Tourism Management 34 (2013) 80e90

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Tourism Management
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tourman

“Win in Africa, With Africa”: Social responsibility, event image, and destination
benefits. The case of the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa
Matthew Walker a, *, Kiki Kaplanidou b, Heather Gibson b, Brijesh Thapa b, Sue Geldenhuys c,
Willie Coetzee c
a
University of Southern Mississippi, USA
b
University of Florida, USA
c
Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Applying image transfer related to sponsorship theory and the cognitiveeaffective model of consumer
Received 26 September 2011 behavior, this study explores how the deployment of a socially responsible program by a multinational
Accepted 28 March 2012 (non-governmental) sport organization impacts the image of a mega sport event. Using the 2010 FIFA
World Cup as the research context, the hypothesized model is tested among a sample of international
Keywords: sport tourists (N ¼ 6606) from all nine host cities (ten stadiums) in South Africa during the tournament.
Social responsibility
The structural model results demonstrate that: (1) tourists’ familiarity with the ‘Win in Africa, with
South Africa
Africa’ program, and (2) the perception of FIFA as a socially responsible organization influence event
FIFA World Cup
Event image
image and one form of consumer patronage.
Word-of-mouth Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction (Maennig & Porsche, 2008; Preuss, 2007; Shoval, 2002), which has
bolstered researcher enthusiasm for understanding the intangible
Over the past two decades, nations from around the world have legacies of such events. Historically, however, these intangibles
competed to host mega sport events because countries (and have been viewed only as footnotes (Maennig & Porsche, 2008),
increasingly cities) perceive such events as potential re-imaging including the concepts of national pride and host country image. As
opportunities (Hiller, 2006; Smith, 2005). Particularly for devel- more attention is focused on the overall image of the event, it is
oping nations, mega-events can be integral to redefining a coun- likely that certain ancillary benefits of hosting might include
try’s global status and socio-political composition (Cornelissen, consumer event perceptions, which Chalip (2004) argued are
2008). For example, the 19th FIFA World Cup held in June 11eJuly integrally related to both the image of the event and host nation.
11, 2010 was an opportunity for South Africa to not only achieve In the case of the 2010 FIFA World Cup, the event’s image was
the domestic goals of social cohesion and economic impact, but also especially important for FIFA. Since South Africa is a developing
help the African Continent establish higher international promi- nation with significant poverty, health, and safety issues (Allmers &
nence (Swart & Bob, 2007). Irrespective of the country’s hosting Maennig, 2009), among the most historically troubled, and lowest
objectives, event owners such as the Fédération Internationale de on the Nation Brand Index of any previous host (NBI, 2009),
Football Association (FIFA) and the International Olympic bolstering the event’s image was regarded as a critical success
Committee (IOC) also associate their organizational plans with the metric. From FIFA’s perspective, the way South Africa managed the
event’s image (FIFA, 2010; IOC, 2010). However, there is little tournament was an important test case for other developing nations
empirical support demonstrating if certain organizational strate- with similar characteristics. Given the international exposure of the
gies (e.g., sustainability, social responsibility, environmentalism, World Cup, leveraging the social programs associated with the
etc.) impact event owner perceptions and whether these percep- event was one way of enhancing the perception of FIFA and the
tions in turn influence the event’s image have not been tested. event.
Scholars have suggested that mega-event hosting decisions The primary social effort used to enhance the World Cup was the
should be justified in terms of social, feel-good, and/or image effects ‘Win in Africa, with Africa’ program, established to help the African
continent beyond the event (FIFA, 2010). Boasting a $70 million
* Corresponding author. budget, the program was comprised of three primary objectives: (1)
E-mail address: [email protected] (M. Walker). develop the game of football in Africa; (2) use football to touch the

0261-5177/$ e see front matter Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2012.03.015
 M. Walker et al. / Tourism Management 34 (2013) 80e90 81

