Measurements, Inspection Principles, and

Coordinate Measuring Machines (CMM)

Alessandro Salmi

Politecnico di Torino
Department of Management and Production Engineering
Dipartimento di Ingegneria Gestionale e della Produzione (DIGEP )

[email protected]
 Inspection Metrology
— Measurement is a procedure in which an unknown quantity is compared to a
known standard, using an accepted and consistent system of units. The
measurement may involve a simple linear rule to scale the length of a part, or
it may require measurement of force versus deflection during a tension test.
Measurement provides a numerical value of the quantity of interest, within
certain limits of accuracy and precision. It is the means by which inspection
for variables is accomplished.
— Metrology is the science of measurement. The science is concerned with
seven basic quantities: length, mass, time, electric current, temperature,
luminous intensity, and matter. From these basic quantities, other physical
quantities are derived, such as area, volume, velocity, acceleration, force,
electric voltage, energy, and so forth. In manufacturing metrology, our main
concern is usually with measuring the length quantity in the many ways in
which it manifests itself in a part or product. These include length, width,
depth, diameter, straightness, flatness, and roundness. Even surface
roughness is defined in terms of length quantities.

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 Characteristics of Measuring Instruments
All measuring instruments possess certain characteristics that make them useful
in the particular applications they serve. Primary among these are accuracy and
precision, but other features include speed of response, operating range, and
cost. They can be used as criteria in selecting a measuring device. No measuring
instrument scores perfect marks in all of the criteria. Compromises are required
in choosing a device for a given application, emphasizing those criteria that are
most important.

a) High accuracy but low precision, (b) low accuracy but high
precision, and (c) high accuracy and high precision
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 Two Basic Types of Inspection Techniques
Inspection techniques can be divided into two broad categories:
— contact inspection
— noncontact inspection.
In contact inspection, physical contact is made between the object and the
measuring or gaging instrument, whereas in noncontact inspection no physical
contact is made.

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 Contact Inspection Techniques
Contact inspection involves the use of a mechanical probe or other device that
makes contact with the object being inspected. The purpose of the probe is to
measure or gage the object in some way. By its nature, contact inspection is
usually concerned with some physical dimension of the part.
Accordingly, these techniques are widely used in the manufacturing industries.
in particular in the production of metal parts (machining, stamping, and other
metalworking processes). The principal contact inspection technologies are:
— Conventional measuring and gaging instruments, manual and automated
— Coordinate measuring machines (CMMs) and related techniques
— Stylus type surface texture measuring machines
Conventional measuring and gaging techniques and coordinate measuring
machines measure dimensions and related specifications. Surface texture
measuring machines measure surface characteristics such as roughness and
waviness.

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 Contact Inspection Techniques
Conventional techniques and CMMs compete with each other in the
measurement and inspection of part dimensions. The general application ranges
for the different types of inspection and measurement equipment are presented
in the PQ chart, where P and Q refer to the variety and quantity of parts
inspected.

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 Contact Inspection Techniques
Reasons why these contact inspection methods are technologically and
commercially important include the following:
— They are the most widely used inspection technologies today.
— They are accurate and reliable.
— In many cases, they represent the only methods available to accomplish
the inspection.

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 Noncontact Inspection Technologies
Noncontact inspection methods utilize a sensor located at a certain distance
from the object to measure or gage the desired features. The noncontact
inspection technologies can be classified into two categories:
— optical
— non-optical

Optical inspection technologies make use of light to accomplish the

measurement or gaging cycle. The most important optical technology is machine
vision; however, other optical techniques are important in certain industries.

Non-optical inspection technologies utilize energy forms other than light to

perform the inspection; these other energies include various electrical fields,
radiation (other than light), and ultrasonics.

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 Noncontact Inspection Technologies
Noncontact inspection offers certain advantages over contact inspection
techniques. The advantages include:
— Avoidance of damage to the surface that might result from contact
inspection.
— Inherently faster inspection cycle times. The reason is that contact inspection
procedures require the contacting probe to be positioned against the part,
which takes time. Most of the noncontact methods use a stationary probe
that does not need repositioning for each part.
— Noncontact methods can often be accomplished on the production line
without the need for any additional handling of the parts, whereas special
handling and positioning of the parts is usually required in contact inspection.
— Increased opportunity for 100% automated inspection. Faster inspection
cycle times and reduced need for special handling means that 100%
inspection is more feasible with noncontact methods.

