design are open-circuit type and closed-circuit
Accepted: 3 March 2023 type. The open-circuit type may have a sucked-down or blow-down configuration based
Published: 7 March 2023 on the position of the driving fan unit. The main advantage of an open-circuit wind tunnel
is that it saves space and money, and the effect of temperature variations is small. The
sucking-down wind tunnel produces a pressure drop at the tunnel’s exit, creating airflow
towards the exit, while the blow-down imposes a high pressure at the inlet [7]. Types
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors. of wind tunnel blowers are the most flexible because the fan is located at the inlet of the
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
tunnel, so the test section can be easily interchanged or modified without significantly
This article is an open access article
disturbing flow. Furthermore, the fan’s performance installed at the inlet end is not affected
distributed under the terms and
by disturbed flow from the working section [8,9].
conditions of the Creative Commons
Many studies have been conducted on low-speed subsonic wind tunnels, and others
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
have utilized components to validate the numerical results. The following summarizes
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
some research on low-speed wind tunnels and flow characterization using CFD [10–12].

Machines 2023, 11, 360. https://doi.org/10.3390/machines11030360 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/machines

Machines 2023, 11, 360 2 of 20

Flow characteristics within a square-to-square contraction in an open-type wind tunnel

are investigated numerically and experimentally. A contraction prototype measures cross-
sectional velocity profiles and longitudinal pressure distributions along the wall centerlines.
The results are compared to numerical simulations’ predictions [13]. A subsonic wind
tunnel has been designed and built with two honeycomb screens and a contraction cone
with a contraction ratio (CR = 8) to achieve a flow speed of 30 m/s in the test section and
can be used for various aerodynamics research projects [14]. The old design contraction for
an open circuit wind tunnel is redesigned with a new optimized contraction using CFD.
The new design is manufactured at full scale. The optimized contraction is investigated
computationally and experimentally [15]. The cycling wind tunnel developed for the
Belgium cluster Flanders’ Bike Valley is an innovative construction built using traditional
wind tunnel design guidelines. The final product was a 35.5-m-long wind tunnel with a
6.5-by-2.5-m square test section. The setup can allow a larger number of riders to be used
in the test area [16]. A new subsonic heated open-loop wind tunnel with a 0.25 m × 0.25 m
cross-section and 1.59 m of long optically accessible quartz glass side panels was designed
and built to study Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) sprays. The test section of the wind
tunnel can achieve 50 m/s. A diffuser with a cone angle of 5◦ and an area ratio of 3.95
and a contraction cone with a contraction ratio of 4.05 was selected. A heater (145-kW)
was fixed downstream of the blower to heat air to 400 ◦ C with a maximum flow rate of
1200 kg/h [17].
The effect of tunnel wind speed on structure noise has been widely researched in recent
years. There are two ways in which wind speed can affect structure noise: directly and
indirectly. The direct effect is an increase in wind velocity due to the increased particle force
in the wind, which causes the structure to undergo vibrations [18–21]. Wind-generated
vibration can, in turn, generate noise that humans can hear. On the other hand, the
indirect effect is due to the change in pressure levels caused by the wind acting on the
surrounding structures or the ground itself. This change in pressure affects the support
conditions around the structure and can lead to structural deformation, which can lead to
changes in the natural frequency of the structure, which in turn produces noise [22–24].
Aerodynamic noise is the loudest type of fan noise [25], but axial fans generate various
types of noise (including tube radiation and motor and housing noise). Air-regenerated or
aerodynamic noise can be divided into two basic categories: Broadband noise and discrete
noise [26]. Discrete noise has been shown to have a much higher sound pressure level
than broadband noise because the fundamental and harmonic frequencies of the blade
pulsations are superimposed on the pulsations generated by the periodic impact of the blade
wake on downstream objects [27]. The load noise of the fan must be determined before
estimating the aerodynamic noise [28]. The magnitude of the load noise is proportional to
the magnitude of the pressure acting on the fan blades. Furthermore, numerous studies
have been conducted on how much weight the blades of wind turbines can support [29,30].
Design attributes are often measured in wind tunnels using miniature wind turbine
models. However, the data need additional study to estimate the field performance of
wind turbines of different sizes. This study applied the Buckingham theorem to predict
wind turbine output based on torque correlations and wind tunnel diameter measurement
findings. Therefore, in the current investigation, we focused on designing and constructing
a low-speed open-circuit blower-type wind tunnel capable of achieving a maximum velocity
of up to 30 m/s with good uniformity across the test section area. Hence, there is a dearth
of research on the relationship between the design of the wind tunnel and the sources
of vibration and noise that may affect the environment of the measurement process. To
achieve these objectives, design details for each wind tunnel component were developed
using 3-D modeling, and the design rules and recommendations were taken into account.
The designed components were constructed from smoothed materials at low-cost and then
assembled. Furthermore, the wind tunnel was investigated analytically by evaluating total
pressure losses in the tunnel circuit and tunnel efficiency and measuring velocity profiles
Machines 2023, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 22

recommendations were taken into account. The designed components were constructed
from smoothed materials at low-cost and then assembled. Furthermore, the wind tunnel
Machines 2023, 11, 360 3 of 20
was investigated analytically by evaluating total pressure losses in the tunnel circuit and
tunnel efficiency and measuring velocity profiles in the empty test section at various fan
frequencies. The noise and vibration tests are performed to determine the best conditions
in the
for the empty test section
measurement at various fan frequencies. The noise and vibration tests are
process.
performed to determine the best conditions for the measurement process.
2. Materials and Methods
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Wind Tunnel Design and Construction
2.1. Wind Tunnel Design and Construction
The current wind tunnel consists of an axial fan at the tunnel inlet, a tapered diffuser,
The current wind tunnel consists of an axial fan at the tunnel inlet, a tapered diffuser,
a settling chamber with a honeycomb and mesh screens, a contraction cone, and an
a settling chamber with a honeycomb and mesh screens, a contraction cone, and an experi-
experimental test section
mental test section at the tunnel
at the tunnel end, whichend, is
which is opened
opened to the atmosphere
to the atmosphere (Figure
(Figure 1). 1).
The test
The test section’s wind tunnel’s axial fan-driving system provided airflow
section’s wind tunnel’s axial fan-driving system provided airflow at the desired velocity at the desired
velocity while compensating
while compensating for pressure
for pressure losses and losses and dissipation.
dissipation. This studyThis study
uses uses an
an axial fanaxial
unit
fan unit with a 0.57 m diameter and an 8.6 kW electric motor to move
3
with a 0.57 m diameter and an 8.6 kW electric motor to move 16,740 m /h at 60 Hz through 16,740 m 3/h at 60

