EE6504 - Electrical Machines - II

Syllabus
• UNIT I SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR
• Constructional details – Types of rotors –winding factors- emf equation – Synchronous
reactance – Armature reaction – Phasor diagrams of non salient pole synchronous
generator connected to infinite bus--Synchronizing and parallel operation – Synchronizing
torque -Change of excitation and mechanical input- Voltage regulation – EMF, MMF, ZPF
and A.S.A methods – steady state power angle characteristics– Two reaction theory –slip
test -short circuit transients - Capability Curves

• UNIT II SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

• Principle of operation – Torque equation – Operation on infinite bus bars - V and Inverted V
curves – Power input and power developed equations – Starting methods – Current loci for
constant power input, constant excitation and constant power developed-Hunting –
natural frequency of oscillations – damper windings- synchronous condenser.

• UNIT III THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

• Constructional details – Types of rotors –- Principle of operation – Slip –cogging and
crawling- Equivalent circuit – Torque-Slip characteristics - Condition for maximum torque –
Losses and efficiency – Load test - No load and blocked rotor tests - Circle diagram –
Separation of losses – Double cage induction motors –Induction generators – Synchronous
induction motor.
• UNIT IV STARTING AND SPEED CONTROL OF THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
• Need for starting – Types of starters – DOL, Rotor resistance, Autotransformer
and Star-delta starters – Speed control – Voltage control, Frequency control and
pole changing – Cascaded connection-V/f control – Slip power recovery scheme-
Braking of three phase induction motor: Plugging, dynamic braking and
regenerative braking.

• UNIT V SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS AND SPECIAL MACHINES

• Constructional details of single phase induction motor – Double field revolving
theory and operation – Equivalent circuit – No load and blocked rotor test –
Performance analysis – Starting methods of single-phase induction motors –
Capacitor-start capacitor run Induction motor- Shaded pole induction motor -
Linear induction motor – Repulsion motor - Hysteresis motor - AC series motor-
Servo motors- Stepper motors - introduction to magnetic levitation systems.
• TEXT BOOKS:
• 1. A.E. Fitzgerald, Charles Kingsley, Stephen. D.Umans, ‘Electric
Machinery’, Tata
• Mc Graw Hill publishing Company Ltd, 2003.
• 2. D.P. Kothari and I.J. Nagrath, ‘Electric Machines’, Tata McGraw
Hill Publishing Company Ltd, 2002.
• 3. P.S. Bhimbhra, ‘Electrical Machinery’, Khanna Publishers, 2003.

• REFERENCES:
• 1. M.N.Bandyopadhyay, Electrical Machines Theory and Practice,
PHI Learning PVT LTD., New Delhi, 2009.
• 2. Charless A. Gross, “Electric /Machines, “CRC Press, 2010.
• 3. K. Murugesh Kumar, ‘Electric Machines’, Vikas Publishing
House Pvt. Ltd, 2002.
• 4. Syed A. Nasar, Electric Machines and Power Systems: Volume I,
Mcgraw -Hill College; International ed Edition, January 1995.
• 5. Alexander S. Langsdorf, Theory of Alternating-Current
Machinery, Tata McGraw Hill Publications, 2001.
 Types of Electrical Machines
• There are basic three types of rotating machines,
• 1.DC Machines
• i. Shunt
• ii. Series
• iii. Compound
• 2.Synchronous Machines (A.C)
• i. Salient Pole type
• ii. Non Salient Pole type
• 3.Asynchronous (or) Induction Machines (A.C)
• i. Three phase (3Φ) Induction Motor
• Squirrel Cage type
• Slip Ring type
• ii. Single phase (1Φ) Induction Motor.
UNIT I - SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR
Faradays Laws of Electromagnet Induction
DC Generators
Single Phase Generator
Two Phase Generator
Three Phase Generator
 Alternators
• The machine which produces 3-phase power from mechanical
power is called an alternator or synchronous generator.

• Alternators are the primary source of all the electrical energy we

consume.

• Largest energy converters

• An alternator operates on the same fundamental principle of

electromagnetic induction as a DC generator

• In a DC generator, the armature winding is placed on the rotor and

the field poles are placed on the stationary part of the machine.

• In alternators the armature windings are placed in stationary parts

and field poles are placed on the rotor.
 Advantages of stationary armature
• (i) It is easier to insulate stationary winding for high voltages

• They are not subjected to centrifugal forces and also extra space
is available due to the stationary arrangement of the armature.

• (ii) The stationary 3-phase armature can be directly connected to

load without going through large, unreliable slip rings and
brushes.

• (iii) Only two slip rings are required for d.c. supply to the field
winding on the rotor.

• Since the exciting current is small, the slip rings and brush gear
required are of light construction.

• (iv) Improved ventilation arrangement.

 Construction of Alternator
• Stator
• It is composed of a cylindrical laminated core containing a set of
slots that carry a 3 phase lap winding.