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 Contact vs. Noncontact Inspection Technologies

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 Conventional Measuring and Gaging Techniques
Conventional measuring and gaging techniques use manually operated devices
for linear dimensions such as length, depth, and diameter, as well as features
such as angles, straightness, and roundness.

Measuring devices provide a quantitative value of the part feature of interest,

while gages determine whether the part feature (usually a dimension) falls
within a certain acceptable range of values. Measuring requires more time to
accomplish but provides more information about the part feature. Gaging can
be accomplished more quickly but does not provide as much information. Both
techniques are widely used for postprocess inspection of piece parts in
manufacturing.
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 Conventional Measuring Instruments and Gages

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 Coordinate Metrology
A coordinate measuring machine (CMM)
consists of a contact probe and a means
of positioning the probe in 3D space
relative to the surfaces and features of a
work part. The probe is not merely
positioned relative to the part but its
location can be accurately and precisely
recorded to obtain dimensional data
concerning the part geometry.
CMMs are controlled by computers or
numerical control systems; when a
component is to be inspected for its
profile and other features, the program
or coordinate data is downloaded from
the central computer. The systems are
capable of transmitting data from the
measuring machine back to the
computer.

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 CMM Configurations
In the construction of a coordinate measuring machine, the probe is fastened to
some type of structure that allows movement of the probe relative to the part.
The part is located on a worktable that is usually connected to the structure.
There are several different physical configurations for achieving the motion of
the probe, including the following common types:

— Bridge construction
The bridge configuration is the most
common type used in industry. To
achieve the y-axis movement of the
probe, the arm is supported on both
ends like a bridge. This construction
provides greater inherent rigidity and
this makes the bridge construction more
accurate than the cantilevered CMM.

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 CMM Configurations
— Cantilever construction
In the cantilever configuration, the probe is attached to a vertical quill that moves in a
z-axis direction relative to a horizontal arm that overhangs the worktable. The quill can
also be moved along the length of the arm to achieve y-axis motion and the arm can
be moved relative to the worktable to achieve x-axis motion. The advantages of this
construction are the convenient access to the worktable and its relatively small floor
space requirements. The disadvantage is lower rigidity than that of some of the other
CMM constructions.

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 CMM Configurations
— Gantry construction
This construction is generally intended for
inspecting large objects. The x-axis and y-axis
motions are achieved by a construction similar
to a gantry crane. The probe quill (z-axis)
moves relative to the horizontal arm extending
between the two rails of the gantry.

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 CMM Construction
In all these constructions, special design features are used to build high accuracy and
precision into the frame. These features include low-friction air bearings,
installation mountings to isolate the CMM and reduce vibrations in the factory from
being transmitted through the floor, and various schemes to counterbalance the
overhanging arm in the case of the cantilever construction.
CMM machines need a deep foundation, carefully done, to isolate them from the
vibrations which would otherwise affect their accuracy. They need to be located in
an environmentally controlled space. The machine has a heavy base of granite and
a rigid structure.
The bridge can move in y-direction while the probe arm can move on the bridge in x-
direction and the probe itself can be moved in z-direction. The weight of the moving
elements is borne by the air bearings and thereby the bridge, the arm and the probe
can be moved with a very light force in their respective directions of movement.
The measuring machine can be made work in force axes by mounting a rotatory
table on the bed. These movements can be done either manually or by switch or
program control.
These machines have electromechanical probes of the touch trigger type. Multistyle
probes for CMM are also available which are found quite useful while inspecting
complex components. Standard blocks and spheres are supplied as accessories with
the machines and are to be used for calibration and setting references.

