J Ther Eng, Vol. 8, No. 4, pp.

551–561, July, 2022

Journal of Thermal Engineering

Web page info: https://jten.yildiz.edu.tr
DOI: 10.18186/thermal.1149161

Research Article

Experimental investigation of thermal comfort performance of a radiant

wall and ceiling panel system
Ahmet DOĞAN1* , Nurullah KAYACI2 , Hakan DEMİR1 , Mustafa Kemal SEVİNDİR1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Yıldız Technical University, İstanbul, Türkiye
1

2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Tekirdağ Namık Kemal University, Tekirdağ, Türkiye

ARTICLE INFO
ABSTRACT
Article history
Received: 17 December 2021 The number of radiant heating-cooling systems in building applications is increasing it is be-
Accepted: 01 April 2022 cause of low energy consumption, low operating temperature and high values they provide in
terms of working compatibility with renewable energy sources. In this study, ground source
Key words: heat pump integrated radiant panels installed on the wall and suspended ceiling of the office
GSHP; Heat Pump; Radiant room in Yıldız Technical University Science and Technology Application and Research Centre
Systems; Thermal Comfort; Wall were experimentally examined in terms of thermal comfort according to the relevant stan-
and Ceiling Heating dards. Vertical air temperature differences and mean radiant temperatures were investigated.
The mean air temperature differences at 0.1 m and 1.7 m were found to be 3,9 oC 2.9 oC 3.5 oC,
3.1 oC and 3.4 oC on average for the five different stands, respectively. PMV and PPD values
were found to be 0.78 and 18.9% for February 12 (Case 1), 0.36 and 8.4% for February 13 (Case
2), respectively. In the experiment carried out under the conditions of Case 2, while the com-
fort conditions were provided in almost all of the day, the desired comfort conditions could
not be achieved in Case 1 after 11 am.

Cite this article as: Doğan A, Kayacı N, Demir H, Sevindir M K. Experimental investigation
of thermal comfort performance of a radiant wall and ceiling panel system. J Thermal Eng
2022;8(4):551–561.

INTRODUCTION embedded in the floor, wall or ceiling, which can be con-

trolled by water, air or electrical resistance, where mini-
Water-based radiant heating and cooling systems can
provide high energy efficiency, low exergy destruction and mum 50% of the heat transfer is realized by radiation and
high level of comfort thanks to the possibility of using low the rest by convection. Hydronic radiant systems working
temperature for heating and high temperature for cool- with water have been used as an alternative to conventional
ing [1–5]. The proportion of radiant heating and cool- systems in recent years, thanks to the high comfort they
ing systems in commercial and residential applications is provide, high energy efficiency and integrated operation
increasing [6]. Radiant heating-cooling systems are based with renewable energy systems. The working principle of
on the formation of planar surfaces called radiant panels these panels is based on the carrying out radiation and

*Corresponding author.
*E-mail address: [email protected]
This paper was recommended for publication in revised form by
Regional Editor Erdal Çetkin

Published by Yıldız Technical University Press, İstanbul, Türkiye

This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/).
552 J Ther Eng, Vol. 8, No. 4, pp. 551–561, July, 2022