African Continent; and (3) use football to build a better future for and social development, health promotion, and the promotion of
Africa. Kott (2005) noted that organizing committees and Non- peace by supporting local organizations around South Africa and
Governmental Organizations (NGO) use events such as the World the African Continent. These programs, coupled with FIFA’s addi-
Cup as catalysts to address pressing social issues and demonstrate tional commitments to the African Continent (and world), helped
their commitment to (corporate) social responsibility (SR). The showcase their socially responsible mission that aligns with their
appeal of the World Cup provided FIFA with a global stage to core product of football.
promote a program with both developmental and socially The examination of FIFA’s social responsibility is important since
responsible underpinnings, in a country where the prevailing social sport (particularly football) has the capacity to serve as a meaningful
conditions were present for such interventions. vehicle to promote and deliver socially beneficial programs (Smith &
While SR scholarship is gaining momentum in the sport and Westerbeek, 2007). The extant research has shown that embracing
tourism literature, limited attention has been devoted to large-scale SR can stimulate positive image perceptions (e.g., Maignan & Ralston,
mega sport events (exceptions include Babiak & Wolfe, 2006; 2002; Margolis & Walsh, 2003); enhance an organization’s reputa-
Walker, Heere, Parent, & Drane, 2010), and studies of how social tion (Walker & Kent, 2009); and drive consumer purchase behaviors
program familiarity and perceptions of an event owner can influ- (e.g., Bhattacharya & Sen, 2004; Mohr & Webb, 2005). However,
ence event image perceptions have not been conducted. In addi- while altruistic intentions may guide social program development,
tion, it is unknown whether efforts by the event owner to bolster the predominant understanding is that most SR activities are
the event’s image will influence the behavioral intentions of responses to demands from consumers who can directly benefit the
consumers. Given this gap in the literature and the relative infancy firm (Siegel, 2009). Porter and Kramer (2002) agreed that while SR
of SR research in sport and tourism, the purpose of this study was to can provide a competitive organizational advantage, it will only do so
test whether familiarity with the ‘Win in Africa, with Africa’ if the cause reciprocally benefits the organization. Therefore, it is not
program influenced the perception of FIFA as socially responsible, surprising that FIFA would financially support and vigorously
and subsequently the image of the 2010 FIFA World Cup. We also promote a program that has direct benefits for both the organization
tested whether a positive event image had a trickledown effect to and the image of their marquee product (i.e., the FIFA World Cup).
other areas of consumer behavior exhibited by international visi- This perspective is particularly germane in a World Cup context
tors to South Africa. because of the significant media attention and public awareness that
encompasses the month-long tournament. This attention affords
2. Research setting: FIFA World Cup and social responsibility FIFA the opportunity to communicate socially desirable messages to
a global audience, which should influence consumer attitudes
Hosting the World Cup yields a variety of impacts on both the toward the organization and its mission.
host region and FIFA as the event owner. For the host destination, The perception of SR refers to the understanding of how effec-
tourism, infrastructure, and economic benefits are the most notable tive an organization meets its societal obligations (Lichtenstein,
(Bohlmann & Van Heerden, 2008; Kim & Morrison, 2005; Ritchie, Drumwright, & Braig, 2004), and evidence that perceived SR
1984), while the social and cultural impacts of the event are also influences the organizational variables of credibility, advocacy, and
evident (Kim & Petrick, 2005). For FIFA, notwithstanding the direct behavioral intentions has been well-documented. For example,
fiduciary benefits derived from the event, image-related outcomes Becker-Olsen, Cudmore, and Hill (2006) demonstrated that SR had
are particularly salient e especially if the event is to be viewed as a positive effect on organizational credibility. Brown, Dacin, Pratt,
operationally successful. In addition, the World Cup is more than and Whetten (2006, p. 105) maintained that the associations
just football; it is about social progress, political unity, and cultural consumers assign to organizations on the basis of SR “. serve as
understanding (FIFA, 2010). Accordingly, FIFA proclaims a respon- the ‘reality’ of the organization for an individual”, and what they
sibility “. to touch the world using football as a symbol of hope believe can ultimately influence other organizational perceptions.
and integration” (FIFA, 2010; para. 3). In their Activity Report (2004, Further, Rifon, Choi, Trimble, and Li (2004) identified that
p. 33), FIFA noted that their social responsibility is not simply consumers perceive an organization as more credible when it
restricted to ‘doing good’, but rather: supported a cause congruent with its operations. The following
theoretical framework supports the proposition that social
. to achieve a lasting effect [in social responsibility]. To this
program familiarity and favorable organizational perceptions can
end, FIFA has maintained numerous partnerships, in some cases
enhance the perceived image of a mega-event.
over several years, with various United Nations organizations, as
well with various Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs). In
3. Theoretical framework
the areas of the rights and protection of children, equality,
health and education, FIFA is helping to tackle some of the
The literature is replete with examples of how and why spon-
biggest social challenges”; and “. More than 40 percent of
soring events can build product awareness, strengthen brand
FIFA’s income goes directly towards supporting the grassroots of
image, and stimulate association transfer between the event and
the game, developmental work, and partnerships with relief
the sponsor (Gwinner, 1997; Gwinner & Eaton, 1999). This transfer
organizations.
of perceptual cues aids to shape consumer (or potential
Beyond their global ‘Football for Hope’ campaign (i.e., a move- consumers’) overall event perceptions (Wohlfeil & Whelan, 2006).
ment using football to achieve social development), the 2010 World For information transfer to take place, however, event sponsors and
Cup was used as a stage to broadcast FIFA’s commitment to regional owners must reach consumers at a cognitive level.
social responsibility (FIFA Activity Report, 2009). For example, the Researchers have both theoretically opined and empirically
‘Win in Africa, with Africa’ program was their most promoted and demonstrated that consumer product knowledge and product-
financially supported initiative to provide tools and skills for South related experiences stimulate information processing, product
Africa (and the African Continent) to continue its own develop- evaluations, and behavioral responses to sponsorship messages
ment. Through this program, FIFA greatly improved the conditions (e.g., Cornwell & Maignan, 1998; Lacey, Close, & Finney, 2010; Pope,
for football in all of Africa by providing specialized football turf for Voges, & Brown, 2009; Tsai, 2007). Researchers have also recog-
52 African nations prior to the start of the 2010 tournament. In nized that both cognitive and affective states can significantly
addition, FIFA also created programs that use football for human influence responses to organizational messages (Eagly & Chaiken,
82 M. Walker et al. / Tourism Management 34 (2013) 80e90