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 CMM Construction
— Stationary granite measuring table
Granite table provides a stable reference plane for
locating parts to be measured. It is provided with a grid of
threaded boles defining clamping locations and facilitating
part mounting. As the table has a high load carrying
capacity and is accessible from three sides, it can be easily
integrated into the material flow system of CIM.
— Length measuring system
A three-axis CMM is provided with a digital incremental
length measuring system for each axis.
— Air bearings
The bridge, cross beam and spindle of the CMM are
supported by air bearings with high rigidity. They are
designed to be insensitive to vibrations.
— Control unit
The control unit allows manual measurement and self-
teach programming in addition to CNC operation. The
control unit is microprocessor controlled. Usually a
joystick is provided to activate the drive for manual
measurement.
CNC measuring centers are provided with dynamic probe
heads and a probe changing system which can be
operated manually or automatically.

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 CMM Construction – The Probe
One of the most important aspects in the design of a CMM is the probe. During
operation, the probe is brought into contact with the part surface to be
measured and the three coordinate positions are indicated to a high level of
accuracy. Typical accuracies of these machines are in the neighborhood of
+0.004 mm with a resolution of 0.001 mm. The measuring accuracy of a typical
CMM is quoted 2.6 + L/300 micrometers, where L is the measured length in mm

Some machines have a magazine

which carries a variety of probes.
These can be called into action
just as an ATC is used in a
machining center.
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 CMM Construction – The Probe
The most common ones are touch-trigger probes which use a highly sensitive
electrical contact that emits a signal when the end of the probe is deflected
from its neutral position in the slightest amount. Immediately upon contact the
coordinate positions of the probe are recorded by the CMM controller. Any
limited over travel of the probe quill due to momentum is neglected by the
CMM. After the probe bas been separated from the contact surface, it returns to
the neutral position.

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 CMM Construction – The Probe

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 CMM Construction – The Probe
The probes are generally of the ball ended type. However, conical probes, which are
more rigid, are convenient to be used for determining the position of the center of a
hole. The touch trigger type has a number of different probes mounted on it
enabling measurement in difficult positions under servomotor control. The probe is
carried on a light and flexible mechanism which communicates an electric signal
when touched and the information is not affected by over-travel. The coordinates at
that instant with respect to a reference are displayed on the indicating unit of the
instrument.

2R R’ = R+r
2R’
r

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 CMM Construction – The Probe
Radius compensation
Xmeasured Xmeasured

Xactual = Xmeasured + r Xactual = Xmeasured - r

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 B
CMM Construction – The Probe

R/sinϑ

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 CMM Construction

Because of their sophistication, CMMs are located in a separate space away

from the manufacturing area which gives rise to unnecessary transportation and
handling. This also causes delay since the components need to be kept in a
climatising room before being downloaded in the inspection machine room.

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 CMM Operation
The positioning of the probe relative to the part can be accomplished either
manually or under computer control. The methods of operating and controlling
a coordinate measuring machine can be classified as follows:
— Manual control
— Manual computer-assisted
— Motorized computer-assisted
— Direct computer control

In the manual control method, the human operator physically moves the probe
along the machine axes to make contact with the part and record the
measurements. The probe is designed to be free-floating to permit easy
movement along the coordinate axes. The measurements are proved on a digital
readout which the operator can record either manually or automatically. Any
calculations on the data (e.g. calculating the center and diameter of a hole)
must be made by the operator.
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 CMM Operation
The manual computer-assisted CMM provides some level of computer data
processing and computational capability for performing these calculations. The types
of data processing and computations range from simple conversions between US
customary units and metric to more complicated geometry calculations such as
determining the angle between two planes. The probe is still free-floating to permit
the operator to bring it into contact with the desired part surfaces.
The motorized computer-assisted CMM uses a motor drive to power the probe
along the machine axes under the operator's guidance. A joystick or a similar device
is typical as the means of controlling the motion. Features such as low-power
stepping motors and friction clutches are utilized to reduce the effects of collisions
between the probe and the part. The motor drive can be disengaged to permit the
operator to physically move the probe as in the manual control method.
The direct computer control (DCC) CMM operates like a CNC machine tool. It is
motorized and the movements of the coordinate axis are controlled by the
computer. The computer also performs the various data-processing and calculation
functions and compiles a record of the measurements made during inspection. The
direct computer controlled machine is a highly automated inspection machine that
operates under program control.