convection heat transfer with the surrounding air and solid It has been observed that energy consumption is reduced
surfaces. In the case of heating, the heat transfer from the by 10% when cooling from the ceiling with a radiant panel
panel surface by radiation can be between 70-80%, while in and the amortization period of the initial investment cost
the case of cooling, this rate is around 60% [7]. varies between 1 and 17 years depending on the panel
There are many studies on radiant panel systems in the prices. Gemici [19] analysed vertical air temperature dif-
literature [8–13]. Rhee and Kim [14] conducted studies on ferences and average radiant temperatures by analysing
radiant heating and cooling systems over the last 50 years how thermal comfort is affected when different inlet water
in a large literature review in terms of energy performance, temperatures are applied to different wall-mounted radiant
thermal comfort, system configuration and control. They heating panel layout configurations. The average air tem-
concluded that radiant heating and cooling systems are perature differences at 0.1 m and 1.7 m were found to be
used actively in many commercial and residential building 0.14 °C, 1.11 °C and 0.73 °C, respectively. The results show
today and these systems are clearly understood on the basis that mounting radiant panels on different walls affects both
of building physics and engineering. They emphasized the thermal comfort and heating performance.
need to focus on larger buildings to be built in the future There are many numerical and experimental studies
and systems compatible with different climates. Myhren on thermal comfort performance of radiant panels in the
and Holmberg [15] conducted a numerical and experi- literature [20–24]. However, it is obvious that there is a
mental study to investigate thermal comfort and energy gap in the literature on a radiant wall and ceiling system
consumption on a 4.8 m x 2.4 m x 2.7 m room model. In the with realistic space conditions integrated into the ground
experiments, while for the medium temperature (55-35 °C) heat exchanger pipes placed in the ground under the
and high temperature (90-70 °C) cases radiator was used, building foundation during the construction phase of a
for the very low temperature (35-25 °C) case radiant panel large-scale building.
from the wall and floor were used. In their study, research- In current study, an office with radiant panel on the wall
ers have shown that the radiant panels can improve indoor and ceiling integrated with a Ground Source Heat Pump
comfort conditions by providing low vertical temperature (GSHP) was installed by generating realistic space condi-
difference and low air velocities. The use of radiant systems tions at Yıldız Technical University Science and Technology
in buildings compared to HVAC systems was examined in Application and Research Centre. Experimental studies on
the thermal comfort critical literature review by Karmann thermal comfort were carried out in the full-scale office
et al. [16]. As a result, there are indications that radiant room according to the relevant standards. Air velocity,
systems can provide better or equal comfort than HVAC horizontal and vertical air temperature differences, mean
systems. Miriel et al. [17] carried out an experimental radiant temperature, predicted mean vote (PMV) and
study to evaluate the energy performance of radiant panels Predicted percentage dissatisfied (PPD) which are environ-
used in cooling application in summer and winter climate mental parameters that can affect thermal satisfaction, were
conditions in a laboratory environment. According to the investigated for two different cases.
results, it has been seen that water radiant panels perform The novelty of this study is experimental comparison
well in both cooling and heating in well-insulated build- of the thermal comfort performances of radiant wall and
ings. The French conditions in which the study was con- ceiling system integrated with GSHP systems. As a result
ducted are less suitable for radiant cooling application than of this comparison, the most suitable design of the GSHP
terrestrial regions, as the panel surface temperature must integrated with radiant wall and ceiling systems can be
be kept at a minimum of 17°C to prevent condensation. obtained. In addition to this, according to the relevant stan-
Imanari et al. [18] compared the traditional air condition- dards, it is understood that the thermal comfort conditions
ing system with radiant panels embedded in the ceiling in of radiant systems combined with a GSHP can be provided
terms of thermal comfort, energy consumption and cost. in large buildings for different climate conditions. Thus,
In their study, the ceiling cooling system and the classical researchers and engineers in thermal engineering sector
air conditioning system were examined separately while can decide soundly whether it is feasible to invest in it.
there were people in a small office in Tokyo. As a result of
the survey, it was revealed that 80% of the people found the
BASIC THEORY
radiant system more comfortable. It has been observed that
the temperature difference in the vertical direction, which Thermal comfort is defined as comfortableness sensed
is an important parameter of thermal comfort, is less in in the thermal atmosphere. Fanger [25] developed a mathe-
the case of cooling from the ceiling. In addition, since a matical model using 6 comfort parameters (air temperature,
part of the sensible heat load is covered by radiant panels, air humidity, air velocity, mean radiant temperature, activ-
the need for fresh air drawn into the space and accordingly ity level and clothing) and psychological theory and statis-
the fan power is reduced. Thus, when a small amount of tical data to define comfort conditions. With this model,
fresh air is drawn from the ceiling when cooling is done, developed PMV index and PPD equations. He defined
the accumulation of cold air near the floor is eliminated. PMV index with a standard scale Table 1 as a parameter
J Ther Eng, Vol. 8, No. 4, pp. 551–561, July, 2022 553