• The winding is always connected in wye and the neutral is

connected to ground.
– The voltage per phase is only 1 / √3 or 58% of the voltages
between the lines.
– The highest voltage between a stator conductor and the
grounded stator core is only 58% of line voltage.
– Can reduce the amount of insulation in the slots which in turn
enables us to increase the cross section of the conductors.
– Larger conductor permits us to increase the current and hence
the power output of the machine
– Under load the voltage induced in each phase becomes distorted
and the wave form is no longer sinusoidal.
– Third order harmonic voltages whose frequency is three times
the fundamental frequency.
– The distorting line-to-neutral harmonics cancel each other.
– In delta connection it is add up and increase the I2R losses.
– The nominal line voltage of a synchronous generator depends
upon its KVA rating.
– The nominal line to line voltage is not exceeding 25KV.

– Armature winding in an alternator may be either closed type

open type.

– Closed winding forms star connection in armature winding of

alternator.
• The stator frame is made up of cast iron for small size
machines and for large machine-steel.

• In order to reduce the hysteresis and eddy current losses,

the stator core is assembled with high grade silicon
content steel laminations.

• The slots for housing the armature conductors lie along

the inner periphery of the core.
• Common properties of armature winding
• First and most important property of an armature winding is, two
sides of any coil should be under two adjacent poles. That means,
coil span = pole pitch.

The pole pitch is defined as peripheral distance between center of two adjacent poles in DC
machine.

• The winding can either be single layer or double layer.

• Winding is so arranged in different armature slots, that it must

produce sinusoidal emf.
 Types of Armature Winding of Alternator
• Single phase and poly phase armature winding.
• Concentrated winding and distributed winding.
• Half coiled and whole coiled winding.
• Single layer and double layer winding.
• Lap, wave and concentric or spiral winding and
• Full pitched coil winding and fractional pitched coil winding.
Rotor
• The rotor carries a field winding which is supplied with direct
current through two slip rings by a separate d.c. source.
• This d.c. source (called exciter) is generally a small d.c. shunt or
compound generator mounted on the shaft of the alternator.
– (i) Salient (or projecting) pole type
– (ii) Non-salient (or cylindrical) pole type
• Salient pole type
• The salient or projecting poles are mounted on a large circular
steel frame which is fixed to the shaft of the alternator .

• The individual field pole windings are connected in series

in such a way that when the field winding is energized by
the d.c. exciter, adjacent poles have opposite polarities.
 • Low and medium-speed alternators (120-
400 r.p.m.) such as those driven by diesel
engines or water turbines have salient
pole type rotors.

• (a) The salient field poles would cause an

excessive windage loss if driven at high
speed and would tend to produce noise.

• (b) Salient-pole construction cannot be

made strong enough to withstand the
mechanical stresses to which they may
be subjected at higher speeds.

• Low-speed rotors always possess a large diameter to provide the necessary spate
for the poles.

• Consequently, salient-pole type rotors have large diameters and short axial
lengths.
Damper winding
Non-salient pole type
• In this type, the rotor is made of smooth solid forged-steel radial
cylinder having a number of slots along the outer periphery.
• The field windings are embedded in these slots and are connected
in series to the slip rings through which they are energized by the
d.c. exciter.
• The regions forming the poles are usually
left un slotted.
• The non-salient poles do not project out
from the rotor surface.
• High-speed alternators (1500 or 3000 r.p.m.)
• (a) This type of construction has mechanical
robustness and gives noiseless operation.
(b) The flux distribution around the
periphery is nearly a sine wave and hence
a better e.m.f. waveform is obtained than
in the case of salient-pole type.
Field Excitation
Brushless Excitation
 Frequency
• The frequency of induced e.m.f. in the armature conductors
depends upon speed and the number of poles.
• Let N = rotor speed in r.p.m. P = number of rotor poles
• f = frequency of e.m.f. in Hz
• Consider a stator conductor that is successively swept by the N and
S poles of the rotor.
• If a positive voltage is induced when a N-pole sweeps across the
conductor, a similar negative voltage is induced when a S-pole
sweeps by.
• This means that one complete cycle of e.m.f. is generated in the
conductor as a pair of poles passes.
• It may be noted that N is the synchronous speed and is generally
represented by Ns.

• For a given alternator, the number of rotor poles is fixed and,

therefore, the alternator must be run at synchronous speed to give
an output of desired frequency.

• For this reason, an alternator is sometimes called synchronous

generator.
 AC Armature Windings
• A.C. armature windings are always of the non salient-pole type and are usually
symmetrically distributed in slots around the complete circumference of the
armature.
• Distributed winding generates a voltage wave that is nearly a sine curve.
• Therefore, heating is more uniform and this type of winding is more easily
cooled.
• A.C. armature windings are generally
open-circuit type.

• A.C. armature windings may use full-pitch coils or

fractional-pitch coils.
• A coil with a span of 180° electrical is called
a full-pitch coil.

• A coil with a span of less than 180° electrical is called a fractional-pitch coil.
– Less copper is required per coil
– The waveform of the generated voltage is improved.
• Double layer armature windings.
• In a double layer winding, one coil side lies in the upper half of one slot while the
other coil side lies in the lower half of another slot spaced about one-pole pitch
from the first one.

• It is economical to manufacture.
• The three windings of the three phases are identical but spaced 120 electrical
degrees apart.