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 CMM Programming
There are two principle methods of programming measuring machine:
(1) manual leadthrough
(2) off-line programming.

In the manual leadthrough method, the operator leads the CMM probe through the
various motions required in the inspection sequence, indicating the points and
surfaces that are to be measured and recording these into the control memory. This
is similar to the robot programming technique of the same name. During regular
operation, the CMM controller plays back the program to execute the inspection
procedure.
Off-line programming is accomplished in the manner of computer-assisted NC part
programming. The program is prepared off-line based on the part drawing and then
downloaded to the CMM controller for execution. The programming statements for
a computer-controlled CMM include motion commands, measurement commands,
and report formatting commands. The motion commands are used to direct the
probe to a desired inspection location, in the same way that a cutting tool is directed
in a machining operation.

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 CMM Programming
The measurement statements are used to control the measuring and inspection
function of the machine, calling the various data processing and calculation
routines into play. Finally, the formatting statements permit the specification of
the output reports to document the inspection.
An enhancement of off-line programming is CAD programming, in which the
measurement cycle is generated from CAD geometric data representing the part
rather than from a hard copy part drawing. Off-line programming on a CAD
system is facilitated by the Dimensional Measuring Interface Standard (DMlS).
DMlS is a protocol that permits two-way communication between CAD systems
and CMMs. Use of the DMIS protocol has the following advantages:
(1) It allows any CAD system to communicate with any CMM;
(2) it reduces software development costs for CMM and CAD companies
because only one translator is required to communicate with the DMlS;
(3) users have greater choice in selecting among CMM suppliers, and
(4) user training requirements are reduced.

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 CMM Software
The CMM, the computer and the software together represent one system
whose efficiency and cost effectiveness depend to a large extent on the
software.
The features of a CMM software will include
a) Measurement of diameter, center distances, lengths, geometrical and form
errors in prismatic components, etc.
b) Online statistics for statistical information in a batch
c) Parameter programming to minimize CNC programming time of similar
parts
d) Measurement of plane and spatial curves
e) Data communications
f) Digital input and output commands for process integration
g) Programs for the measurement of spur, helical, bevel and hypoid gears
h) Interface to CAD software

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 Core CMM Software
Core software consists of the minimum basic programs required for the CMM to
function, excluding part programming software. This software is generally
applied either before or during the inspection procedure. Core programs
normally include the following:
— Probe calibration. This function is required to define the parameters of the
probe (such as tip radius, tip positions for a multi-tip probe, and elastic
bending coefficients of the probe) so that coordinate measurements can be
automatically compensated for the probe dimensions when the tip contacts
the part surface, avoiding the necessity to perform probe tip calculations.
Calibration is usually accomplished by causing the probe to contact a cube or
sphere of known dimensions.
— Part coordinate system definition. This software permits measurements of
the part to be made without requiring a time-consuming part alignment
procedure on the CMM worktable. Instead of physically aligning the part to
the CMM axes, the measurement axes are mathematically aligned relative to
the part.
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 Core CMM Software
— Geometric feature construction. This software addresses the problems
associated with geometric features whose evaluation requires more than one
point measurement. These features include flatness, squareness, determining
the center of a hole or the axis of a cylinder, and so on. The software
integrates the multiple measurements so that a given geometric feature can
be evaluated. Table(s) lists a number of the common geometric features,
indicating how the features might be assessed by the CMM software. For
increased statistical reliability, it is common to measure more than the
theoretically minimum number of points needed to assess the feature and to
use curve-fitting algorithms (such as least squares) in calculating the best
estimate of the geometric feature's parameters.
— Tolerance analysis. This software allows measurements taken on the part to
be compared to the dimensions and tolerances specified on the engineering
drawing.

