Public, controlled area

MUSEUMS AND ART GALLERIES

General
Entrance Cafe, bar
Orientation Restaurant Visitors'
Cloakroom Shop entrance A museum is a public collection of objects testifying to human
Pay desk Conference rooms cultural development. It collects, documents, receives, researches,
we
interprets and communicates these through display.

The following museum types can be categorised according to the

Exhibition area Library origin and nature of the items in the collection:
Permanent exhibitio s Lecture hall
Temporary exhibition~
Art gallery: Collection of works of fine art (including craftworks
Delivery of
works of art and graphics).

Cultural history museum: Collection of devices, weapons, clothing,

Private area written documents etc. which show the cultural development of a
geographically restricted area (ethnological museum, open-air
museum, local history museum).
Administration Catalogues
Director Copy room
Ethnology museum: Works from the cultural heritage of traditional
peoples and lost cultures.

Ll-Lib_m_ry----~~ LI_Ar-ch-ive----~ Science museum: Collection of educational and display material

connected with scientific and technical themes.

MUSEUMS AND
Lighting
ART GALLERIES
There should be no direct daylight falling on museum objects as

D
General
Restoration this could cause damage. Therefore display rooms should be Display rooms
and conservation
workshops Delivery of provided with flexible lighting systems: no permanently built-in
see also:
works of art lights, no fixed wall and ceiling lights. Lighting,
pp. 501 ff.
Guidelines for lighting:

Very sensitive display objects 50-80 lx

0 Functional scheme Sensitive display objects: 100-150ix
Less sensitive display objects: 150-300 lx
''
North'-
/
/

/South UV radiation must not be exceed 25 W/m 2 •

/

It must be possible to completely darken all display rooms. In

public rooms where no items are displayed, e.g. entrance area,
Exhibition cafe, library, a greater amount of daylight is desirable.
Exhibition

The lighting calculations for museums are highly theoretical:

f) Indirect lighting filtered through 8 Lighting of display from rooflight the quality of lighting is decisive. American tests can be more
suspended glass ceiling facing north informative.

Room climate in the store and the display areas

The ideal temperatures in the store and the display areas are
_._.._ 15-18°C in the winter and 20-22°C in the summer. Except as
Exhibition short peaks, in the summer 26°C should not be exceeded. Stores
should not therefore be located in uninsulated attics, for example.
Exhibition

Because the reproduction of insects is very limited under 15°C,

above all for science and ethnography collections a temperature
e Indirect lighting filtered through
suspended glass ceiling
e Side lighting from north of 12-13°C is optimal.

Screen Photo and film material is relatively chemically unstable and the
material should therefore be stored cool and dry at temperatures
under 16°C (ideally at approx. 5°C).

The relative humidity in the store and the display areas depends
on the displayed and stored materials: the optimal values are
for wood 55-60%, canvas 50-55%, paper 45-50% and metals,
max. 40%. It is important to avoid short-term variations in relative
humidity: the variation within one hour should not exceed 2.5%,
or not more than 5% in one day. Seasonal variations should not
;------ 1 0 . 0 0 - - i f-----10.00_______, be more than +5% in summer or -5% in winter. The changing flow
0 Well-lit display room according to
0 Uniformly lit gallery with light of visitors in museums leads to continuous variation in the climatic
parameters.
Boston tests according to S. Hurst Seager

207
 MUSEUMS AND ART GALLERIES
Display Rooms

The decisive factor in the layout of display rooms is the

relationship between the collection and the way it is to be
displayed (display concept). There are the following basic types
of layout --7 0 - 0:
0 Open plan f) Main and side rooms (core and
Open plan --7 0: large and visually autonomous items on display,
satellites)
free circulation, function rooms in basement.

Core and satellite rooms --7 f): main room for orientation in the
museum or the exhibition, side rooms for autonomous displays
(themes/collections)

Linear chaining --7 0: linear sequences of rooms, controlled

circulation, clear orientation, separate entrance and exit.

Labyrinth --7 0: free circulation, guided route and direction are

variable, entrance and exit can be separate.

0 Linear chaining G Labyrinth Complex --7 0: combined groups of rooms with typical features
of --7 0 - 0, complex organisation of collection and display
concept.
MUSEUMS
AND ART
GALLERIES
General
D Round tour (loop) --7 0: similar to linear chaining-.
circulation leads back to entrance.
0, controlled
Display rooms
Display concept Spatial arrangement

oriented on display items open plan -> 0

systematically oriented main and side rooms (core and satellites)-> f)
thematically oriented linear chaining ----t 0, round tour~ 0
complex oriented labyrinth-> 0. complex-> e
The size and height of the display and store rooms depend on the
dimensions of the works and the extent of the collection, but the
minimum height is 4 m clear.
9 Complex e Round tour (loop)

2.20-2.50
Picture/ 1.00---t 1.20-1.40
I
I Through
I ~ldthage
Distance: 1 (;!!/
T
0
according to
_ siz:_ o~i~u~ ~ __ _
I
~~:
Jii
0