Table 1. Effect of the standard thermal sensation scale on humans The desired comfort level in the space is given in Table
+3 Hot 2 according to ISO 7730 standard A and B categories for
sedentary activity.
+2 Warm
The minimum ventilation rate required for a ventilation
+1 Slightly warm
zone can be calculated with the Eq. 3 specified in Ashrae
0 Natural Standard 62.1 in order to provide indoor air quality that is
-1 Slightly cool acceptable to human occupants [27].
-2 Cool
-3 Cold (6)
Where Az is the occupiable floor area of the ventilation
zone (m2), Pz is the number of people in the ventilation
zone, Rp is the outdoor airflow rate required per person
specifying effect of any combination of thermal ambient (L/s) and Ra is the outdoor airflow rate required per unit
variables and personal variables on a crowded group of area (L/s.m2). The minimum ventilation rate required for
people and calculated using Eq. 1 [25, 26]. this test room (52.5 m2 floor area for 4 people) is calculated
as 25.75 L/s. The variables Rp and Ra are taken as 2.5 L/s and
 0.3 L/s.m2 respectively for typical office room specified in
(1) Ashrae. Currently, since fresh air conditioned at 23 degrees
50% relative humidity and 40 L/s flow rate is supplied from
the rooftop air handling unit, the heating load created
inside the room neglected.
(2)
EXPERIMENTAL FACILITY

(3) The experimental system is established in Yıldız

 Technical University Science and Technology Application
and Research Centre building. The experimental system,
 (4) whose flow chart is shown in Figure 1, consists of radiant
panels placed on the ceiling and walls of a space inte-
grated with a GSHP with a heating capacity of 10.5 kW
Where, Tr, Ta and Tcl are the radiant temperature (°C), and a cooling capacity of 8.5 kW. The system is basically
indoor air temperature (°C) and clothing surface tem- established in 3 separate sections. The first of these is the
perature. (°C). Following, M refers the Metabolic rate (W/ test room at the entrance of the building, where com-
m2), W refers the effective mechanical power (W/m2) and fort measurements are made, with radiant panels on the
Pa refers the water vapour partial pressure (Pa). Here the wall and ceiling. While there are 6 radiant panels of 2 m
terms, Fcl refers clothing surface factor; Icl refers clothing x 0.6 m in the south-west façade of the room, there are
insulation (m2∙K/W); hc refers convective heat transfer coef- 9 radiant panels of the same dimensions on the north-
ficient (W/m2∙K). east façade. There are a total of 29 radiant panels in the
Predicted percentage dissatisfied (PPD) estimates the suspended ceiling, measuring 1 m x 0.6 m, consisting
number of thermally dissatisfied people using PMV. PPD of similar building layers. The radiant panels can be
is used to predict the rate of thermally dissatisfied people controlled separately by the ball valves on the collector
using PMV and is calculated by Eq. 5. group on the suspended ceiling and the panels on the
ceiling and walls. The second part is the heat pump group
(5) installed in the mechanical room of the building. The

Table 2. Suggested values of ISO 7730 for category A, B and C (EN ISO 7730, 1994)
Category PPD PMV Operative temperature Vertical temperature PD% Caused by warm
(oC) difference (oC) and cold wall
A <6 -0.2<PMV<0.2 21-23 <2 10
B <10 -0.5<PMV<0.5 20-24 <3 10
C <15 -0.7<PMV<0.7 19-25 <5 15
554 J Ther Eng, Vol. 8, No. 4, pp. 551–561, July, 2022

Figure 1. The flow diagram of hydraulic system.

main equipment in the heat pump group are; heat pump The system is activated by adjusting the panel return
main block, storage (accumulation) tank, balancing tank temperature according to the heating or cooling mode
and water circulation pumps. Parallel and horizontal from the heat pump control unit in the mechanical
ground heat exchangers placed in the ground under the room. The cold or hot water produced by the heat pump
foundation of the building where the system is located is stored in the accumulation tank, the motorized valves
form the third part. at the collector inlets are opened with the help of the
J Ther Eng, Vol. 8, No. 4, pp. 551–561, July, 2022 555