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Core CMM Software – Geometric Feature Construction

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Core CMM Software – Geometric Feature Construction

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 Advanced CMM Software
A typical software may also provide a generalized method for reverse engineering
complex shaped objects. The component is digitized, by taking a dense set of points,
through a CNC CMM. The digitized data is then converted into a computer model
which describes the true surface of the component, with allowance for the digitizing
probe diameter. The model may then be expanded, offset or mirrored to an
allowance for the manufacturing process.
Recent advances in CMM technology are largely based on greater intelligence
features provided by the computer software. These advances include the capability
for automatic work part alignment on the table, interactive programming of the
CMM for inspection personnel who are not experienced in the use of computers.
Besides this, the software has the capability to orient the coordinate system as
required (between polar and Cartesian coordinate systems). Similarly, translation of
origin can be effected as desired.
Savings in inspection time by using CMM are significant. Typically between 5% and
10% of the time is required on a CMM compared to traditional manual inspection
methods. Other advantages include consistency in the inspection process from one
part to the next which cannot be matched by manual inspection, and reductions in
production delays to get approval of the first work piece in a batch.

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 CMM Applications and Benefits
The most common applications of CMMs are off-line inspection and on-line/post-
process inspection. Machined components are frequently inspected using CMMs.
One common application is to check the first part machined on a numerically
controlled machine tool. lf the first part passes inspection, then the remaining parts
produced in the batch are assumed to be identical to the first.
Inspection of parts and assemblies on a CMM is generally accomplished using
sampling techniques. CMMs are sometimes used for 100% inspection if the
inspection cycle is compatible with the production cycle (it often takes less time to
produce a part than it does to inspect it) and the CMM can be dedicated to the
process. Whether used for 100% inspection or sampling inspection, the CMM
measurements are frequently used for statistical process control.
Other CMM applications include audit inspection and calibration of gages and
fixtures. Audit inspection refers to the inspection of incoming parts from a vendor to
ensure that the vendor's quality control systems are reliable. This is usually done on
a sampling basis. In effect, this application is the same as post-process inspection.
Gage and fixture calibration involves the measurement of various gages, fixtures,
and other inspection and production tooling to validate their continued use.
One of the factors that makes a CMM so useful is its accuracy and repeatability. It
can be stated that CMMs performance measures degrade as the size of the machine
increases.

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 CMM Applications and Benefits
Coordinate measuring machines are most appropriate for applications possessing the following
characteristics:
— Many inspectors performing repetitive manual inspection operations. If the inspection
function represents a significant labor cost to the plant, then automating the inspection
procedures will reduce labor cost and increase throughput.
— Post-process inspection. CMMs are applicable only to inspection operations performed
after the manufacturing process.
— Measurement of geometric features requiring multiple contact points. Available CMM
software facilitates evaluation of these features.
— Multiple inspection setups are required if parts are manually inspected. Manual
inspections are generally performed on surface plates using gage blocks, height gages, and
similar devices, and a different setup is often required for each measurement. The same
group of measurements on the part can usually be accomplished in one setup on a CMM.
— Complex part geometry. If many measurements are to be made on a complex part, and
many contact locations arc required, then the cycle time of a DCC CMM will be significantly
less than the corresponding time for a manual procedure.
— High variety of parts to be inspected. A DCC CMM is a programmable machine, capable of
dealing with high parts variety.
— Repeat orders. Using a DCC CMM, once the part program has been prepared for the first
part, subsequent parts from repeat orders can be inspected using the same program.

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 CMM Applications and Benefits
When applied in the appropriate parts quantity-parts variety range, the advantages
of using CMMs over manual inspection methods are:
— Reduced inspection cycle time. Because of the automated techniques included in
the operation of a CMM, inspection procedures are speeded and labor
productivity is improved. A DCC CMM is capable of accomplishing many of the
measurement tasks in one-tenth the time or less, compared with manual
techniques. Reduced inspection cycle time translates into higher throughput.
— Flexibility. A CMM is a general-purpose machine that can be used to inspect a
variety of different part configurations with minimal changeover time. In the case
of the DCC machine, where programming is performed off-line, changeover time
on the CMM involves only the physical setup.
— Reduced operator errors. Automating the inspection procedure has the obvious
effect of reducing human errors in measurements and setups.
— Great inherent accuracy and precision. A CMM is inherently more accurate and
precise than the manual surface plate methods that are traditionally used for
inspection.
— Avoidance of multiple setups. Traditional inspection techniques often require
multiple setups to measure multiple part features and dimensions. In general, all
measurements can be made in a single setup on a CMM, thereby increasing
throughput and measurement accuracy.
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