'"
1-,
oo
1.20-1.40
!1.
~
"'"'
.-:I
a/A
ll_
90- - l ---------
m_in. passage
Width 'tf
I
I
I
H.OO--j f-1.oo--l View to the centr~ I
f) Light and shadow in display cabinets e Distance and light G Pictures on the wall: viewing and traffic ~ Space in front of display cabinet

~30-35-j

----~Picture _ _ _ __
Words on picture~
or board \ I
max. distance
to observer \ I
1.10mreadable \ I

rjJ!J Book

15'-20'--\+ r
E 6' 27' 33' 42' \I ~
E'J-------2.oo------+so+so+so+so--!H=E•tg27'
'fitg 0.1 10.5 I 0.6 10.75
12.00 11.50 11.00 1 50 'E'
I
f-1.00--1 J; 1
CD Field of view: height, size and distance 4l) Ensure labels/commentaries readable

208
 THEATRES
Historical Review

The design of theatres requires an understanding of complex

functional interactions, of which much is explained by the history
of theatres. This is an architectural challenge, which has been
interpreted by various societies for more than 2500 years. Each
theatre building today stands in a great tradition, even if it is
marked by efforts to escape from this. A few examples should
throw light on the historical development of this type of building -'>
0 Theatre of Dionysos, Athens, f) Theatre of Marcellus, Rome,
o- 0 -" p. 21 o -" o- e.
452-330 BCE: plan 11 ,500 seats, 11 acE: plan
Ancient theatres
Theatre of Dionysos, the start of European theatre building
A, Band C:
parts ofthe
-'> 0. Greek theatres were located next to towns and
stage embedded in the landscape. Theatre of Marcellus, Rome. The
1 first gate
2 hell first theatre in Rome built completely of stone -'> f). Rows of
3 Garden of
Gethsemane 12 seating and the back wall of the stage were connected and of
4 Mount of
Ol!ves the same height.

\ Middle ages
Medieval stage theatre. Temporary stage and buildings -'> 8.
crosses Interior space of the Swan Theatre, according to a drawing
20 Christ's cross
21 Holy by van de Witt 1596. Only a curtain separated the front and
Sepulchre THEATRES
"---'-'--'--' 22 heaven
back stages and the upper stage served for balcony or siege
scenes -'> 0. Historical review
C) Plan of medieval stage facilities 0 Swan Theatre, London Typology
Auditorium
Renaissance Stage
A: changing room
Subsidiary rooms
B: higher backstage section, slope
up to 1:9
The early Italian Renaissance theatres were temporary wooden Workshops and
C: frontstagesectlon,ralsod installations in existing halls -'> 0. Vasari, for example, developed staff rooms
1.10m above floor level 0 Rehearsal and
E: orchestra a wooden, reusable system for the theatre installation in the Salone public rooms
F: seatlngareaforgovernorsand
highest dignitaries
dei Cinquecento in the Palazzo Vecchio, Florence. Teatro Olimpico, Modernisation
G: seatsfornoblo.s'wivcs Vicenza -'> e. The first permanent theatre of the Renaissance,
G-H seats for first rank nobility
which resumed the ancient tradition of theatre building. Semi-
H--Jseats forsocondranknobility
J: from hera upwards, nobility of circular and rising rows of seating for the audience and a stage
lesser standing
K: seats for tho commonars
house with fa<;:ade. Next to this were the loggia courtyards with
L: proscenium spectator boxes arranged in a horseshoe. The Teatro Farnese,
M: wall of the hous~:~ or hall onto
whlchthetheatrewasbuilt Parma -'> Cl) + 0 was the first building with movable scenery
P: final back-drop of perspective
stageset,atleast60mfromM
system in a deep stage space.
so actors can pass behind

0 Theatre layout, Sebastiana Serllo, 1545

0 Teatro Olimpico, Vicenza, 1585, section and plan Arch.: Andrea Palladia and
Vicenzo Scamozzi
e Section ofTeatro Farnese, Parma, 1618-1628 Arch.: Giovanni Battista Aleotti

f) Teatro 'San Carlo', Naples, 1737 Arch.: Antonio Medrano and Angelos Carasale Cl) Teatro Farnese, Parma, 1618-1628 Arch.: Giovanni Battista Aleotti

209
 THEATRES
Typology

Baroque
The theatre with boxes and a 'peephole' single-room stage steadily
became more prevalent. Teatro 'San Carlo', Naples, p. 209 ---7 0,
and Teatro alia Scala, Milan ---7 0 + 8 are considered the models
Q Section, Teatro alia Scala, Milan, 1779 Arch.: Piermarini for the building of opera theatres in the 18th and 19th centuries,
but also the new 'Met', in New York 1966.