• A group of adjacent slots belonging to one phase under one pole pair is known as
phase belt.

• The angle subtended by a phase belt is known as phase spread.

• The 3-phase windings are always designed for 60° phase spread.
Phase spread Where field winding on the rotor to produce 2 poles and the
stator carries 12 conductors housed in 12 slots
 Winding Factors
• The fractional pitched armature winding requires less copper per
coil and at the same time waveform of output voltage is unproved.
• The distribution and pitching of the coils affect the voltages induced
in the coils.

• (i) Distribution factor (Kd), also called breadth factor

• (ii) Pitch factor (Kp), also known as chord factor

• Distribution factor (Kd)

• A winding with only one slot per pole per phase is called a
concentrated winding.

• In this type of winding, the e.m.f. generated/phase is equal to the

arithmetic sum of the individual coil e.m.f.s in that phase.
• If the coils/phase are distributed over several slots in space, the
e.m.f.s in the coils are not in phase.
• but are displaced from each by the slot angle α.
• The angular displacement in electrical degrees between the
adjacent slots is called slot angle.
• The e.m.f./phase will be the phasor sum of coil e.m.f.s.
• The distribution factor Kd is defined as:
• The distribution factor can be determined by constructing a phasor
diagram for the coil e.m.f.s.

• Let n = 3.
• The three coil e.m.f.s are shown as phasors AB, BC and CD

• each of which is a chord of circle with centre at O and subtends an

angle α at O.

• The phasor sum of the coil e.m.f.s subtends an angle n α at O.

• Draw perpendicular bisectors of each chord such as
Ox, Oy etc

sin( nr / 2)
K dr 
nr sin( / 2)

• Where r is the order of the harmonics

 Pitch factor (Kp)
• The e.m.f. induced in a short-pitch coil is less than that of a full pitch
coil.
• The factor by which e.m.f. per coil is reduced is called pitch factor
Kp. It is defined as:

• Consider a coil AB which is short-pitch by an angle β electrical

degrees as shown in Fig.
• The e.m.f.s generated in the coil sides
A and B differ in phase by an angle
β and can be represented by phasors
EA and EB respectively as shown in Fig.

• The diagonal of the parallelogram

represents the resultant e.m.f. ER of the
• For a full-pitch winding, Kp = 1.
• For a short-pitch winding, Kp < 1.
• β is always an integer multiple of the slot angle α.
E.M.F. Equation of an Alternator
  40 0
   180 / 9  200 n  36 /(4 x 3)  3

  30 0 n6
  180 / 9  200 n  144 /(16 x 3)  3
 Armature Reaction in Alternator
• The effect of armature flux on the flux produced by field ampere-
turns is called armature reaction.

– The armature flux and the flux produced by rotor ampere-turns rotate
at the same speed (synchronous speed) in the same direction and,
therefore, the two fluxes are fixed in space relative to each other.

– The modification of flux in the air-gap due to armature flux depends

on the magnitude of stator current and on the power factor of the
load.

– The load power factor determines whether the armature flux distorts,
opposes or helps the flux produced by rotor ampere-turns.

– (i) When load p.f. is unity

– (ii) When load p.f. is zero lagging
– (iii) When load p.f. is zero leading
• When load p.f. is unity

• The armature flux is at 90° to the main flux (due to rotor current)
and is behind the main flux.
• The flux in the air-gap is distorted but not weakened.
• Therefore, at unity p.f., the effect of armature reaction is merely to
distort the main field and the average flux practically remains the
same.
• The flux distortion remains the same for all positions of the rotor.
When load p.f. is zero lagging
• The current lags behind the voltage by 90°.
• Current will be maximum at zero e.m.f. and vice-versa.

• When the alternator is supplying a pure inductive load, the current

in phase R1, R2 will not reach its maximum value until N-pole
advanced 90° electrical.
• Now the armature flux is from right to left and field flux is from left
to right All the flux produced by armature current opposes be field
flux and, therefore, weakens it.
• This causes a reduction in the generated e.m.f.
• When load p.f. is zero leading
• The current in armature windings will lead the induced e.m.f. by
90°.

• It is clear that armature flux is now in the same direction as the field
flux and, therefore, strengthens it.
• This causes an increase in the generated voltage.
• Hence at zero p.f. leading, the armature reaction strengthens the
main flux.
• For intermediate values of p.f, the effect of armature reaction is
partly distorting and partly weakening for inductive loads.
• For capacitive loads, the effect of armature reaction is partly
distorting and partly strengthening.
 Alternator on Load
• Fig shows Y-connected alternator
supplying inductive load.
• When the load on the alternator is
increased
• the field excitation and speed being
kept constant, the terminal
voltage V (phase ) of the alternator decreases.

• (i) Voltage drop IaRa where Ra is the armature resistance per phase.

• (ii) Voltage drop IaXL where XL is the armature leakage reactance per
phase.

• (iii) Voltage drop because of armature reaction.

• Armature Resistance (Ra)
• Due to the armature or stator winding resistance.
• IaRa drop is negligible for all practical purposes.
• Armature Leakage Reactance (XL)
• When current flows through the armature winding, flux is set up
and a part of it does not cross the air-gap and links the coil sides.