Table 3. Instruments used for measurement of test room parameters

Instruments Range Accuracies Measured values
Temperature sensor 0 ... 100 %RH ±2 %RH (5 ... 90 %RH)3) ±0.5 °C Humidity, temperature and CO2
-20 ... +70 °C
0 … 10000 ppm
Testo Turbulance sensor 0 … 5 m/sn ±(0.03 m/sn + 4%) Velocity
Testo black globe temp. sensor 0 … +120 °C Class 1 Globe temperature
T-Type temp. -20…+200 ±0.3 0C Air and surface temperature
RTD -200….+800 ±0.15+0.0002 C 0
Water temperature

Figure 2. The view of test room.

thermostat on the wall, depending on the cooling or and 5 thermocouples at different heights were placed on
heating need in the test room, and water circulation is each. In order to prevent these thermocouples from being
carried out in the radiant panels. In addition, with the affected by radiation, they are covered with a cylindrical
temperature sensor located on the panel return line, the radiation shield. Two PT100s were used to measure the
water return temperature is adjusted from the thermo- water temperatures entering and leaving the wall and ceil-
stat in the room, and the motorized valve is opened and ing panels. Testo brand comfort kit shown in Figure 2b was
water flow is provided. used for PMV and PPD measurements, which are the most
The office room (Fig. 2) where the experiments were important parameters of this study, and its technical details
carried out was transformed into a fully equipped exper- are given in Table 3.
iment room in order to be able to carry out the comfort There are radiant panels on the wall and ceiling of the
measurements completely. In the experiments, as seen in office to be heated and cooled, and ground heat exchangers
Figure 2c, considering the EN 14240 standard, a total of 4 buried in the ground under the building foundation (Fig.
cylinders with 120 W heat emitting were positioned to cre- 4). The place where the connection between these two cir-
ate a heat load in the room. A total of 51 thermocouples cuits takes place is the heat pump room where the water
were used for surface and air temperature measurements, source heat pump is located. There is a water source heat
and their positions in the room are given in detail in Figure pump belonging to the ground line in the heat pump room.
3. For vertical temperature distribution, 5 stands were used The view of the whole system as a group in the heat pump
556 J Ther Eng, Vol. 8, No. 4, pp. 551–561, July, 2022

Figure 3. Indoor measurement instrument layout.

Figure 4. GSHP equipment.

room is shown in Figure 4 As can be seen in Figure 4, all UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS

equipment on a heat pump is shown by numbering, and in The uncertainties of the thermal comfort indexes PMV
Table 4 the model, brand and specification of all compo- and PPD are calculated indirectly with the Eq. 7 developed
nents are given. by Kline and McClintock [28] as the combined uncertainties
J Ther Eng, Vol. 8, No. 4, pp. 551–561, July, 2022 557

Table 4. The technical specifications of equipment on GSHP system

Equipment Brand/model Specification
1. Heat pump Restherma/ IP11SS Heating: Capacity: 10.5 kW, Power: 2.1 kW,
COP: 5, Operating temp. range:-5/+45 °C, Max. supply temp.: 55 °C
Cooling: Capacity: 8.5 kW, Power: 1.98 kW, EER:4.29, Operating
temp. range:+10/+43°C, Min. outlet temp.: 7 °C
2. Flow switch Ayvaz-AK 100
3. All pumps 3a: Grundfos/MAGNA3 25-100 3a: Max. flow rate: 78.5 m3/h, Max. head: 18 m, Max. pressure:
16 bar, operating temp. range: -10/110 °C
3bGrundfos/Alpha2 3b ve 3c: Max. flow rate: 4.8 m3/h, Max. head: 5.8 m, Max.
pressure: 10 bar, operating temp. range: 2/110 °C
4. Thermometer Pakkens/TE100DB1, Measurement range: -30/+60 °C
5. Manometer Pakkens/MG063DRM1, Measurement range: 0-10 bar
6. Accumulation tank Resboyler/KAT Capacity: 100 lt, Test pressure: 13 kg/cm2, Operating pressure: 10 kg/cm2
7. Expansion tank Reflex/15P1125, Operating temp.: -10/120 °C, Max. operating temp.: -10/70 °C,
Operating pressure: 6 bar, Volume: 23L
8. RTD Tekon/PT100, Measurement range: 0/100 °C
9. Flowmeter Bass/FMPV, Operating temp.: -10/70 °C, Max. operating pressure: 10 bar
10. Rotameter ZYIA/LZM-25T Operating range: 5/35 LPM