Hz
the through the axial
tunnel. The tunnel.
fanThe
hadaxial fan had
a circular a circular
metal metal
case with case
sheet withflanges
metal sheet metal
on bothflanges
sides.on A
both sides. A direct-drive motor assembly is set and screwed to the
direct-drive motor assembly is set and screwed to the fan hub in the casing. The fan fan hub in the casing.
has
The fan has tenstainless-steel
ten cambered cambered stainless-steel blades. Afrequency
blades. A variable variable frequency
drive (VFD) drive (VFD)the
controls controls
wind
the
tunnel driving device’s fan frequency from 0 to 50 Hz. Table 1 shows the specificationsthe
wind tunnel driving device’s fan frequency from 0 to 50 Hz. Table 1 shows of
specifications
the axial fan unitof the
andaxial fan unitfrequency
the variable and the variable frequency
drive (VFD). Figure drive (VFD).
2 displays an Figure
axial fan 2
displays
driving unitan prototype
axial fan driving
and 3-D unit
model. prototype
The design andrules
3-D and
model. The design rules
recommendations found and in
recommendations found[15,31,32]
the essential references in the essential references
are considered [15,31,32]
in the designare considered
of wind tunnelincomponents
the design
of
to wind
achieve tunnel components
maximum to achieve
wind speed, maximum wind
flow uniformity, and an speed, flow uniformity,
acceptable turbulence and levelanin
acceptable turbulence
the test section. level in the test section.

Figure
Figure 1.
1. A
A typical
typical image
image of
of the
the assembled
assembled small
small low-speed
low-speed open-circuit
open-circuit blower
blower wind
wind tunnel.
tunnel.

Table 1. Specifications
Table 1. of the
Specifications of the axial
axial fan
fan unit
unit and
and variable
variable frequency
frequency drive
drive (VFD).
(VFD).

Axial Fan Unit Variable Frequency Drive (VFD)

Axial Fan Unit Variable Frequency Drive (VFD)
Specification Value Specification Value
Specification Value Specification Value
Motor supply 3-phase Input voltage 220 V (±15%) AC
Motor supply 3-phase Input voltage 220 V (±15%) AC
Motor Power 7.5–8.6 kW Output voltage 380 V/AC
Motor Power 7.5–8.6 kW Output voltage 380 V/AC
Max motor
Max frequency
motor frequency 60
60HzHz Input frequency
Input frequency 0–50/60 Hz Hz
0–50/60
Number of fan
Number of fanblades
blades 10
10 Output frequency
Output frequency 0–650 Hz
0–650 Hz
Inner diameter
Inner diameter 0.57 m
0.57 m TheThe inputstage
input stage 1 phase
1 phase for for
220220VV
Outer
Outer diameter
diameter 0.63
0.63 m m The output
The output stage stage 3 phases for 380 V V
3 phases for 380
Casing length 0.67 m Model 9100-1T3-00750G
Casing length 0.67 m Model 9100-1T3-00750G
Shenzhen NFlixin Electric Co.,
Pressure rise ∆p 970 Pa Manufacturer Shenzhen NFlixin Electric Co., Ltd.
Ltd. (Guangdong, China)
Pressure rise p 970 Pa3 Manufacturer
Flow rate, Q 16,740 m /h (Guangdong, China)
Gebhardt
Manufacturer Ventilatorren—D-74638
Waldenburg
Type ARMF2-580-2D-22
 Machines 2023, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 22

Flow rate, Q 16,740 m3/h

Gebhardt Ventilatorren—D-74638
Machines Manufacturer
2023, 11, 360 4 of 20
Waldenburg
Type ARMF2-580-2D-22

Figure 2. Typical axial fan and 3-D model of a driving unit with an axial fan.
Figure 2. Typical axial fan and 3-D model of a driving unit with an axial fan.

2.1.1.Test
2.1.1. TestSection
Section
Thetest
The testsection
section is the
is the most most significant
significant element
element of anyof wind
any wind
tunnel,tunnel,
where where
mea-
measurements
surements and observations
and observations are done
are done on aon a model.
model. The The test
test section’s
section’s specificationsand
specifications and
dimensions considerably influence the specifications of the
dimensions considerably influence the specifications of the other wind tunnel components, other wind tunnel
components,
the tunnel’s total the tunnel’s
size, and thetotal size,fan
needed and the needed
power. The test fan power.
section The testtosection
was planned be square was
(A ts = 0.4 m
planned to ×be0.4 m), with
square (Ats a=maximum
0.4 m × 0.4desired
m), with velocity
a maximumof 30 m/s within
desired the testofsection,
velocity 30 m/s
aswithin
shownthe in test
Figure 3. Theastest
section, section
shown hydraulic
in Figure diameter
3. The DH,ts is
test section 0.451 m, diameter
hydraulic and the length
DH,ts is
Machines 2023, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW
is0.451
chosen to be (L = 1.0 m), yielding a length
ts = 1.0ratio ( L /D ) of 2.217, ⁄ 5 of the
satisfying
(L D 22
m, and
 the length
ts is
 chosen to be (L m), yielding
ts a
H,tslength ratio ts H,ts ) of
Lts
condition 0.5 ≤ the
2.217, satisfying ≤ 3 [33].(0.5 ≤ Lts ≤ 3) [33].
DH,tscondition
DH,ts

The3-D
Figure3.3.The
Figure 3-Dmodel
modelof
ofthe
thetest
testsection.
section.