• This leakage flux alternates with current and gives the winding self-
inductance.
• This is called armature leakage reactance.
• XL value is higher than Xa and IaXL reduces the terminal voltage
Armature reaction
• The load is generally inductive and the effect of armature reaction is
to reduce the generated voltage.
• Its effect is of the nature of an inductive reactance.
• Armature reaction effect is accounted for by assuming the presence
of a fictitious reactance XAR in the armature winding.
• Equivalent Circuit
• E0 = No-load e.m.f.
• E = Load induced e.m.f.
• It is equal to phasor
difference of E0 and IaXAR.
• V = Terminal voltage.
• E = V + Ia (Ra + j XL )
• E0 = E + Ia ( jXAR )
• Synchronous Reactance (Xs)
• The sum of armature leakage reactance (XL) and reactance of
armature reaction (XAR) is called synchronous reactance Xs.
• Xs = XL + XAR
• It is a fictitious reactance
employed to account for the
voltage effects in the
armature circuit produced by
the actual armature leakage reactance and the change in the air-gap
flux caused by armature reaction.
• Synchronous impedance Zs = Ra + j Xs

• E0 = V + IaZs = V + Ia (Ra+ j Xs)

• Phasor Diagram of a Loaded Alternator


O
V

Ia
 
O
V

Ia
• Voltage Regulation
• The voltage regulation of an alternator is defined as the change in
terminal voltage from no-load to full-load divided by full-load
voltage.

• The factors affecting the voltage regulation of an alternator are:

• (i) IaRa drop in armature winding
• (ii) IaXL drop in armature winding
• (iii) Voltage change due to
armature reaction

• For leading load p.f., the no-load voltage is less than the full-load
voltage. Hence voltage regulation is negative in this case.
 Determination of Voltage Regulation
• The kVA ratings of commercial alternators are very high (e.g. 500
MVA).
• It is neither convenient nor practicable to determine the voltage
regulation by direct loading.
• several indirect methods are available.

1. Synchronous Impedance or EMF method 2) Ampere turn or MMF

method
2. Zero power factor or Potier method 4) ASA method

• All these methods require

• Armature (or stator) Resistance Ra
• Open Circuit or No load Characteristic (OCC)
• Short Circuit Characteristic (SCC)
• (i) Armature resistance
• The armature resistance Ra per phase is determined by using DC
and the voltmeter-ammeter method.
• The effective armature resistance (AC resistance) is greater than this
value due to skin effect.
• It is a usual practice to take the effective resistance 1.5 times the
d.c. value (Ra = 1.5 Rdc).
• (ii) Open-circuit characteristic (O.C.C)
• Open-circuit characteristic of an alternator is the curve between
armature terminal voltage on open circuit and the field current
when the alternator is running at rated speed.
• (iii) Short-circuit characteristic (S.C.C.)
• In a short-circuit test, the alternator is run at rated speed and the
armature terminals are short-circuited through identical ammeters.

• The field current If is gradually increased from zero until the short-
circuit armature current ISC .
 Synchronous Impedance Method
• In this method of the voltage regulation of an alternator is
calculated using Zs.
• The synchronous impedance Zs of the alternator from the O.C.C. and
S.S.C.
• For this reason, it is called synchronous impedance method.
• The method involves the following steps:
• (i) Plot the O.C.C. and S.S.C. on the same field current base Consider
a field current If.
• The open-circuit voltage corresponding to this field current is E1.
• The short-circuit armature current corresponding to field current If
is I1.
• The voltage E1 is being used to circulate the short-circuit armature
current I1 against the synchronous impedance Zs.
• Since Ra can be found as earlier, synchronous reactance,

E0  (OB 2  BD 2 )

E0  [(V cos   IRa ) 2  (V sin   IX s ) 2 ]

• Drawback
• This method if easy but it gives approximate results.

• The combined effect of XL (armature leakage reactance) and XAR is

measured on short-circuit.

• Since the current in this condition is almost lagging 90°, the

armature reaction will provide its worst demagnetizing effect.

• It follows that under any normal operation at, say 0.8 or 0.9 lagging
power factors will produce error in calculations.

• This method gives a value higher than the value obtained from an
actual load test.

• For this reason, it is called pessimistic method.

I  100000 / 3 / 3000
 Ampere-Turn Method
• This method of finding voltage regulation considers the opposite
view to the synchronous impedance method.
• It assumes the armature leakage reactance to be additional
armature reaction.
• Neglecting armature resistance (always small),
• It assumes that change in terminal potential difference on load is
due entirely to armature reaction.
• The same two tests (open-circuit and short-circuit test) are required
as for synchronous reactance determination.
• The interpretation of the results only is different.
• Under short-circuit, the current lags by 90° and the power factor is
zero.
• Hence the armature reaction is entirely demagnetizing.
• Since the terminal p.d. is zero, all the field AT (Ampere Turns) are
neutralized by armature AT produced by the short circuit armature
current.
• (i) Suppose the alternator is supplying full-load current at normal
voltage V (i.e., operating load voltage) and zero p.f. lagging.