of the parameters such as room air temperature, radiant thermostat in the test room. Although there are 51 ther-
temperature, air velocity etc. with devices listed in Table 3. mocouples in the test chamber, important parts are given
in Figure 5 so that the temperatures can be seen clearly.
(7) Radiant and air temperatures are measured in the centre
of the room at 1.1 m height for 2 cases and operative tem-
Where, WR is the total uncertainty of the data R, R is perature in working hours are given in Figure 6. Heating
the function of the independent variables x1, x2, x3,…… xn and cooling systems are usually controlled by thermostats
and Ui is the total uncertainty of the independent variable with air temperature adjustment, since they are simpler and
xi of the data R (for i=1 to n). The total average estimated lower cost. When the system is started and stabilized, there
uncertainty of the PMV and PPD are found approximately is an average of 1 0C difference between radiant tempera-
±8% and ±7.5% respectively the times between 09:00-18:00 ture and air temperature. This shows that the radiant and
for the first day (Case 1) of experiments. Calculations of the air temperature largely cover the temperature values of the
uncertainty of the PMV and PPD for day 2 (Case 2) experi- EN ISO 7730 standard. Taking the operating temperature,
ment are found approximately ±11% and ±8.8% respectively. which is the average of the air and radiant temperature, as
the reference temperature is provide more accurate to com-
fort standards. Jia et al. [29] found temperature difference
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
as 0.6 and 0.2 K in radiant ceiling panel and radiant slab
In the previous section, detailed information was given applications with low heat load (30 W/m2).
about the measuring instruments used in the test room. They suggested to use conventional temperature control
The changes in surface temperatures, water inlet and out- systems for radiant ceiling panel application where the tem-
let temperatures and air temperature measurements in the perature difference is low as it is lower cost and more simple
test room are given in Figure 5 for two cases at 12th and 13th system. In order to reach desired comfort levels loads are
February. The heat pump water outlet temperature is set to a raised to 55-65 W/m2 level. As seen when higher loads are
maximum of 55 0C on February 12, which is Case 1, and 50 experienced temperature difference higher and this makes
0
C for Case 2 on February 13, from the control panel in the impossible to use of air temperature controlled systems.
engine room which is located at basement of the building. These systems requires longer time to stabilise therefore it
The heat pump, which was started the day before, keeps is not possible to use air temperature controlled systems.
the water in the storage tank at the set temperature con- Instead, radiant and operative temperature based MPC,
tinuously. Experiments are carried out at 6 am by opening PMV and air temperature estimation based load estimation
the motorized valves on the suspended ceiling through the models are preferred.
558 J Ther Eng, Vol. 8, No. 4, pp. 551–561, July, 2022

Figure 5. Temperature measurements in the test room for two days.

Figure 6. Variation of mean radiant temperature, operative temperature and air temperature in category A, B and C.

Figure 7 and Figure 8 illustrations the variation of PMW, to the EN ISO 7730 standard, the comfort level in the office
PPD for 2 different cases. Comfort measurements were is determined as -0.5<PMV<0.5 PMV and category B with
made at the centre of the room and at a height of 1.1 meters 10% PPD value. Looking at Graph 7, the desired PMV and
from the floor. The aim of the experiment is to determine PPD values were reached within an hour, while the comfort
the comfort values between 09:00-18:00, which are office level deteriorated after 11. When the Case 2 graph (Fig. 8),
hours. For this purpose, hot water flow was started in the where the water temperature is set at 50 0C, is examined,
panel at 06:00 with the thermostat in the room. According the desired. The discomfort situation deteriorated in Figure
J Ther Eng, Vol. 8, No. 4, pp. 551–561, July, 2022 559

Figure 7. Changes of PPD and PMV for Case 1.