2.1.2. Contraction Cone

The contraction cone accelerates the flow smoothly into the test section, improving
flow uniformity and reducing flow turbulence. Three important parameters must be
Ac,i
considered in contraction cone design: the contraction ratio (CR = ), which is defined
 Machines 2023, 11, 360 5 of 20

2.1.2. Contraction Cone

The contraction cone accelerates the flow smoothly into the test section, improving flow
uniformity and reducing flow turbulence. Three important parameters
 must be considered
A c,i
in contraction cone design: the contraction ratio CR = Ac,e , which is defined as the ratio
of the contraction inlet area (Ac,i ) to the contraction exit area (Ac,e ), the contraction length to
inlet side ratio (Lc /2Hc,i ), and the contraction wall shapes [34]. The contraction ratio and
length ratio are designed to meet Mehta and Bradshaw’s recommendations (6 ≤ CR ≤ 9)
and (0.667 ≤ Lc /2Hc,i ≤ 1.79) [35]. In the current wind tunnel, the contraction exit area
Ac,e equals the test section area (Ac,e = Ats = 0.4 m × 0.4 m). The contraction inlet area
Ac,i is chosen to be square (Ac,i =1.0 m × 1.0 m), giving a contraction ratio of (CR = 6.25).
Choose 1.0 m for the contraction length Lc , giving a length ratio of (Lc /2Hc,i =1.0), where
Hc,i is the half side-length of the contraction inlet cross-section. The contraction cone’s
wall profile was taken from the Bell-Metha fifth-order polynomial profile and expressed by
Equation (1) [36].
"    3 #
x 5
 4
x x
y = Hc,i − (Hc,i − Hc,e ) 6 − 15 + 10 (1)
Lc Lc Lc

where x denotes the stream-wise coordinate along the contraction centerline from the inlet
(x = 0) to the exit (x = Lc = 1.0 m). The coordinate y is measured from the centerline
FOR PEER REVIEW in the normal direction and has limits of (y = Hc,i = 0.5 m) at the contraction6 inlet
of 22and
(y = Hc,e = 0.2 m) at the contraction exit. Figure 4 shows the contraction wall profile for
the upper half and a 3-D model of the contraction cone with all dimensions.

Figure
Figure 4. Contraction cone: Contraction
4. upper half cone: upper
profile andhalf
3-Dprofile
model.and 3-D model.

2.1.3. Settling Chamber (Honeycomb and Mesh Screens)

2.1.3. Settling ChamberThe (Honeycomb
settling chamber andisMesh Screens)
an important part of the wind tunnel. It has a honeycomb
section and a turbulence screen
The settling chamber is an important part of the wind section to improve the longitudinal
tunnel. and lateral mean
It has a honeycomb
velocity distributions and make the flow more uniform before reaching the contraction
section and a turbulence screen section to improve the longitudinal and lateral mean
section [37]. The honeycomb section is important in preventing vortices from growing
velocity distributions and make
and moving towardthetheflow more test
measuring uniform
section before reaching
and reducing lateralthe contraction
components of mean
section [37]. The honeycomb
velocities andsection
turbulent isintensities
important in than
more preventing vortices
longitudinal from[38].
components growing
The main and effect
moving toward the of mesh screens istest
measuring to reduce the stream-wise
section and reducing fluctuations
lateralcomponents
components of mean velocities
of mean
and intensities more than lateral components.
velocities and turbulent intensities more than longitudinal components [38]. The main
In the honeycomb design, two important parameters are considered: the honeycomb
effect of mesh screens isto reduce Ah,f
 the stream-wise fluctuations components of mean
porosity βh = A which is the ratio of the actual flow area of the honeycomb (Ah,f ) to
velocities and intensities more than lateral components.
h,t 
Lh

the total cross-section area (A ) and the ratio of honeycomb
In the honeycomb design, two important parameters are considered: the honeycomb
h,t length ratio D , Lh is
H,cell
Ah,fthe honeycomb length in the flow direction, and DH,cell is the hydraulic diameter of the in-
porosity (βh = ) which is the ratio of the actual flow area of the honeycomb (Ah,f) to
Ah,t
Lh
the total cross-section area (Ah,t) and the ratio of honeycomb length ratio ( ), Lh is the
DH,cell
honeycomb length in the flow direction, and DH,cell is the hydraulic diameter of the
 Machines 2023, 11, 360 6 of 20

dividual honeycomb cell. The honeycomb porosity (βh ≥ 0.8) and the ratio
 of honeycomb

length in the settling chamber to individual cell hydraulic diameter, 6 ≤ D Lh ≤ 8
H,cell
recommendations must be met in the design of a honeycomb [35]. In the present work, the
honeycomb was designed to be square in overall size area (1.0 m × 1.0 m), with a square
cell area Ah,cell of (2 cm × 2 cm), and a length Lh of 16 cm with a wall thickness of 2 mm.
The total number of cells for the honeycomb is Ncell = 2067, the cell hydraulic diameter
10, x FOR PEER REVIEW DH,cell is 2.256 cm, and the honeycomb actual flow area Ah,f is 0.826 m2 . 7The porosity for
of 22
the honeycomb βh is about 0.83, and the honeycomb length ratio for the cell is 7.11, which
meets the design criteria. Figure 5 shows a 3-D model of the honeycomb of square cells in
all dimensions.

Figure 5. The 3-D model of the honeycomb with square cells.

Figure 5. The 3-D model of the honeycomb with square cells.

For the mesh screen,

For thethe screen
mesh porosity
screen, βsporosity
the screen is defined
βs is as the open-area
defined ratio ratio
as the open-area and and given
given as [33,39]: as [33,39]:
Nw Dw 2
 
N βsD=
w w
21 − = (1 − Dw ρm )2 (2)
βs = (1 − S
) = (1 − Dw ρm )2
sc (2)
where Dw is the screen wire
Ssc diameter, N is the mesh wire number, S is the settling
w  sc 
where Dw is the chamber
screen wire diameter, Nw
cross-section sideN w is
into the mesh
which wireare
the screens number,
inserted,Sand
sc is the
ρm = settling
Ssc is the mesh
Nw
and (ρ m =divisions
) is the
 
chamber cross-section side into
wire density. whichdensity
The mesh the screens are inserted,
inverse represents the screen mesh Wm = ρ1 .
Ssc m
mesh wire density.
In theThe mesh
current density
tunnel, inversewire
two metallic represents the
screens are screento mesh
selected divisions
be inserted into the settling
1
(W = ). In thechamber
m ρm
current frame and
tunnel, positioned
two metallic downstream
wire screensofare
theselected
honeycombto beunit in the flow
inserted into direction.
the settling chamber frame and positioned downstream of the honeycomb unit in the flow
direction. For the selected screens, the mesh wire diameter Dw is 0.7 mm, and the distance
between every two wires (wire division) Wm is 3.2 mm. The wiring density m is 312.5,
 Machines 2023, 11, 360 7 of 20

For the selected screens, the mesh wire diameter Dw is 0.7 mm, and the distance between
every two wires (wire division) Wm is 3.2 mm. The wiring density ρm is 312.5, and the mesh
screen porosity value is 0.61, which satisfies the condition for the optimal mesh performance
of (0.58 ≤ β s ≤ 0.8) [35]. The mesh screen structure with its main dimensions is shown in
Figure 6. The settling chamber’s cross-sectional area is the same as the contraction cone’s
x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 22
inlet cross-sectional area (Asc = Ac,i = 1.0 m × 1.0 m) and has a total length of 1.1 m. A
distance of 20 cm was used in the design between the screens and the last screen and the
entry of the contraction part.