• Then d.c. field AT required will be those needed to produce normal

voltage V (or if Ra is to be taken into account, then V + IaRa cos ɸ )
on no-load plus those to overcome the armature reaction.

• Let AO = field AT required to produce the normal voltage V (or V +

IaRa cos ɸ ) at no-load
OB1 = field AT required to neutralize the armature reaction
• Then total field AT required are the phasor sum of AO and OB1

• The AO can be found from O.C.C. and OB1 can be determined from
S.C.C.
• ii) For a full-load current of zero p.f. leading, the armature AT are
unchanged.
• Since they aid the main field, less field AT are required to produce
the given e.m.f.
• Total field AT, AB2 = AO - B2O
• where B2O = field AT required to neutralize armature reaction

• AO are determined from O.C.C. and B2O from S.C.C.

• (iii) Between zero lagging and zero leading power factors, the
armature m.m.f. rotates through 180°.
• At unity p.f., armature reaction is cross-magnetizing only.
• Therefore, OB3 is drawn perpendicular to AO

• Now AB3 shows the required AT in magnitude and direction.

• Procedure for at Method
• Suppose the alternator is supplying full-load current Ia at operating
voltage V and p.f. cos ɸ lagging.
• The procedure for finding voltage regulation for AT method is as
under:
• (i) From the O.C.C., field current OA required to produce the
operating load voltage V (or V + IaRa cos ɸ ) is determined

• The field current OA is laid off

horizontally as shown in Fig.
• (ii) From S.C.C., the field current OC required for producing full-load
current Ia on short-circuit is determined.
• The phasor AB (= OC) is drawn at an angle of (90° + ɸ )
• Angle (OAB )= (90° + ɸ )
• The phasor sum of OA and AB gives the
total field current OB required.
• The O.C. voltage E0 corresponding to field current OB on O.C.C. is
the no load e,m.f.

• This method gives a regulation lower than the actual performance

of the machine.
• It is known as Optimistic Method.
Zero power factor or Potier method:
In the potier method, the leakage reactance drop and the mmf required for
overcoming the armature reaction can be determined.
The generated emf E0 is obtained from the general phasor diagram and hence
regulation can be found out.
 By suitable test plot OCC and SCC.
 Draw tangent to OCC (air gap line).
 Conduct ZPF test at full load for
rated voltage and fix point B.
 Draw the line BH with length equal
to field current required to produce full
IXL load current at short circuit.
 Draw HD parallel to the air gap line
so as to touch the OCC at point D.
 Draw DE parallel to voltage axis.
Now, DE represents voltage drop IXL
and BE represents the field current
required to overcome the effect of
armature reaction.
 Triangle BDE is called Potier triangle
and XL is the Potier reactance.
 Find E from V, IXL and Φ. Consider Ra also if required. The expression to use is

E  (V cos   IRa ) 2  (V sin   IX L )2

 8) Find field current corresponding to E.

 Draw FG with magnitude equal to BE at angle (90+ѱ) from field current axis,
where ѱ is the phase angle of current from voltage vector E.
E0  V
% voltage regulation= * 100
V

The resultant field current is given by OG. Mark this length on field current axis.

 From OCC find the corresponding E0.

American Standards Association (ASA) Method
 This method is a modification

of MMF and Potier methods.

 Conduct the test to find OCC, SCC,
ZPF and Ra
 Follow the steps 1 to 8 as in ZPF.
 Find If1 corresponding to terminal
voltage V using air gap line
(OF1 in fig ).
 Draw If2 with length equal to
field current required to circulate
rated current during short circuit
condition at an angle (90+Φ) from If1.

The resultant of If1 and If2 gives If (OF2 in fig ).

• Extend OF2 up to F so that

• F2F accounts for the additional field

current accounting for the effect of
saturation.

• F2F is found for voltage E as shown.

• Project total field current OF to the

field current axis and find
corresponding voltage E0 using OCC.
 Parallel Operation of Alternators
• In practice, a very large number of 3-phase alternators operate in
parallel because the various power stations are interconnected
through the national grid.

• Therefore, the output of any single alternator is small compared

with the total interconnected capacity.

• For example, the total capacity of the interconnected system may

be over 40,000 MW while the capacity of the biggest single
alternator may be 500 MW.

• For this reason, the performance of a single alternator is unlikely to

affect appreciably the voltage and frequency of the whole system.

• An alternator connected to such a system is said to be connected to

infinite bus bars.
• Advantages of Parallel Operation of Alternators

• (i) Continuity of service The continuity of service is one of the

important requirements of any electrical apparatus.

• If one alternator fails, the continuity of supply can be maintained

through the other healthy units.

• This will ensure uninterrupted supply to the consumers.

• (ii) Efficiency
• The load on the power system varies during the whole day; being
minimum during die late night hours.

• Since alternators operate most efficiently when delivering full-load,

units can be added or put off depending upon the load
requirement.

• This permits the efficient operation of the power system.

• (iii) Maintenance and repair.

• It is often desirable to carry out routine maintenance and repair of
one or more units.

• For this purpose, the desired unit/units can be shut down and the
continuity of supply is maintained through the other units.
• (iv) Load growth.

• The load demand is increasing due to the increasing use of electrical

energy.