1995; Funk, Haugtvedt, & Howard, 2000; Tripodi, Hirons, Bednall, & The World Cup tournament will better equip consumers with
Sutherland, 2003). Recently, Walker and Heere (2011) demon- information that strengthens their knowledge about FIFA as the
strated (i.e., in a professional sport setting) that a sequential cog- event owner. However, World Cup visitors may already possess
nitive / affective response pattern to SR stimuli molded some knowledge about FIFA prior to attending the event. This prior
consumers’ evaluative judgments. Russell’s (1980) model of affect knowledge can yield a number of perceptions about the event and
supports this argument by suggesting that an affective state does FIFA, particularly if the information is related to SR program
not manifest independently but is closely related to cognition in development. For example, Sen and Bhattacharya (2001) main-
a highly systematic fashion. In other words, there is a cognitive tained that knowledge of an organization’s social efforts can
experience that underpins the affective response, which helps to enhance consumer perceptions of that organization’s products.
steer consumer behavior. This causal sequence supports the use of Klein and Dawar (2004) noted that the economic payback from SR
the cognitiveeaffective model in the current study because manifests in the positive product evaluations and brand recom-
a cognitive evaluation (i.e., familiarity with the ‘Win in Africa’ mendations that consumers display. As well, the literature on SR
program) followed by an affective appraisal (i.e., perception of FIFA demonstrates that: (1) social responsibility assumes a key role in
as socially responsible) were regarded as the antecedent conditions consumer behavior above the ‘rational’ idea of product attributes,
to the event visitor’s disposition about the 2010 World Cup. and (2) social responsibility carries spillover effects on routine
Research on consumers and social responsibility has elaborated consumer judgments (e.g., new product evaluation). Thus, famil-
on this cognitive processing idea by showing that awareness of iarity with the ‘Win in Africa’ program, coupled with the socially
social variables can influence consumer attitudes (e.g., Ellen, Mohr, responsible perceptions of FIFA, is one pathway for consumers to
& Webb, 2000; Sen & Bhattacharya, 2001). This means that positively perceive the image of the event.
consumer knowledge of the ‘Win in Africa, with Africa’ program
Hypothesis 2. The perception of FIFA as socially responsible will
should result in positive perceptions of FIFA as socially responsible,
positively influence the image of the 2010 FIFA World Cup.
which should influence event image perceptions. In the sport and
tourism literature, there is limited research on consumer associa- Hypothesis 3. The perception of FIFA as socially responsible will (at
tions between a social program and an organization, and whether least partially) mediate the relationship between SR familiarity and
this association leads to a positive event image has not been tested. event image.

4. Hypothesis development 4.2. Event image, revisit intentions, and word-of-mouth

4.1. Familiarity of social responsibility and FIFA perceptions Given the use of mega-events as economic and developmental
catalysts, certain organizational and social aspects have been dis-
SR is part of an organization’s discretionary relationships cussed as components of an event’s image (Kaplanidou, 2010).
(Waddock, 2004), which seek to maximize long-term beneficial These image-related concepts carry important implications for the
impacts and positive interactions between the organization and behavioral intentions of event visitors. For example, Kaplanidou
society (Mohr, Webb, & Harris, 2001). Accordingly, SR commitments and Gibson (2010) and Kaplanidou (2007) demonstrated that
are applied to areas such as business ethics, sustainable develop- sport tourists’ intentions to take part in future events were influ-
ment, and other socially perceived ills (WBCSD, 2004). Pomering enced by their image perceptions toward that event. Research has
and Dolcinar (2009) noted that consumers not only expect orga- also suggested that event image perceptions can indirectly influ-
nizations to behave in a socially responsible manner but also want ence sport tourists’ revisit intentions (Kaplanidou & Vogt, 2007).
to be informed about their initiatives. A global marketplace poll This idea was also communicated by Shonk and Chelladurai (2008)
reported that a significant percentage of consumers felt that orga- and Gibson, Qi, and Zhang (2008) who discussed how certain event
nizations should actively communicate their SR activities (Cone Inc., characteristics relate to event image, the perceived event experi-
2004). If the past several years are indicative of SR progression (e.g., ence, and revisit intentions. Similarly, Chen and Funk (2010) found
large-scale promotional efforts), consumer knowledge regarding that certain event characteristics were important attributes that
the social policies of an organization is one of the primary ways influenced sport tourists’ intentions to revisit a destination.
organizational quality is judged. As a result, consumer familiarity
Hypothesis 4. Event image will positively influence the 2010 FIFA
with SR programming plays a key role in forming organizational
World Cup visitors’ revisit intentions to the host destination.
perceptions. In consumer research, familiarity is recognized as
Word-of-mouth is a form of interpersonal communication
a characteristic that influences decision-making processes
concerning a consumer’s experience with an organization, product,
including how information is used in forming organizational
or service (Richins, 1984). Mangold, Miller, and Brockway (1999, p.
perceptions (Fiske & Taylor, 1991). Based on this, consumer famil-
73) described word-of-mouth as a “. dominant force in the
iarity with SR should determine how consumers perceive FIFA.
marketplace”, while Bendapudi and Berry (1997, p. 30) noted that
Hypothesis 1. Familiarity with FIFA’s ‘Win in Africa: With Africa’ word-of-mouth is the “. ultimate test of the customer’s relation-
program will positively influence the perception of FIFA as a socially ship” and shows “. whether the customer is willing to become an
responsible organization. advocate” for a brand.
When consumers are familiar with an organization’s SR The importance of word-of-mouth for sport tourism was iden-
programs, they presumably have developed perceptions about that tified by Thwaites (1999) who underscored the role of a positive
organization. This means that if visitors to the 2010 World Cup are experience and perception of a sport tourism product and its
familiar with FIFA’s African SR programs, the organization’s impact on word-of-mouth. Thwaites found that sport tourists’
messages should carry more personal resonance because famil- overall product perceptions could be associated with the concept of
iarity is an “. accumulation of information” (Mackenzie & Lutz, image, as these perceptions help to depict the brand in the
1989, p. 53). And amassing organizational information, especially consumer’s mind. Keller (1998) suggested that such depictions are
pro-social information, will aid in shaping consumer perceptions of associations, linked in memory, that contain the brand’s meaning
FIFA and their product (e.g., the World Cup tournament). This, and manifest as the image of the brand to the consumer. Therefore,
however, requires reaching consumers at a cognitive level. the perceived image of an event should yield word-of-mouth
 M. Walker et al. / Tourism Management 34 (2013) 80e90 83