Figure 6. The mesh screen

Figure structure with
6. The mesh thestructure
screen main dimensions.
with the main dimensions.

2.1.4. Diffuser
2.1.4. Diffuser
The diffuser’s main function in the wind tunnel is to reduce velocity by increasing the
The diffuser’scross-section
main function in little
with as the energy
wind tunnel is to reduce
loss as possible, velocity
resulting by increasing
in maximum pressure recovery
the cross-section with as little the
and lowering energy
load on loss
theas possible,
driving system.resulting
Accordingin to
maximum
R.D. Mehtapressure
[40], the diffuser
angle should be between (5 ◦ –10◦ ) for the best flow steadiness and pressure recovery. In
recovery and lowering the load on the driving system. According to R.D. Mehta [40], the
the current
diffuser angle should tunnel, the
be between diffuserfor
(5°–10°) section
the isbest
located after
flow the fan unitand
steadiness and before
pressure the settling
chamber section. The diffuser has an exit area Ad,e that is square and equal to the settling
recovery. In the current tunnel, the diffuser section is2 located after the fan unit and before
chamber area (Ad,e = Asc = 1.0 × 1.0 m ). The diffuser inlet area is chosen to be the square
the settling chamber section. The diffuser has an exit area Ad,e that is square and A equal to
of (Ad,i = 0.575 m × 0.575 m), yielding a diffuser area ratio of (AR = Ad,e = 3.02), which is
the settling chamber area (Ad,e = Asc =1.0 ×1.0 m ). The diffuser inlet area is chosend,ito be the
2
close to the recommended range (2 ≤ AR ≤ 3). The diffuser walls expand
A from the square
square of (Ad,i = 0.575 m × to
inlet area 0.575 m), yielding
the square exit area aover
diffuser area
an axial ratio
length of (AR
of 2.44 = d,e = in
m, resulting 3.02),
a maximum
A ◦
expansion angle of (2θ ∼ 10 ◦ ), which meets the design condition d,i
5 ≤ 2θ
◦

≤ 10 [35].
=
which is close to the recommended range (2 ≤ AR ≤ 3). The diffuser walls expand from
Figure 7 shows a complete drawing of a 3-D model with all dimensions of the diffuser.
the square inlet area to the square exit area over an axial length of 2.44 m, resulting in a
maximum expansion of (2  10°), which meets the design condition
angle Model
2.2. Analytical
° °
(5 ≤ 2θ ≤ 10 ) [35]. Figure 7 shows
This section a in
describes complete
detail thedrawing of a 3-D
analytical model used model withwind
to determine all tunnel
dimensions of the diffuser.
performance, including total pressure losses ∆p L,tot , energy ratio in the tunnel circuit ER,
and the operational fan power necessary PRequired . The airflow rate Q in the wind tunnel is
determined by multiplying the averaged test section velocity Vts by the test section area
Ats . The average velocity Vi at any section of the wind tunnel with section area Ai can
be calculated from the continuity equation by assuming incompressible flow in the wind
tunnel as follows:
Q = Vts Ats = Vi Ai (3)
 Ad,e
square of (Ad,i = 0.575 m × 0.575 m), yielding a diffuser area ratio of (AR = = 3.02),
Ad,i
which is close to the recommended range (2 ≤ AR ≤ 3). The diffuser walls expand from
the square inlet area to the square exit area over an axial length of 2.44 m, resulting in a
maximum expansion angle of (2  10°), which meets the design condition
Machines 2023, 11, 360 8 of 20
(5° ≤ 2θ ≤ 10° ) [35]. Figure 7 shows a complete drawing of a 3-D model with all
dimensions of the diffuser.

Figure7.7.The
Figure The3-D
3-Dmodel
modelofof
the diffuser.
the diffuser.

The total pressure loss coefficient KL,i is calculated using distinct expressions for each
wind tunnel section. For the 3-D diffuser, the total pressure loss coefficient KL,d is the sum
of the friction loss coefficient Kd,f and the expansion loss coefficient Kd,exp .

KL,d = Kd,f + Kd,exp (4)

  
1 fd
Kd,f = 1− (5)
AR2 8 sin θ
AR − 1 2
 
Kd,exp = Ke (2θ) (6)
AR
where AR is the diffuser area ratio, θ is the half diffuser expansion angle, and fd is the
friction coefficient calculated based on the diffuser inlet condition [40]. In Equation (6),
Ke (2θ) is a geometrical function dependent on the cross-sectional diffuser shape (circular,
square, and rectangular) and the equivalent cone angle of the section (2θ). The designed
diffuser has a square cross-section area and a total expansion angle (2θ ∼ = 10◦ ), which is
close to the range (3◦ ≤ 2θ ≤ 10◦ ) [41], the experimental relation for the coefficient Ke (2θ)
is obtained by [42] as follows:

Ke (2θ) = {1.22156 × 10−1 − 2.29480 × 10−2 (2θ) + 5.50704 × 10−3 (2θ)2

−4.08644 × 10−4 (2θ)3 − 3.84056 × 10−5 (2θ)4 (7)
+8.74969 × 10−6 (2θ)5 − 3.65217 × 10−7 (2θ)6 }

For thin-walled honeycomb, the total pressure loss coefficient KL,h is given by [43] as:
  2  2
Lh 1 1
KL,h = fh +3 + −1 (8)
DH,cell βh βh
Machines 2023, 11, 360 9 of 20

   0.4  
∆ − 0.1
 0.375 DH,cell Re∆ ; For Re∆ ≤ 275 

 

fh =   0.4  (9)
 0.214 D ∆ ; For Re∆ > 275

 
H,cell


ρVh,cell ∆
Re∆ = (10)
µ
Q
Vh,cell = (11)
Ncells Ah,cell
The friction coefficient fh is determined from a Reynolds number Re∆ , based on the
surface roughness of the honeycomb material ∆ and the honeycomb cell’s incoming flow
speed Vh,cell .
For the empty part of the settling chamber of length (Lsc − Lh ) with constant cross-
section and hydraulic diameter DH,sc , the total pressure loss coefficient KL,sc is obtained
from Equation (12).
(Lsc − Lh )
KL,sc = fsc (12)
DH,sc
where Lsc is the total settling chamber length, Lh is the length occupied by the honeycomb,
and ignored the length taken by the two mesh screens.
The mesh screen’s pressure loss coefficient KL,m depends on three main parameters:
the mesh factor Kmesh , the Reynolds effect coefficient KRN , and the screen porosity βs . The
total pressure loss coefficient KL,m for the mesh screen is given in [44]
2
1 − βs