Figure 9. Air temperature distribution in vertical direction.

placed next to the wall, 0.1 m, 1.1m, 1.7 m, and 2.5 m apart
from one another, respectively.
As expected, the temperatures on the stand near the
window were the lowest, followed by the stands near the
corridor and in the middle. Stands close to the wall were at
almost the same temperature and were the highest values.
When we look at the vertical temperature difference, which
is another parameter of the comfort evaluation, the differ-
ence between 0.1 to 1.7 m that should be maximum 3 0C on
the window side has been exceeded with 0.9 0C at average of
3.9 0C. In other stands, these values were 2.9 0C 3.5 0C, 3.1
0
C and 3.4 0C on average, respectively. This shows that wall
Figure 8. Changes of PPD and PMV for Case 2. and ceiling heating cannot provide sufficient comfort in
vertical temperature distribution. The investigation of the
vertical temperature distribution in 3-hour periods is given
7 is not because of the inadequacy of the heating capacity of in Table 3. Looking at the details, the vertical temperature
distribution during office working hours has almost never
heat pump, but due to the lack of any control mechanism on
fallen below 3 0C. The most important reason for this can
the water supplied or return to the panels. It is possible to
be wall and ceiling heating instead of underfloor heating.
keep it within the comfort range standards by using a pro-
Uninsulated walls, roofs, floors, cold windows, or
portional valve sensitive to indoor air or radiant tempera-
equipment emitting high heat etc. cause asymmetrical or
ture instead of the on-off motorized valve on the collector.
non-uniform thermal radiation in an enclosures, which can
As shown in Figure 3, the testing room was equipped affect the comfort of occupants in office. As seen in Figure
with thermocouples in five different locations, in a verti- 3, the air temperature distribution in the room could not
cal manner, in order to measure the vertical temperature achieve a uniform distribution due to the fact that the there
distribution. The thermocouples were placed on stands, is a low window surface temperature and high panel surface
numbered 1, 2, and 3, the thermocouples being placed at temperatures when the heat pump actively work between 6
locations 0.1m, 0.6 m, 1.1 m, 1.7 m and 2.5 m (the distance and 18:00 o clock. In Figure 10, the temperature difference
from the ankle to the ground being 0.1m, from the knees changes are shown by measuring the temperatures on the
0.6 m, from the head distance to the ground while seated stands located at the window, middle (reference) and wall in
1.1m, from the head distance to the ground while stand- the room. When the temperature values measured accord-
ing 1.7 m, from the ceiling, another thermocouple being ing to the reference temperature (middle of the room) are
0.3m below the ceiling, respectively). The thermocouples, examined with the window and the heated wall, it is seen
that are placed on stands, which are numbered 4 and 5, are that there is an average difference of 1.7 0C and 0.7 0C,
560 J Ther Eng, Vol. 8, No. 4, pp. 551–561, July, 2022

an undercooling effect, especially in winter days when the

ambient temperature are low. As a result, it is difficult to
obtain a uniform thermal comfort and temperature in the
room. In order to overcome the problem, investigating the
optimum WWR and covering the window surface with the
appropriate low emissivity films in will make a great contri-
bution to ensuring uniform thermal comfort inside.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was supported by Yıldız Technical University
under BAP program with GRANT No. FBA-2019-3703. We
would like to thank to the Yıldız Technical University for
their financial support during this work.

Figure 10. Variation of temperature differences between

AUTHORSHIP CONTRIBUTIONS
different points of the room.
Authors equally contributed to this work.

respectively. This temperature difference between the wall DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
and the window goes up to 2.5 0C on average. When the ref-
No new data were created in this study. The published
erence temperature differences in Figure 10 is examined, it is
publication includes all graphics collected or developed
obvious that temperature values recommended for comfort
during the study.
limit in the standards cannot be achieved by the window.

CONCLUSION CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The use of a radiant panel heating system with an The author declared no potential conflicts of interest
integrated GSHP system for comfort was evaluated for with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication
its practical application in commercial buildings in the of this article.
cold winter in Yıldız Technical University Science and
Technology Application and Research Centre. ETHICS
In the measurements made with the comfort device in
the centre of the room, the PMV and PPD values for the There are no ethical issues with the publication of this
first case started to deteriorate at 11 am, while the category manuscript.
B comfort values were provided all day in Case 2. The verti-
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