• The load growth can be met by adding more units without

disturbing the original installation.

• Conditions for Paralleling Alternator with Infinite Busbars

• A stationary alternator must not be connected to live busbars.

• It is because the induced e.m.f. is zero at standstill and a short-

circuit will result.

• In order to connect an alternator safely to the infinite busbars, the

following conditions are met:
• (i) The terminal voltage (r.m.s. value) of the incoming alternator
must be the same as busbars voltage.

• (ii) The frequency of the generated voltage of the incoming

alternator must be equal to the busbars frequency.

• (iii) The phase of the incoming alternator voltage must be identical

with the phase of the busbars voltage. In other words, the two
voltages must be in phase with each other.

• (iv) The phase sequence of the voltage of the incoming alternator

should be the same as that of the busbars.

• The magnitude of the voltage of the incoming alternator can be

adjusted by changing its field excitation.

• The frequency of the incoming alternator can be changed by

adjusting the speed of the prime mover driving the alternator.
• Methods of Synchronization
• The method of connecting an incoming alternator safely to the live
busbars is called synchronizing.

• The equality of voltage between the incoming alternator and the

busbars can be easily checked by a voltmeter.

• The phase sequence of the alternator and the busbars can be

checked by a phase sequence indicator.

• Differences in frequency and phase of the voltages of the incoming

alternator and busbars can be checked by one of the following two
methods:
i. Dark lamp method
ii. Bright lamp method
iii. By using Synchroscope
DARK LAMP METHOD:

Phasor diagram for phase voltages

BRIGHT LAMP METHOD:

• When the frequency and phase of the voltage of the incoming alternator is
the same as that of the busbars, the straight connected lamps L1 will be dark
while cross-connected lamps L2 and L3 will be equally bright.

• At this instant, the synchronization is perfect and the switch of the incoming
alternator can be closed to connect it to the busbars.
Synchroscope
• A synchroscope is an instrument that indicates by means of a revolving pointer
the phase difference and frequency difference between the voltages of the
incoming alternator and the busbars.

• It is essentially-a small motor, the field being supplied from the busbars through a
potential transformer and the rotor from the incoming alternator.
• Incoming alternator is running fast then the pointer moves in the clockwise
direction.
• Incoming alternator is running slow then the pointer moves in anti-clockwise
direction.
• When the frequency of the incoming alternator is equal to that of the busbars, no
torque acts on the rotor and the pointer points vertically upwards (“12 O’ clock”).
Synchronizing Action
• When the alternator synchronized properly, the alternators will continue to run in
synchronism under all normal conditions.
• If one alternator tries to fall out of synchronism, it is immediately counteracted
by the production of a synchronizing torque which brings it back to synchronism.
• This automatic action is called the synchronizing action of the alternators.
• Consider two similar single-phase alternators 1 and 2 operating in parallel as
shown in Fig.

• The e.m.f.s generated by two alternators are acting

in the same direction with respect to the external
circuit, but in relation to each other, these e.m.f.s
are in phase opposition.

• When the alternators are in exact synchronism,

E1 and E2 are in exact phase opposition.

• Since E1 = E2 in magnitude, no current flows in the

closed circuit formed by the two alternators.
• If one alternator drops out of synchronism, there is an
automatic action to reestablish synchronism.
(i) Effect of speed change
• Due to any reason, the speed of machine 2 falls.
• Then e.m.f. E2 will fall back by a phase angle of a electrical
degrees as shown in Fig. (still E1 = E2).
• There will be resultant e.m.f. Er in the closed circuit
formed by the two alternators.
• This e.m.f. Er will circulate synchronizing current Isy in this
closed circuit.

E1

• The current Isy lags behind Er by an angle given by; Isy

Er
• Ra is very small as compared to Xs, is nearly 90° so
that the current Isy is almost in phase with E1 and in
phase opposition to E2. E2
• This means that machine 1 is generating and machine 2 is motoring.

• Consequently, machine 1 tends to slow down and machine 2, by

accepting power, tends to accelerate.

• This restores synchronism is re-established.

• If E2 tends to advance in phase, the directions of Er and Isy are

changed such that now machine 2 is generating and machine 1 is
motoring.

• The synchronism is restored.

ii) Effect of inequality of e.m.f.s
• When in exact synchronism, then E1 = E2
(magnitude) and they are in exact phase
opposition as shown in Fig.
• Suppose due to any reason, e.m.f. E1 increases.
• Then resultant e.m.f. Er exists in the closed circuit
formed by the two alternators.
• Then Er = E1 - E2 and is in phase with E1.
• The resultant e.m.f. Er sends synchronizing current
Isy in the closed circuit.
• Here again the current Isy almost lags behind Er by
90° .
• The current Isy lags behind E1 produces a
demagnetizing armature reaction effect on
machine 1.
• At the same time, Isy leads E2 and produces
magnetizing armature reaction effect on machine
2.
• Thus E1 tends to fall and E2 tends to rise.
• The result is that synchronism is re-established.
Synchronizing Power
• Consider two similar single-phase alternators 1 and 2 operating in parallel at no-
load .

• Suddenly the speed of machine 2 decreases.