KL,m = Kmesh KRN (1 − βs ) + (13)
βs
(h   i )
Rew
0.785 1 − 354 + 1.01 0 ≤ Rew ≤ 400
KRN = (14)
1.0 Rew ≥ 400
ρVDw
Rew = (15)
µ
The coefficient KRN is expressed in functional form in the wire screen Reynolds number
Rew . Idel’chik [42] gives the mesh factor values for new metal wire Kmesh = 1.0, for average
circular metal wire Kmesh = 1.3, and for textile wire Kmesh = 2.1.
For the contraction cone, the total pressure loss coefficient KL,c is calculated based on
the average friction factor fc,ave [43]
 
Lc
KL,c = 0.32 fc,ave (16)
DH,c

where Lc is the contraction cone length and DH,c is the hydraulic contraction diameter
calculated at the contraction exit and equals the hydraulic diameter of test section DH,ts .
The average friction coefficient fc,ave is obtained based on the average of the Reynolds
numbers at the entrance and exit of the contraction.
For the wind tunnel test section with a constant area section, the total pressure loss
coefficient KL,ts due to friction is given by

Lts
KL,ts = fts (17)
DH,ts

The total pressure loss in each wind tunnel section ∆PL,i is calculated by multiplying
the total pressure loss coefficient KL,i with the dynamic pressure qi in each section.
 
1 2
∆pL,i = K L,i qi = K L,i ρV (18)
2 i
Machines 2023, 11, 360 10 of 20

where ρ is the airflow density. Hence, Vi is the average flow velocity in the wind tunnel
sections at the inlet components and the contraction section at the exit.
The total pressure loss for all wind tunnel components, ∆pL,comp , can be obtained by
summing all the pressure losses over the wind tunnel components.

∆pL,comp = ∑ ∆pL,i (19)

The total pressure loss in the wind tunnel circuit ∆pL,tot is the sum of the total pressure
losses for all wind tunnel components and the pressure loss by exiting the wind tunnel
∆pL,e and is given by Equation (20) as:

∆pL,tot = ∆pL,comp + ∆pL,e (20)

The test section is opened to the atmosphere for the current blower wind tunnel, and
the flow’s kinetic energy is discharged. The pressure loss at the tunnel exit is given by
Equation (21) and is equal to the dynamic pressure at the test section exit.

1 2
∆PL,e = qts = ρV (21)
2 ts
The axial fan’s power PFan required to maintain a steady airflow inside the wind
tunnel at a specified test section speed Vts is equal to the total energy losses occurring in
the flow through the wind tunnel circuit ET,circuit as follows:

PFan = ET, circuit = Q (∆pL,tot ) RF (22)

where RF is a reserve factor used to allow for additional losses through leaks and joints.
The actual drive power required is dependent on the efficiency of the fan/motor system
using Equation (23).
P
PRequired = Fan (23)
ηtotal
where ηtotal is the total efficiency of the driving unit (ηtotal = ηmotor × ηVFD × ηfan ).
The energy ratio of the wind tunnel (ER) is a measure of the total efficiency of the
wind tunnel and is defined as the ratio of the flow energy in the test section (Ets = Q qts ) to
the total energy dissipated in the wind tunnel circuit (ET,circuit ) and expressed as:

Ets
ER = (24)
ET, circuit

2.3. Wind Tunnel Measurements

Before a model or object is tested in a wind tunnel, the flow quality, noise, and vibration
in the test area of the present blower wind tunnel must be confirmed. Experiments are
conducted to examine the flow uniformity by measuring velocity profiles inside the empty
test section for different fan frequencies regulated by a speed controller (VFD), with the
corresponding setting of 10–50 Hz. The Pitot tube was mounted on the simple slide
probe traversing mechanism that moves inside the test section at any specified point in
the measuring plane, as shown in Figure 8. To meet the present study’s goal, a rig has
been installed in the test section to collect data on the tunnel’s flow noise and vibration.
The vibration is acquired using a vibration data collector (COMMTEST, General Electric,
Florida, USA). The testing rig comprises a noise meter that measures ambient noise levels
generated by the tunnel’s axial fan and construction. In addition, two accelerometers were
used to measure the tunnel structure at the inlet and exit sections of the tunnel, as shown
in Figure 8.
 goal, a rig has been installed in the test section to collect data on the tunnel’s flow noise
and vibration. The vibration is acquired using a vibration data collector (COMMTEST,
General Electric, Florida, USA). The testing rig comprises a noise meter that measures
ambient noise levels generated by the tunnel’s axial fan and construction. In addition, two
Machines 2023, 11, 360 11 of 20
accelerometers were used to measure the tunnel structure at the inlet and exit sections of
the tunnel, as shown in Figure 8.

Figure 8. The structural vibration measurement using a vibration data collector with two-channel
Figure 8. The structural vibration measurement using a vibration data collector with two-
inputs.
channel inputs.

In this study, the velocity measurements are taken in a vertical (y-z) plane in the
middle of the wind tunnel’s test section, 50 cm away from the exit of the contraction
section and normal to the wind tunnel centerline stream-wise axis. The vertical plane
measurements were taken point by point between the test section walls at (38 × 38) locations
with divisions ∆y = ∆z = 10 mm. The stream-wise wind velocity was evaluated from the
pressure measurements at the measurement points using a Pitot-static probe for various fan
frequencies from 10 Hz to 50 Hz. The measurements were recorded when the temperature
of the wind tunnel stabilized at an ambient temperature of 295 K [45].

3. Results and Discussion

This section presents and discusses the current wind tunnel’s experimental and analyt-
ical data results. The measured ambient pressure p = 100.4 kPa, temperature T = 295 K, and
the airflow are assumed to be incompressible, with constant air density, ρ = 1.1859 kg/m3 ,
dynamic viscosity, µ = 1.8205 × 10−5 kg/(m. s) conditions, which are referenced for all
experimental and analytical results. The results from experiments in wind tunnel testing
for wind speed, noise, and vibration at various fan frequencies are presented.