communications among the visitors to an event. Image has been a screening question asked potential respondents if they were
discussed primarily as an antecedent to word-of-mouth activity a tourist (i.e., “are you an out of town visitor here for the World
and is recognized as an indicator of consumer loyalty (e.g., Cup?”). If the individual answered “yes”, they were asked to
Andreassen & Lindestad, 1998; Herr, Kardes, & Kim, 1991; Kim, Han, complete the questionnaire which took approximately 20 min. If
& Lee, 2001; de Matos & Vargas Rossi, 2008; Petrick, 2004a,b). For the visitor was not able to read or write, the fieldworker assisted by
example, Andreassen and Lindestad (1998) noted that corporate using an oral interview technique (see Singleton & Straits, 2002).
brand image directly influenced consumer loyalty, which was Data collection began in the late morning and continued until late
measured through positive word-of-mouth recommendations. afternoon at each location.
Additionally, Lee, Lee, and Lee (2005) found that affective evalua- Although an attempt was made to achieve n ¼ 1000 completed
tions of Korea as a World Cup destination positively influenced questionnaires from each site, the target was not achieved due to
word-of-mouth. Thus, if the event’s image is perceived positively, weather conditions, site access issues, and other logistical
then word-of-mouth activity should increase (see Fig. 1 for the constraints. Overall, N ¼ 8422 individuals completed question-
hypothesized relationships). naires, but n ¼ 1816 were excluded because: (1) the respondent did
not provide information about their country of residence, (2) the
Hypothesis 5. Event image will positively influence the 2010 FIFA
respondent reported their country of residence as South Africa, or
World Cup visitors’ word-of-mouth intentions.
(3) there were significant missing data in a particular observation.
Since the missing data accounted for <5% of the sample, we felt
5. Method confident in using listwise deletion to remove these observations.
The analysis was based only on those respondents classified as
5.1. Data collection and sample international visitors to South Africa (N ¼ 6606) representing all ten
match locations (see Fig. 5) in nine host cities for the 2010 FIFA
Data were collected using an onsite intercept method during the World Cup (i.e., Tshwane/Pretoria, n ¼ 787; Johannesburg, n ¼ 938;
course of the month-long tournament (see Fig. 3). In order to reach Nelspruit, n ¼ 680; Polokwane, n ¼ 840; Rustenburg, n ¼ 607;
the a priori target of n ¼ 1000 questionnaires per location, a trained Durban, n ¼ 673; Port Elizabeth, n ¼ 288; Bloemfontein, n ¼ 788;
team of 28 fieldworkers (i.e., students from a major South African Cape Town n ¼ 1005).
university who worked in small teams in each host city, see Fig. 4) The analysis showed that of the 6606 international sport tour-
and two field coordinators administered the questionnaires at ists (see Fig. 6) 73.2% (n ¼ 4715) were male and 26.8% (n ¼ 1722)
several major tourist areas in each city (e.g., match viewing loca- female, and comprised largely of young and middle aged individ-
tions, shopping malls, key tourist areas located close to the match uals between 26 and 35 (44.9%) years old followed by 36e45 (29%).
sites, etc.). The intercept sites were chosen to approximate In terms of household composition, 41.9% reported four to five
a representation of international sport tourists during match-days household members, 36.5% reported two to three members, and
in each city. If a site had multiple entry and exit points, the field- 14% reported six to seven members. Respondents were well-
workers rotated to include all possible areas where the visitors educated as 53.4% had graduated from a university, 22% reported
congregated and departed the location. an advanced degree, and 18.6% reported some college education. A
The fieldworkers also employed systematic random sampling diverse array of countries were reported with the United States
procedures at each location e every fifth person (or group) was (8.4%), United Kingdom (6.7%), Argentina (6.7%), Spain (6.1%), and
selected to complete a questionnaire. Only one adult from each Germany (5.5%) representing the largest groups. Countries of
party was identified (i.e., alternating between male and female) and permanent residence were clustered by geographic region with the

FIFA
Perception

H1 H2

SR Event
Familiarity Image
H3

H5 H4

Word-of- Revisit
Mouth Intentions

Note. The depicted relationships are (at least partially) mediated by FIFA Perception. Program Familiarity has three
aspects that comprise a single variable: (1) develop the game of soccer in Africa, (2) use soccer to touch the
African Continent, and (3) use soccer to build a better future for Africa.

Fig. 1. Hypothesized model for the antecedents of event image.