• This will cause E2 to fall back by a phase angle

of a electrical degrees as shown in Fig.

• The resultant e.m.f. Er results in the production

of synchronizing current Isy which sets up
synchronizing torque.

• The synchronizing torque retards machine 1 and

accelerates machine 2 so that synchronism
is reestablished.

• The power associated with synchronizing torque is called synchronizing power.

• Machine 1 is generating and machine 2 is motoring.
• The power supplied by machine 1 is called synchronizing
power.
• Synchronizing power, Psy = E1Isy cos ɸ1
• = E1Isy cos(90° -ɵ )
• = E1Isy sin ɵ
• = E1 Isy
• The synchronizing power goes to supply power input to
machine 2 and the Cu losses in the local circuit of the two
machines.
• Synchronizing power supplied by machine 1 is

• Total synchronizing power for 3 phases

Alternators Connected to Infinite Busbars

• When an alternator is connected to an infinite busbars, the
impedance of only that alternator is considered.

• Total synchronizing power for 3 phases

• Synchronizing Torque Tsy
• A 2 MVA, 3 phase, 8 pole alternator is connected to 6000V, 50 Hz busbars and has
a synchronous reactance of 4 ohm/phase. Calculate the synchronizing power and
torque per mechanical degree of rotor displacement at no-load, assume normal
excitation.

• Emf / phase at noload = 6000 / √3 = 3465 volts

• Synchronous impedance / phase Xs = 4 ohm

• Rotor displacement in electrical degrees = Rotor displacement in electrical

degrees x P / 2
• = 1 x 8/2 = 4 0 (elec)

• Rotor displacement in electrical radians = α = 4 X π/180 = π/45 elect radians

• Ns = 120f/P = 750 rpm

• Synchronising power for 3 phase = 3Psy = 3E2α/Xs = 3 x (3465)2 x π / 4 x 45

• = 628644 W = 628.644 kw
• Synchronizing torque. Tsy = 3 x Psy x 60 / 2
• Power Output Equation
• Consider a star-connected cylindrical rotor alternator operating on
infinite busbars.
• V = busbars voltage/phase; E = generated e.m.f./phase
• Ia = armature current/phase delivered by the alternator
• Zs = synchronous impedance/phase = Ra + j Xs
• Cos ɸ = lagging p.f. of the alternator
• ɵ = internal angle = tan-1 (Xs/Ra)
• Maximum power output

• For constant busbars voltage V and fixed excitation (i.e., E), the
power output of the alternator will be maximum when ɵ = δ.
Approximate expression
• Hunting
• If the driving torque applied to an alternator is pulsating such as
that produced by a diesel engine, the alternator rotor may be pulled
periodically ahead or behind its normal position as it rotates.

• This oscillating action is called hunting.

• Hunting causes the alternators to shift load from one to another.

• In some cases, this oscillation of power becomes cumulative and

violent enough to cause the alternator to pull out of synchronism.

• Hunting can be reduced by providing damper winding and

flywheels.
• Effect of Salient Poles
• In cylindrical rotor machines, the air-gap is uniform so that the reluctance
of the magnetic path is the same in all directions.
• The effect of armature reaction can be accounted for by one reactance—
the synchronous reactance Xs.
• The value of Xs is constant for all directions of armature flux relative to
the rotor.
• In a salient-pole machine, the radial length of the air-gap varies.
• so that reluctance of the magnetic circuit along the polar axis (d-axis) is
much less than the reluctance along the inter polar axis (q-axis).
• Due to the lower reluctance along the polar axis (i.e., d-axis), more flux is
produced along d-axis than along the q-axis.
• Therefore, reactance due to armature reaction will be different along d-
axis and q-axis.
• Xad = direct axis reactance due to armature reaction
• Xaq = quadrature axis reactance due to armature reaction
Two-Reactance Concept for Salient-Pole Machines
• The effects of salient poles can be taken into account by resolving
the armature current into two components,
• Id perpendicular to excitation voltage E0 and Ia along E0 as shown in
phasor diagram in Fig.
• This diagram is drawn for an unsaturated
salient-pole generator operating at a
lagging power factor cos ɸ.
• Associated a component synchronous
reactance Xd and Xq respectively.
• Xd = direct axis synchronous reactance
• Xq = quadrature axis synchronous reactance
• If Xl is the armature leakage reactance and is assumed to be
constant for direct and quadrature-axis currents.
• Xd = Xad + Xl
• Xq = Xaq + Xl
• Iq = Ia cos(δ + ɸ) ; Id = Ia sin(δ + ɸ)

• The angle δ is called the power angle

• Power Developed in Salient-Pole Synchronous Generator
• It we neglect armature resistance Ra (and hence Cu loss), then
power developed (Pd) by an alternator is equal to the power output
(Pout).
• The per phase power output of the
alternator is,
• Pout = Pd = VIa cos ɸ
• The total power developed would be three times the above power.

• The power obtained with zero excitation is called reluctance power.

• The reluctance power varies with δ
at twice the rate of the excitation
power.

• The peak power is seen to be

displaced towards δ=0, the amount
of displacement depends upon the
excitation.