3.1. Wind Speed Analysis

The measured average wind speed in the empty test section is evaluated for all
specified points at different fan frequencies in the measured plane section. Due to the same
velocity values along the measuring plane points, the velocity results are presented for the
points in the middle of the measuring section between the two side walls of the test section
for each fan frequency. Figure 9 shows the measured mean stream-wise (longitudinal)
velocity profiles of the wind flow at the midplane in the transverse direction between the
two side walls of the test section. Wind velocity measurement in stream-wise directions
revealed consistent readings in both vertical and lateral directions. It was found that
the wind velocity test section increased as the fan frequency increased. From the figure,
the mean wind velocity achieved in the empty test section flow ranges from 5.8 m/s to
a maximum average velocity of 25.1 m/s for fan motor frequencies ranging from 10 to
50 Hz, according to wind tunnel measuring results. It is seen from the figure at various
fan frequencies that a uniform flow velocity profile was observed within the majority of
the test section core region (90%) due to the effect of the settling chamber (honeycomb
and two screens) and contraction before the test section. The no-slip condition formed a
 Machines 2023, 11, 360 12 of 20

boundary layer at the test section walls. The corresponding Reynolds number Re values
based on the measured averaged wind velocity, test section hydraulic diameter, and airflow
properties at laboratory room conditions are in the range of 1.71 × 105 ≤ Re ≤ 7.37 × 105 .


FOR PEER REVIEW This indicates that a highly turbulent flow regime exists in the measuring13test
of section
22 with
a small confined viscous sublayer near the walls of the test section. Therefore, the velocity
was not measured in this region.

Figure 9. The measured mean velocity at the midplane in the transverse direction between the two
Figure 9. The measured mean velocity at the midplane in the transverse direction between the two
side walls of the test section.
side walls of the test section.
To demonstrate the performance of the current wind tunnel, Figure 10a shows the
To demonstrate the performance
variation of the measured of the current
averaged windwind tunnel,
velocity in theFigure 10aVshows
test section thefan motor
ts with the
frequency
variation of the measured ƒ. It is seen
averaged that velocity
wind the test section’s
in the average velocity
test section Vtsincreases
with thewith
fanthe fan frequency.
motor
frequency . It is seen A linear relationship
that the test can fit the measured
section’s average velocity
velocity data as in Equation
increases with (25)
thebetween
fan wind
velocity Vts (m/s) and the fan motor frequency (ƒ) in Hz. This fitting relationship for
frequency. A linearthe relationship can fit the measured velocity data as in Equation (25)
velocity can be used in future aerodynamic tests to select any test velocity with the
between wind velocity Vts (m/s)fanand
corresponding thefrequency.
motor fan motor frequency
Figure 10b shows() thein Hz. This
measured fitting
velocity normalized
relationship for theby velocity can be used in future aerodynamic tests to select any
(0.4897 ƒ), which gives constant values around 1.03 for frequencies of 20 Hz to 50 Hz test
velocity with the corresponding
and gives 1.18 atfan motor
10 Hz. frequency.
It is noted that theFigure
regression10bEquation
shows (25)theismeasured
fitted to the entered
velocity normalized by (0.4897 ), which gives constant values around 1.03 for frequencies
velocity measurement; thus, the initial value is set from 10 Hz up to 50 Hz. Therefore, it is
valid for the measured range.
of 20 Hz to 50 Hz and gives 1.18 at 10 Hz. It is noted that the regression Equation (25) is
fitted to the entered velocity measurement; thus,Vthe initial value is set from 10 Hz up to
ts = 0.4897 f + 0.6076 (25)
50 Hz. Therefore, it is valid for the measured range.
Wind tunnel performance data are acquired from the analytical model for all the
measured meanVvelocities
ts = 0.4897  +wind
in the 0.6076
tunnel’s test section. After measuring(25)the mean
velocity of the test section at various fan frequencies, the mean velocity in the other wind
tunnel sections can be calculated from the continuity equation. The pressure loss coefficient,
KLi total pressure losses for each wind tunnel section ∆Pl,i and the overall pressure losses for
all components, are calculated for all the measured wind velocities. Table 2 summarizes the
data for the maximum measured wind velocity (25.1 m/s) in the test section. Additionally,
Figure 11 displays the contribution of the wind tunnel sections to pressure losses at the
measured maximum mean velocity.
 velocity normalized by (0.4897 ), which gives constant values around 1.03 for frequencies
of 20 Hz to 50 Hz and gives 1.18 at 10 Hz. It is noted that the regression Equation (25) is
fitted to the entered velocity measurement; thus, the initial value is set from 10 Hz up to
50 Hz. Therefore, it is valid for the measured range.
Machines 2023, 11, 360 Vts = 0.4897  + 0.6076 13 (25)
of 20

Machines 2023, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 22

Wind tunnel performance data are acquired from the analytical model for all the
measured mean velocities in the wind tunnel’s test section. After measuring the mean
velocity of the test section at various fan frequencies, the mean velocity in the other wind
tunnel sections can be calculated from the continuity equation. The pressure loss
coefficient, KLi total pressure losses for each wind tunnel section Pl,i and the overall
pressure losses for all components, are calculated for all the measured wind velocities.
(a)Table 2 summarizes the data for the maximum measured (b)wind velocity (25.1 m/s) in the
test section. Additionally, Figure 11 displays the contribution of the wind tunnel sections
Figure 10. (a) The measured averaged wind velocity in the test section versus the fan frequency; (b)
to pressure
Figure 10. (a)losses at the measured
The measured averagedmaximum mean
wind velocity velocity.
in the test section versus the fan frequency;
The normalized velocity versus the fan frequency.
(b) The normalized velocity versus the fan frequency.
Table 2. The total pressure loss results for the wind tunnel components at the measured averaged
Table 2. The
maximum total pressure
velocity loss results for the wind tunnel components at the measured averaged
(25.1 m/s).
maximum velocity (25.1 m/s).
Wind Tunnel Component KL,i pL,i (Pa)
Wind Tunnel ComponentConnecting KL,i ∆pL,i (Pa) 1.289
0.015
Connecting Diffuser 0.015 0.073 1.289 6.413
Diffuser 0.073
Settling chamber (empty part) 0.013 6.413 0.126
Settling chamber (empty part) 0.013 0.126
Honeycomb 0.597 8.372
Honeycomb 0.597 8.372
First screen First screen 1.113 1.11310.643 10.643
Second screen Second screen 1.113 1.11310.643 10.643
Contraction cone Contraction cone 0.011 0.011 4.187 4.187
Test section 0.037
Test section 0.03713.738 13.738
The components’ total pressure
The components' total loss, ∆pL,comp
pressure pL,comp (Pa)
loss,(Pa) 55.412 55.412