84 M. Walker et al. / Tourism Management 34 (2013) 80e90

FIFA1 FIFA2 FIFA3 FIFA4 FIFA5

.77 .89 .88 .91 .85

FIFA
Perception
.44a**; .43b** .19a**; .18b**

.89
FAM1

.08a*; .04b
.95 SR Event
FAM2
Familiarity Image
.94
FAM3 .31a**; .38b** .02a**; .07b

Word-of- Revisit
Mouth Intentions
Note. **p < .001; *p < .05
Latent variables are represented as an ellipse;
observed variable is represented as a rectangle. .85 .91 .84 .68
a Coefficient for the full sample
b Coefficient for 5% of the overall sample
WOM1 WOM2 INT1 INT2

Fig. 2. Structural model results.

majority from Europe (44.1%), followed by the Americas (26.1%), from Kaplanidou (2007). The FIFA perception, revisit intentions,
Africa (15.9%), Australia/Oceania (8%), and Asia (5.9%). In addition to and word-of-mouth items were worded as statements asking
these demographics, 86.5% noted that their current visit was their respondents to agree or disagree on a five point Likert scale that
first trip to South Africa, and 72.5% reported the event was their ranged from 1 ¼ “strongly disagree” / 5 ¼ “strongly agree”. The
first World Cup attendance. familiarity questions were worded as statements asking respon-
dents to state how familiar they were on a five point Likert scale
5.2. Measures that ranged from 1 ¼ “not very familiar” / 5 ¼ “very familiar”. The
familiarity questions also contained a sixth anchor (i.e., “never
The items for this study comprised one section of a question- heard of”) in case the respondent was completely unfamiliar with
naire that was part of a larger research project. In total, 14 questions any of the ‘Win in Africa’ programs. The caveat being that when
based on those used in previous research examined the familiarity individuals are aware of existing organizational programs and
with FIFA’s SR programs (3 items; a ¼ .95) adapted from Sen, services, they will likely use this information to assess organiza-
Bhattacharya, and Korshun (2006); perceptions of FIFA as tional messages. It is, therefore, important to distinguish between
a responsible organization (5 items; a ¼ .93) adapted from Lacey actual awareness and perceived awareness because the relation-
et al. (2010); event image (1 item) adapted from Baloglu and ship to consumer attitudes will be linked to the former and not
McCleary (1999); word-of-mouth (2 items; a ¼ .87) adapted from necessarily the latter. In addition, since all “never heard of”
Kim et al. (2001), and revisit intentions (2 items; a ¼ .80) adapted responses comprised less that 6% of the responses for a given item,

Fig. 3. Data collection. Fig. 4. Data collection fieldworkers.

 M. Walker et al. / Tourism Management 34 (2013) 80e90 85

Ó
Fig. 5. Stadium Locations. Source: BBC News/BBC sport/bbc.co.uk e [2010] BBC.

they were removed from the data set for the final analyses. The (SEM) measured the path coefficients. SEM was applicable because
event image question was worded as a singular ‘global’ evaluation it estimates multiple relationships between constructs while
statement on a five point Likert scale ranging from 1 ¼ “very accounting for measurement error and maximizing the variance
negative” / 5 ¼ “very positive. This item was adapted from the explained in the latent and endogenous variables. To test the
destination image literature (see Baloglu & McCleary, 1999), under overall fit, c2 goodness-of-fit, root mean square error of approxi-
the assumption that mega-events (e.g., the FIFA World Cup) are mation (RMSEA), standardized root mean square residual (SRMR),
tourist attractions. comparative fit index (CFI), normed fit index (NFI), and the Tucker-
Lewis index (TLI) were used.
5.3. Analytic technique
6. Results
In order to confirm the factor structure of the scales, the items
and factors were pre-specified and entered into AMOS 18. To assess
6.1. Measurement model test
the fit of the measurement model, a two-step procedure was fol-
lowed (Hoyle & Panter, 1995). In the first step, a confirmatory factor
Using maximum likelihood estimation, the goodness-of-fit
analysis (CFA) was performed to examine the reliability and validity
indices revealed that the four-factor measurement model fit the
of the measurement model, and the discriminant validity of indi-
data and the chi-square statistic for the model was significant,
vidual constructs. In the second step, a structural equation model
albeit inflated (c2 ¼ 1092.45/df ¼ 16.31, p < .001). Since large
sample sizes can produce artificially inflated chi-square results,
multiple fit statistics were considered. According to Hu and Bentler
(1999), the RMSEA indicated an acceptable fit (.048) and the SRMR
(.053) was also acceptable (Kline, 2005). The CFI (.98), NFI (.98), and
TLI (.97) values were also acceptable (Hu & Bentler, 1999). Table 1
shows the means, standard deviations, item loadings, and average
variance extracted (AVE) values. Table 2 shows the covariation
between variables.
Next, the model was tested for evidence of convergent and
discriminant validity. Convergent validity is derived from (a) the
significant size of the factor loadings (average b ¼ .762), (b) AVE’s
exceeding .50 for each construct, and (c) none of the squared
correlations exceeded the lowest AVE score, which were all
confirmed (see Fornell & Larker, 1981). The t-values for all variables
ranged from 11.06 to 14.48 at the p < .001 significance level. These
results suggested that each item significantly contributed to its
underlying construct and the phi coefficients (V) revealed signifi-
Fig. 6. International visitors. cant correlations between factors.
86 M. Walker et al. / Tourism Management 34 (2013) 80e90