• Under steady-state conditions, the

reluctance term is positive because
Xd > Xq.
DIRECT AND QUADRATURE AXIS SYNCHRONOUS REACTANCE:
Analysis of phasor diagram:

D
 Phasor Diagram
• Since Ra is neglected, this phasor diagram is approximate.
• step 1: from V draw the line AC perpendicular to the current OB
• Step 2: on the line AC locate the points D and E such that AD represents
the drop Ia Xsq and AE represents the drop Ia Xsd
• Step 3: determine the Q-axis by drawing the line OZ passing through the
point D
• Step 4: determine the value of Ef represented by OF by drawing EF
perpendicular to OZ

• step 5: then AG represents

the drop Iad Xsd
• GF represents the drop
Iaq Xsq
• Now, if the armature resistance is not neglected:
• step 1: from V draw the line AD parallel to the current OB to represent IaRa
• step 2: at D draw the line DE perpendicular to the current OB
• Step 3: on the line DE locate the points F and E such that DF represents the drop Ia
Xsq and DE represents the drop Ia Xsd
• Step 4: determine the Q-axis by drawing the line OZ passing through the point F
• Step 5: determine the value of Ef represented by OC by drawing EC perpendicular
to OZ
• step 6: then DG represents
the drop Iad Xsd
GC represents the drop Iaq Xsq
• Slip Test (for salient pole machines only)
• Tests: Conduct tests to find Xd and Xq
Armature Resistance (if required)
• 1. Energise the alternator with field unexcited and driven close to
synchronous speed by a prime mover.
• 2. Measure the line voltage and line current of the alternator.
• 3. Find Xd and Xq by the following expressions
• Apparent Power and Power-Factor Ratings
• The factors that determine the power limits of electric machines are the
shaft torque and the heating of the windings.
• In general, the shaft can handle more power than that for which the
machine is rated.
• Therefore, the steady-state power limits are determined by the heating in
the windings of the machine.
• The windings that must be protected in a synchronous generator are the
armature windings and the field windings.
• The maximum allowable current in the armature determines the
maximum apparent power for the generator. S = 3VɸIA
• if the rated voltage is known, the maximum allowable current in the
armature determines the rated apparent power of the generator.
• The power factor of the armature current does not affect the
heating of the armature windings.
• The stator copper losses heating effect is PSCL = 3IA2RA
• These effects are independent of the angle between the IA and Vɸ.

• The field windings copper losses are PRCL = IF2RF

• The maximum allowable heating determines the maximum field

current for the machine.

• Since EA = Kɸω, this also determines the maximum acceptable EA.

• There is a maximum value for IF and EA ,

• There is a minimum acceptable power factor of the generator when

it is operating at the rated MVA.
• The current angle can vary, as
shown.
• EA is the sum of Vɸ and jXSIA,
• For some current angles for which
the required EA exceeds EAmax.
• If the generator is operated at these
power factors and the rated
armature current, the field windings
will burn.

• The angle of IA that results in the

maximum allowable EA while V is at
the rated value determines the
generator-rated power factor.

• The generator can be operated at a

lower power factor than the rated
value, but only by reducing the
MVA output of the generator.
 Capability curves
• The generator capability diagram expresses the stator and rotor
heat limits and any external limits on the generator.
• The capability diagram illustrates the complex power S = P + jQ.
• It is derived from the generator’s phasor diagram, assuming that Vɸ
is constant at the generator’s rated voltage.
• The orthogonal axes are drawn with units of volts.
• The length of the vertical segment AB is XS IA cos ɵ,
• horizontal segment 0A is XsIA sin ɵ .
• The generator’s real power output is
P = 3VɸIA cos ɵ
• The reactive power output is
• Q = 3VɸIA sin ɵ
• The apparent power output is
• S = 3VɸIA
• Figure illustrates how the axes can be recalibrated in terms of real
and reactive power.

• The conversion factor used to change the scale of the axis from volts
(V) to voltamperes (VA) is 3Vɸ/XS :
Pmax= 3 VφEA / Xs
• On the voltage axes, the origin of the phasor diagram is located at
-Vɸ.

• Therefore, the origin on the power diagram is located at,

• On the power diagram, the length corresponding to EA is

• The length that corresponds to XS IA on the power diagram is 3VɸIA

• It illustrates a plot of real power P versus reactive power Q.

• The lines representing constant armature current IA are shown as

lines of constant apparent power S = 3VɸIA, which are represented
by concentric circles around the origin.

• The lines representing constant field current corresponds to lines of

constant EA.

• These are illustrated by circles of magnitude 3EAVɸ / XS

centered at:
• The armature current limit is illustrated by the circle corresponding
to the rated IA or MVA.
• The field current limit is illustrated by the circle corresponding to
the rated IF or EA.
• Any point located within both circles is a safe operating point for
the generator.
• Short circuit transients
• When the power gradually increases, the current reduces passing through
three characteristic periods:

• Subtransient (enabling determination of the closing capacity of

circuit breakers and electro dynamic contraints), average duration, 10 ms

• Transient (sets the equipment’s thermal contraints), average duration 250

ms

• Permanent (this is the value of the short-circuit current in steady state).

THANK YOU