Figure 11. Wind

Figure Windtunnel
tunnelcomponent pressure
component losses
pressure for for
losses the the
maximum measured
maximum windwind
measured velocity (25.1
velocity
m/s).m/s).
(25.1

In
In the
the prediction
prediction results,
results,(RF
(RF== 1.1)
1.1) was
was taken
taken as
as the reserve factor
the reserve factor for
for air
air leakage
leakage from
from
the
the current
current wind
windtunnel.
tunnel. The
Thewind
windtunnel
tunnelcircuit
circuitpower
powerloss
lossEE was calculated
T,circuit was
T,circuit calculated for
for all
all
the measured mean velocities in the test section and is represented in Figure 12. This figure
shows the increase in wind tunnel circuit power loss with increasing wind speed. The
predicted energy ratio ER for the current wind tunnel was obtained at various measured
speeds and is shown in Figure 13. The figure shows that the energy ratio is almost constant
achines 2023, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW

Machines 2023, 11, 360 14 of 20

the measured mean velocities in the test section and is represented in Figure 12. This figure
shows the increase in wind tunnel circuit power loss with increasing wind speed. The
predicted energy ratio ER for the current wind tunnel was obtained at various measured
Machines 2023, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 22
speeds and is shown in Figure 13. The figure shows that the energy ratio is almost constant
for all speeds, with an average value of about 79% ± 0.5.

Figure 12. Wind tunnel circuit power loss versus test section measured veloci
Figure12. Wind tunnel
12.Wind tunnel circuit
circuit power
power loss
loss versus
versus test
test section
section measured
measured velocity.
velocity.
Figure

Figure 13. Wind tunnel energy ratio versus test section measured velocity.

3.2. Structural Vibration Analysis

The effect of fan frequency on the vibrations of the wind tunnel structure was
measured as a total value in mm/s using accelerometers attached to the wind tunnel
structure at various locations along the axial direction of the test section. In the outlet test
Figure
Figure WindWind
13. 13. tunnel energy
tunnel ratio versus test
energy section
ratio measured
versus testvelocity.
section measured velocity.
section of the wind tunnel, it was found that as the fan frequency increased, the vibrations
also increased.Vibration
3.2. Structural Figure 14a shows the relationship between the motor fan frequency (Hz)
Analysis
and the corresponding total vibration amplitudeof ofthe
thewind
auto tunnel
spectrum in mm/s
wasinmeasured
the inlet
3.2.TheStructural
effect of fanVibration
frequency onAnalysis
the vibrations structure
test section. A significantly higher amplitude was observed at a fan frequency
as a total value in mm/s using accelerometers attached to the wind tunnel structure of 30 Hz.at
This ledThe
to the effect of
measurement fanbeing frequency
repeated more on
thanthe
four vibrations
times to of
determine
various locations along the axial direction of the test section. In the outlet test section the
the wind tu
exact
vibration value of this speed. However, an expected set of vibration amplitudes was
measured as a total value in mm/s using accelerometers attached
observed in the output range, as shown in Figure 14b. The bump test is one of the most
structure
basic methodsat forvarious
determining locations
the naturalalong the axial
frequencies direction
of a structure. The of
windthe test sectio
speed
affects
sectionthe structure’s
of the wind vibration. When the
tunnel, wind found
it was speed is high,
thattheasstructure
the fanvibrates more, incre
frequency
and this can be observed in both measured locations in the inlet and exit test sections, as
Machines 2023, 11, 360 15 of 20

of the wind tunnel, it was found that as the fan frequency increased, the vibrations also
increased. Figure 14a shows the relationship between the motor fan frequency (Hz) and
the corresponding total vibration amplitude of the auto spectrum in mm/s in the inlet
test section. A significantly higher amplitude was observed at a fan frequency of 30 Hz.
This led to the measurement being repeated more than four times to determine the exact
vibration value of this speed. However, an expected set of vibration amplitudes was
observed in the output range, as shown in Figure 14b. The bump test is one of the most
Machines 2023, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW
basic methods for determining the natural frequencies of a structure. The wind 16 of 22
speed
affects the structure’s vibration. When the wind speed is high, the structure vibrates more,
and this can be observed in both measured locations in the inlet and exit test sections, as
shown
vibrate;inhowever,
Figure 15.when
This is because
the the wind
wind speed whips
is low, thearound thevibrates
structure structure, making
less. it because
This is vibrate;
however, when the wind speed is low, the structure vibrates less. This
the air does not move around the structure as much. When this happens, the wind is because the has
air
does not move around the structure as much. When this happens, the wind
less effect, so the structure does not vibrate as strongly. The inlet section shows has less effect,
so the structure
fluctuations does
in the not vibrate
resultant as strongly.
vibration Thethe
more than inlet section
exit shows
section, whichfluctuations in the
can be attributed
resultant vibration more than the exit section, which
to the stability of the flow at the end of the test section.can be attributed to the stability of the
flow at the end of the test section.

(a) (b)
Figure 14. The vibration amplitude versus the wind tunnel fan frequency (a) in the inlet test section
Figure 14. The vibration amplitude versus the wind tunnel fan frequency (a) in the inlet test section
and (b) exit test section.
and (b) exit test section.

Resonance occurs when an excited frequency meets a structure’s natural frequency.

In the present case, the structure’s resonant frequency before the inlet section is about
30 Hz. Therefore, when the fan frequency reaches the same value, a dominant amplitude is
observed in the auto-spectrum analysis. Figure 16 shows the auto-spectrum plots of the
studied fan frequency, where channels 1 and 2 represent the readings of the accelerometers
placed at the inlet and outlet positions of the test section, respectively. In each case, the
fundamental frequency has more than three harmonics. Therefore, Figure 16a–c represents
the fan frequency at 10, 20, and 30 Hz, respectively, with the significant amplitude observed
at the fourth harmonic. In addition, it was found that increasing the fan frequency increased
its resonance frequency but decreased the number of observed peaks in the power spectrum.
When the fan speed is low, up to 30 Hz, the auto-spectrum shows more peaks than when
the fan speed is high. It can be concluded that the changes in the spectral density of the
airflow in the wind tunnel are related to the changes in fan frequency.
 (a) (b)
Machines 2023, 11, 360 16 of 20
Figure 14. The vibration amplitude versus the wind tunnel fan frequency (a) in the inlet test section
and (b) exit test section.