Table 1 agreed that FIFA’s desire to touch the world guided their decision to
Measurement model results. host the 2010 World Cup in South Africa; 54.2% agreed or strongly
Factor and items Mean (SD) b AVE agreed that FIFA’s contributions benefit global football events, and
SR familiaritya .78 52.1% agreed or strongly agreed that FIFA is committed to sharing
Develop the game of soccer in Africa 3.68 (1.34) .89 profits to help communities where they sponsor events. In terms of
Use soccer to touch the African continent 3.63 (1.36) .95 the image of the 2010 World Cup, respondent answers were higher
Use soccer to build a better future for Africa 3.69 (1.37) .94
than the scale midpoint as 94.9% felt the event image was some-
FIFA perceptions .73
I like FIFA as an organization 3.61 (1.03) .77 what (45.4%) or very positive (49.5%).
FIFA is involved with the communities 3.54 (1.00) .87
where they sponsor events 6.3. Structural model test
FIFA is committed to sharing profits 3.47 (1.05) .89
to help communities where they
sponsor events
SEM was used to evaluate the model fit and simultaneously
FIFA’s social contributions benefit 3.61 (1.01) .91 estimate the path coefficients between constructs. The SEM was
global soccer events constructed as a hybrid model (i.e., a combination of observed
FIFA’s genuine desire to touch 3.68 (1.04) .85 variables and latent factor) because the dependent variable was
Africa guided their decision to
observed and two of the latent factors had two items each (Kline,
host in South Africa
Event image e 2005). Determined by the hypotheses, we began the structural
How would you rate the image 4.27 (.69) e test with model specification to create a statement of relationships
of the 2010 FIFA World Cup in between the latent and observed variables was conducted (i.e.,
South Africa FAM, SR, IMG, INT, and WOM). The model specified familiarity with
Word-of-mouth .79
I will encourage friends and 4.35 (.64) .85
FIFA’s programs and SR perception as an antecedent of event
relatives to visit South Africa image; while event image was as an antecedent of revisit intentions
for a vacation and word-of-mouth patronage (see Fig. 2).
I will recommend South Africa as 4.34 (.68) .90 The test of this sequence confirmed an acceptable fit to the data
a vacation destination to anyone who asks
(c2 ¼ 1192.21/df ¼ 19.870, p ¼ .000, RMSEA ¼ .053, SRMR ¼ .060,
Revisit intentions .80
I will likely revisit South Africa 4.19 (.83) .84 CFI ¼ .98, NFI ¼ .98, TLI ¼ .97). Similar to the CFA, the inflated chi-
again for a vacation in the next three years square can be attributed to the large sample size. Therefore, the CFI,
I will likely plan to visit other 4.20 (.82) .69 NFI, and TLI were used as goodness-of-fit indicators (Klem, 2000).
countries on the African continent The path coefficients were all significant and the related hypoth-
for a vacation
eses appeared to be supported by the SEM. However, two path
b ¼ Standardized regression coefficients. coefficients (i.e., FAM / IMG and IMG / INT) were small and
AVE ¼ Average Variance Extracted for each construct.
a explained little variance on the dependent variable. This presum-
Items were preceded with the question: “How familiar are you with the
following FIFA programs?”. ably is a Type I error issue (i.e., false positive) resulting from the
large sample size. To probe this result further, a second structural
test using 5% of the overall sample (n ¼ 380) was performed. The
6.2. Descriptive results model test again confirmed an acceptable fit to the data
(c2 ¼ 129.34/df ¼ 2.15, p ¼ .000, RMSEA ¼ .057, SRMR ¼ .049,
A summary of means, standard deviations, and correlations are CFI ¼ .98, NFI ¼ .96, TLI ¼ .97); this time, with a chi-square in the
provided in Table 3. Inspection of the correlation matrix revealed appropriate range. However, the two path coefficients in question
moderate correlations between constructs, all of which were below were not statistically significant (p ¼ .482 and p ¼ .135 respec-
r ¼ .53 (the highest correlation was Revisit Intentions 4 Word-of- tively). Based on this result, we determined that Type I error
Mouth). Respondents were asked about their familiarity with FIFA’s resulting from a large sample was indeed the case (see Fig. 2 for the
‘Win in Africa, with Africa’ program. A mean score higher than the all coefficients). All hypotheses were supported except for H4.
scale midpoint was reported for each of the items. Specifically, In addition to the structural model tests, a mediation test
54.2% indicated that they were familiar or very familiar with FIFA’s provides support for the effects shown in Fig. 2. Hypothesis 3 stated
program to “develop the game of football in Africa” (5.4% “never that the perception of FIFA would mediate (at least partially) the SR
heard of”); 51.4% were familiar or very familiar with the program to familiarity / event image relationship. According to Judd and
“build a better future for Africa” (6.2% “never heard of”); and 52.4% Kenny (1981) there are three conditions that must be met for
were familiar or very familiar with their program to “touch the mediation to occur: (1) the direct effect of the exogenous variable on
continent of Africa” (6.7% “never heard of”). the mediating variable must be significant (which was confirmed),
Respondents were also asked about their perceptions of FIFA as (2) the effect of the mediator on the endogenous variable must be
a socially responsible organization. Attitudes were slightly higher significant (which was confirmed), and (3) when controlling for the
than the scale midpoint (i.e., means higher than 3.0). Specifically, mediator, the direct effect between the exogenous and endogenous
58.5% agreed or strongly agreed they like FIFA as an organization; variables will drop close to zero (for partial mediation) or be non-
57.6% agreed or strongly agreed that FIFA is involved with the significant (for full mediation). Since the direct effect was non-
communities where they sponsor events; 56.5% agreed or strongly significant, evidence of full mediation exists because 90% of the
effect of FAM on IMG was mediated by perceived SR.
Table 2
Covariance matrix. 7. Discussion
FAM SR WOM INT
FAM e .016 .011 .011 The purpose of the study was to examine the influence of FIFA’s
SR .450 e .007 .007 ‘Win in Africa, with Africa’ program on 2010 World Cup visitors’
WOM .036 .078 e .008 attitudes toward FIFA, the image of the event, revisit intentions, and
INT .084 .084 .279 e word-of-mouth intentions. To serve this purpose, image transfer
Note. Below diagonal ¼ covariance; above diagonal ¼ standard error. related to sponsorship theory and the cognitiveeaffective model
 M. Walker et al. / Tourism Management 34 (2013) 80e90 87

Table 3
Means, standard deviations, internal consistencies, and correlations.