Figure 15. The vibration amplitude fluctuation versus the wind velocity.
Figure 15. The vibration amplitude fluctuation versus the wind velocity.
On the other hand, it was observed that the fan frequency at 40 and 50 Hz had a
Resonance occurs when an excited frequency meets a structure’s natural frequency.
significant amplitude at half orders; thus, the values recorded were at the 4.5th and 2.5th,
In the presentThe
respectively. case, the structure’s
structure’s resonant
resonant frequency
frequency before
appeared to bethe inletThese
30 Hz. section is about
results 30
explain
Hz. Therefore, when the fan frequency reaches the same value, a dominant amplitude
the increase in the vibration amplitude of the fan frequency at such a value. Total vibration is
amplitude was measured at a frequency of 10 Hz. Thus, it was found that the fan frequency
directly affects the total amount of vibration generated by the wind tunnel. For example,
the total vibration also increased as the fan’s speed increased. The maximum vibration
was observed at a fan frequency of 50 Hz, while the minimum amount was seen at a fan
frequency of 10 Hz. When the highest frequency was measured, i.e., 50 Hz, the maximum
total vibration amplitude was obtained at 1.15 mm/s. This observation is explained as
follows: At lower frequencies, the overall vibration level increases with fan frequency
because the rotor blades are not moving fast enough to induce significant vibrations.

3.3. Noise Analysis

Wind tunnels and their acoustics refer to the sounds produced within the tunnel and by
the axial fan. This can have a negative effect on the accuracy of wind tunnel measurements
because fluctuations in the flow can affect the velocity of the air flowing through the tunnel,
thus disturbing the airflow around the object under test. The inhomogeneity in the flow
refers to any variation in the flow path’s cross-sectional area. The design of the wind tunnel
can also contribute to generating velocity noise if it is not optimized for this purpose. A
sound wave is a combination of numerous frequencies with a particular wavelength and
intensity. As the speed at which the blade is spinning increases, the sound wave’s intensity
also increases. The noise meter is used to measure the noise value for each case. Noise levels
tend to increase significantly as the operating speed of the fan increases. To reduce the noise
generated by a fan, it is advisable to operate it at low speeds. A slower operating speed
will reduce the overall noise output of the cooling fan and result in substantial savings in
energy costs. In addition, slow operating speeds are likely to reduce the wear and tear on
the components of the fan, thereby extending its service life and reducing maintenance
requirements. The relationship between the axial fan frequency and the generated noise is
illustrated in Figure 17. As the fan frequency increases, the noise level also increases. The
most important observation in this curve is that the fan’s critical frequency lies at 30 Hz,
with a corresponding noise value of 80 dB. According to occupational health and safety
Machines 2023, 11, 360 17 of 20

Machines 2023, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 22

organizations such as OSHA, NEBOSH, IOSH, etc., exposures at or above this level are
considered hazardous.

Figure 16. Autospectrum vibration response of the wind tunnel structure at the inlet (channel 1-
Figure 16. Autospectrum vibration response of the wind tunnel structure at the inlet (channel 1-CH1)
CH1) and exit (channel 2-CH2) (a–e) is the frequency domain signature for 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 Hz
andfan
exitfrequencies,
(channel 2-CH2) (a–e)
and (f) the is the
bump testfrequency
response. domain signature for 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 Hz fan
frequencies, and (f) the bump test response.
 extending its service life and reducing maintenance requirements. The relationship
between the axial fan frequency and the generated noise is illustrated in Figure 17. As the
fan frequency increases, the noise level also increases. The most important observation in
this curve is that the fan’s critical frequency lies at 30 Hz, with a corresponding noise value
Machines 2023, 11, 360 of 80 dB. According to occupational health and safety organizations such as OSHA, 18 of 20
NEBOSH, IOSH, etc., exposures at or above this level are considered hazardous.

Figure 17. The relationship between the wind tunnel fan frequency and the corresponding mea-
Figure 17. The relationship between the wind tunnel fan frequency and the corresponding
sured noise.
measured noise.
4. Conclusions
4. Conclusions
In this research work, a low-speed open-circuit blower wind tunnel has been designed,
In this research
constructed, work,
and tested fora flow,
low-speed open-circuit
noise, and vibrationblower windfan
at various tunnel has been
frequencies. The
designed, constructed,
design process andmain
for the testedparts
for flow, noise,
of the windand vibration
tunnel at variousinfan
is explained frequencies.
detail, based on
The design process for
recommendations thedesign
and main parts
rules.ofOnthethis
wind tunnel
basis, the isrequired
explainedfaninpower
detail,isbased on
estimated,
recommendations and design rules. On this basis, the required fan power
and an axial fan is selected for the current wind tunnel. The wind tunnel components’ is estimated,
and an axial fanand
construction is selected
assemblyfor the current
processes wind tunnel.
are discussed. TheThe wind
wind tunnelinside
velocity components’
the empty
construction and assembly processes are discussed. The wind velocity inside
test section is tested at various fan frequencies to test the wind tunnel’s uniformity. the empty
The test
section achieved a maximum operating speed of 25.1 m/s, close to the desired maximum
value of 30 m/s. The velocity profile for this wind tunnel indicated a turbulent flow regime
with a maximum Reynolds number of 7.37 × 105 .
In the range of measurements (10–50 Hz), there is a linear relationship between the
average wind speed and the frequency of the fan motor. The predicted total losses in the
tunnel components are calculated, and the energy ratio is quite high and equal to 0.79,
indicating a successful wind tunnel design. The effect of axial fan frequency on the wind
velocity inside the wind tunnel is significant. At a high fan frequency, the wind velocity
is higher; therefore, the pressure waveform is broader. This increases the vibrations of
the structure due to higher pressure levels and altered flow fields within the wind tunnel.
Therefore, a well-designed experimental setup should account for increased wind speeds
at high fan frequencies and their effect on structure vibration. The factors affecting the
average ventilation rate or the airflow rate through a duct are the air inlet area, the distance
between the inlet and outlet, the area of the diffuser, and the velocity of the air flowing
through the duct.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, S.S.A.A.; methodology, S.S.A.A., A.-H.S.S.S. and E.B.M.;

formal analysis, S.S.A.A. and E.B.M.; investigation, S.S.A.A. and E.B.M.; writing—original draft
preparation, S.S.A.A., E.B.M. and A.-H.S.S.S.; project administration, S.S.A.A. All authors have read
and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Deanship of Scientific Research (DSR), King Abdulaziz
University, Jeddah, grant number (G: 623-135-1441).
Machines 2023, 11, 360 19 of 20

Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.

Acknowledgments: The authors acknowledge the Deanship of Scientific Research (DSR), King
Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, for technical and financial support.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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