Construct Abbr. Mean Standard deviation a Correlation matrix

FAM SR IMG WOM INT

SR familiarity FAM 3.66 1.30 .95 1.00
FIFA SR perception SR 3.58 .912 .93 .419** 1.00
Event imagea IMG 4.27 .691 e .164** .228** 1.00
Word-of-mouth WOM 4.35 .620 .87 .040** .149** .285** 1.00
Revisit intentions INT 4.20 .733 .80 .098** .168** .225** .535** 1.00

Note. **p < .001.

a
Single-item measure.

acted as theoretical guides. In total, five hypotheses were tested. communicated, the reciprocal benefits to the event owner can be
Four were supported and one was rejected. Hypothesis 1, which valuable, particularly for shaping the overall image of the event.
stated that familiarity with FIFA’s ‘Win in Africa, with Africa’ Since this was the first World Cup hosted by an African nation,
program will influence the perception of FIFA as a socially respon- the image of the event was associated with many pervasive images
sible organization, was supported. Hypothesis 2, which stated that that include poverty, health issues, and overall limited national
the perception of FIFA as socially responsible will positively influ- development. Such existing conditions may have been used by FIFA
ence the image of the 2010 World Cup, was supported. Hypothesis to illustrate how the organization could impart positive social
3, which stated that the positive disposition toward FIFA as socially change. It will be interesting to see if similar findings are associated
responsible mediated the influence of program familiarity on event with the 2016 FIFA World Cup in Brazil, another emerging economy
image, was also supported. Hypothesis 4, which stated that event with similar economic and social conditions. Certainly it appears
image would influence revisit intentions, was not supported. that when one of the goals is positive attitude formation among
Finally, Hypothesis 5, which stated that a positive event image will event visitors, efforts to promote SR with the event should be
influence word-of-mouth intentions, was supported. encouraged. Moreover, such efforts are critical because the
Support for Hypothesis 1 underscores the influence of SR perception of FIFA as socially responsible influenced the visitor’s
program familiarity on consumer attitudes and aligns with previous event image perceptions, supporting Hypothesis 2. Perhaps this
research, suggesting that familiarity of social variables can influence finding is best understood in terms of the idea that knowledge of an
consumer attitudes. Although the results show that familiarity did organization’s social efforts can enhance consumer perceptions of
not directly influence event image perceptions, this finding lends a product (e.g., the World Cup). Moreover, support for Hypothesis 3
support for the cognitiveeaffective model where a favorable regarding the mediating effect of FIFA perceptions emphasized the
response was contingent on two conditions: (1) the World Cup importance of positive attitude formation among event visitors,
visitor was familiar with FIFA’s African programs (i.e., cognitive), toward the event owner (in general) and the event (in particular).
and (2) the World Cup visitor held a positive socially responsible Furthermore, since sport tourists tend to perceive organizational
perception of FIFA as the event owner (i.e., affective). In other words, aspects as part of an event’s image (Kaplanidou, 2010), these
SR familiarity failed to predict a positive event image because this aspects (if mismanaged) can influence sport tourists’ event image
connection was only possible via the cognitive / affective causal perceptions. The latter finding implies that characteristics,
link. This result identifies perceived SR as a potential route through programs, or initiatives associated with FIFA could also be consid-
which social responsibility is related to event image perceptions. As ered part of the event and in all likelihood will influence consumer
such, the significant familiarity / perception / event image general perceptions of the event.
causal chain suggests that FIFA’s social responsibility influenced the Another result that pertains to the lack of support for
perceived event image and is a pathway through which image is Hypothesis 4 relates to the lack of influence of overall event image
realized on the basis of an affective appraisal of a cognitive on intentions to revisit the destination. This, however, was not
experience. altogether surprising since previous research has noted that event
A growing body of literature has shown that responses to SR are image perceptions of the Olympic Games did not influence inten-
subject to the attributions (i.e., perceived organizational motives) tions to revisit the destination (see Kaplanidou, 2007). A potential
that consumers ascribe to a socially responsible initiative. This explanation for this may not reside on whether the event image
point was evidenced by Walker et al. (2010) whose findings point to was perceived positively, but on the correspondence of the measure
the role of SR on visitor attitudes toward the IOC during the 2008 to predict a behavioral outcome. In other words, having a positive
Beijing Summer Olympic Games. The authors demonstrated that event image may be a more suitable (corresponding) measure for
patronage behaviors were subject to the perceived motives (i.e., intentions to attend the next World Cup. However, given more
values-driven, stakeholder-driven, strategic) of the IOC. Coupled recent evidence of a potential mediation of destination image
with these findings, the current results show that event owners and perceptions influencing intent to revisit the destination
sponsors, who wish to derive maximum image-related benefits (Kaplanidou & Vogt, 2007), and the influential role of event image
from SR engagement, should first consider how they are perceived on destination image (Kaplanidou, 2009), it is recommended that
by their consumers. future research should examine destination image as a mediating
The results also illustrate that the majority of World Cup visitors variable between event image and revisit intentions for the desti-
were quite familiar with the ‘Win in Africa, with Africa’ program. nation for sport tourists.
Thus, it appears that FIFA effectively communicated their SR Word-of-mouth and revisit intentions are commonly used as
message by providing details about how their organization has measures of loyalty in the tourism literature (Kim et al., 2001;
addressed certain social issues in South Africa. This potentially Petrick, 2004a). Word-of-mouth is regarded as a primary source of
resulted from the overall popularity of football and the global information for the visitors’ friends and relatives and revisit
interest in the event, which could have motivated more fans to intentions directly signal ones affinity with a certain destination
access the Internet to learn more about the event and its associated (Fesenmaier & Vogt, 1993). The current results reinforce how word-
programs. Nevertheless, it appears that when SR messages are of-mouth intentions, on the basis of event image, signify both the
88 M. Walker et al. / Tourism Management 34 (2013) 80e90

appeal of a tourist destination and an outcome of a positive event 8.2. Limitations and delimitations
image. As examples, Andreassen and Lindestad (1998) maintained
that image directly influenced word-of-mouth and Lee et al. (2005) Irrespective of the significant findings, this study is not without
found that word-of-mouth was predicted by experiencing limitations. First, all the distributed questionnaires were in English,
a successful mega-event. Since one of the goals of hosting a mega- which may have delimited participation by non-English speaking
event is increased tourism after the event, and word-of-mouth is visitors. The data collection across ten match sites was a complex
influential in promoting such an increase, the foregoing literature undertaking, and while questionnaires in multiple languages would
underscores the importance of considering perceptions of both the have been desirable, it was impractical given the geographically
event and the event owner (i.e., FIFA). This finding carries impor- disparate host sites during the 2010 FIFA World Cup. While the
tant implications for the way tourism, sport event owners, and sample characteristics suggest people from various nations were
organizing committees should cooperate to leverage event legacies represented, it is acknowledged that others may have been
and work toward co-branding the event owner, the actual event, precluded from the sample. In addition, due to the necessity to
and the destination. minimize questionnaire length to maximize the response rate,
A final theoretical implication relates to the distinction of some concepts (e.g., event image) could have benefited from using
behavioral outcomes influenced by event image. Although the extant multiple-items. However, a global measure of image is predicted by
literature has treated word-of-mouth and intention to purchase multi-item scales of cognitive and affective image (Baloglu &
under the umbrella of post experience evaluations, it is evident that McCleary, 1999). Hence, a single-item measure was employed in
event experience can influence the former and not necessarily the this study.
latter. Therefore, a differentiated variable seems to be a more
appropriate approach to understand behaviors of sport tourists. 9. Final thoughts

8. Conclusions In quite possibly the only empirical study able to capture visitor
perceptions of a FIFA World Cup at each host site, this study
8.1. Recommendations examined SR, event image, revisit and word-of-mouth intentions
associated with hosting a mega sport event. While much of the
The results lead to a few practical recommendations. First, the existing research has focused on the event’s impact on destination
level of SR familiarity was a key factor in enhancing visitor attitudes image, this study examined perceptions and images associated with
toward FIFA and the event. Therefore, promotional efforts aimed at the event owner and the connection to event image. Based on
influencing the attitudes of visitors should be implemented before, a comprehensive sampling approach, the findings support the
during, and after the event. Additionally, benefits from SR growing importance of SR programs for international, non-
programming could assist in the transfer of outcomes that result governmental sport organizations. Notably, the creation and
from increased familiarity. FIFA should provide visitors with elec- promotion of a SR program is an important driver of attitudes
tronic platforms such as blogs or specialized Facebook applications toward the event owner, and as an anteceded of event image, which
to facilitate word-of-mouth activity, and evaluate the impact of this significantly influenced word-of-mouth intentions. The importance
two-way engagement. For event organizers, successful event of word-of-mouth, however, needs to be viewed as separate from
hosting is important for a positive event image formation. In revisit intentions. It appears that rather than focusing on the revisit
collaboration with FIFA, it is recommended that future World Cup intentions of sport tourists, it is prudent to examine intentions to
organizing committees utilize co-branding and co-programming attend the next event associated with the event owner. This means,
strategies (e.g., teaming event offerings with promotional mate- for traveling sport fans, attributes associated with the sport itself
rials) to elicit or maintain a positive event image. may be more important than those of the host destination.
Second, the implications for revisit intentions should be subject
to further examination. Willingness to recommend the destination Acknowledgment
is an influential concept that should be harnessed by event and
destination marketing organizations. However, sport tourists’ This research is based from a larger project which was a joint
revisit intentions seem uncertain (i.e., at least in this context). partnership between Tshwane University of Technology (South
Given the current sample of World Cup fans, perhaps respondents Africa) and the University of Florida (United States). We are very
were more interested in attending the event than revisiting the grateful to Tshwane University of Technology (TUT) for the major
destination, an idea that has been supported in past research financial contribution to conduct numerous projects related to this
(Kaplanidou, 2007). event. We would like to especially thank Dr. Prins Nevhutalu,
It is recommended that future host nations examine the inten- Deputy Vice-Chancellor-Research, Innovation & Partnership at TUT
tions to attend subsequent World Cup tournaments. Perhaps the for his vision and commitment. The project benefited from the
patterns identified in non-sport tourism research, where revisit work and time of many participants and numerous assistants at
intentions seem to be influenced by other factors such as the travel various sampled locations. We owe our gratitude to all student
motive novelty (i.e., see and experience something new), may also assistants in South Africa and the U.S. for their commitment to
be relevant in sport tourism contexts. Alternatively, the sport itself successful implementation of this project.
may be a more powerful motive that supersedes the attraction of
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