19th and 20th centuries

Festival Opera House, Bayreuth ---7 8 - 0. Richard Wagner
introduced this form of theatre (auditorium in a classical semi-
circle and rising) and set a counterpoint to the Grand Opera in
Paris. Totaltheater Project (Gropius/Piscator), cf. 'The Stage in the
Bauhaus', Dessau 1924. Note: audience space can be rotated,
stage with paternoster system, surrounding projection on walls and
ceilings ---7 9 - 0. Playhouse on Lehniner Platz, Berlin, first large
new building of a flexible theatre space (rebuilding of the Mendelsohn
building, 'Universurn', of 1928) ---7 p. 213 ---7 f!)- f). Opera Bastille,
f) Teatro alia Scala, Milan, 1779 Arch.: Piermarinl Paris, the largest theatre yet, with 10 side stages on two levels.

Tendencies in current theatre building

There are two tendencies today:
THEATRES 1. Preservation, restoration and modernisation of existing theatres
Historical review from the 19th to mid-20th century ---7 p. 218
Typology
Auditorium 2. New buildings with 'experimental' open-space character, e.g.
Stage Playhouse on Lehniner Platz ---7 p. 213. A similar direction is
Subsidiary rooms
Workshops and demonstrated by the many projects to rebuild existing spaces
staff rooms into workshop theatres with a size of 80-160 seats.
Rehearsal and
public rooms
Modernisation
Different types of theatre building
1. Opera house:
This belongs to the tradition of 18-19th century Italian opera
buildings ---7 0 - f). It is characterised by a clear spatial and
architectural separation between auditorium and stage, by high
C) Section, Festival Opera House, Bayreuth, 1876 R. Wagner and Arch.
numbers of seats (1 000 to nearly 4000) and the corresponding
0. Bruckwald
system of boxes or tiers, which is necessary for so many theatre-
goers, e.g. Scala, Milan, 3600 seats; Deutsche Oper, Berlin,
1986 seats; Metropolitan Opera, New York, 3788 seats; Opera
Bastille, Paris, 2700 seats. The counterpoint to the form of opera
house as tiered/box theatre is the Festival Opera House, Bayreuth
---7 8-0. This is designed as a theatre with stalls according to the
Greek and Roman pattern, but has only 1645 seats.

2. Playhouse:
This is in the tradition of the German reform theatre of the 19th
century. It is characterised by the stalls layout (that is, the audience sit
on a large, rising and curved floor) and by a pronounced apron stage
(area in front of the proscenium), which can be used for the play as
well. The playhouse also, however, follows the tradition of the English
theatre ---7 p. 209 0. i.e. theatre in the round. The open and variable
8 Festival Opera House, Bayreuth, 1876 R. Wagner and Arch. 0. Bruckwald
layout became more intensive with the spatial experimentation of
theatres in the 1970s. Variations in layout are shown, for example, by
the Playhouse on Lehniner Platz, Berlin ---7 p. 213.

3. Multi-purpose theatre:
This mixed form of opera, theatre and ballet is a speciality in
German-speaking regions. The space is mostly characterised by
the predominant influence of the opera. The frequent changes of
scenery are enabled by the appropriate subsidiary rooms (store,
scenery store, workshops). Example: Heilbronn City Theatre,
Arch.: Biste u. Gerling 1982 ---7 p. 217 0.

4. Musical theatre:
Actually no separate type of building, but rather a theatre built,
usually, for a particular musical by an impresario. A specific
challenge for the designer is the adaptation of the building to the
0 Waiter Gropius: Design for the 0 -'> 9 Stage rotated concept of the musical without neglecting the needs of later uses
'Totaltheater', 1927 for other productions.

210
 THEATRES
Auditorium

In addition to the local building regulations, decisive for the design of

f--;;; 90 ----1 better 96--1 00 theatres are the Places of Assembly Regulations of the relevant state.
<0 T This is based on the Model Places of Assembly Regulations, which
i 5;

1
50 can vary in detail from those of a particular state! This legislation
applies from 200 spectators. It should be noted that it is not the actual
~
-" number of seating or standing places that counts: it is assumed that
there are two spectators per m 2 in the place of assembly (for rows of
0 Seating must be fixed according to f) Staggered folding seats offer
seats; two spectators per running m for standing places).
Places of Assembly Regulations. freedom for elbows Auditorium and stage/acting area
Minimum dimensions are not Size of auditorium: the number of people in the audience gives
adequate for theatres!
the required floor area. For seated spectators, assume E":0.5 m 2/
door spectator. This number results from:
................................................. .....................................r- 1.o -\ ................ ..
seat width x row spacing
1.2
----Tr-I'T'ITTaisle_______ _ E":0.45 m 2 /seat
add E":0.5 x E":0.9 =0.05 /seat
25 seat~:il l±l IJ
E":0.50 -7 0

----~-tl-ftr--------
m
25 seats
Length of the rows of seats per aisle: 10 places -7 0 +
25 places per aisle if an exit door of 1.2 m width is available at the
e,

---- ___ jill__rj__~---------- side per 3 or 4 rows -7 0

Exits, escape routes 1.2 m wide per 200 people -7 0- e.
1.0 3- 4 rows aisle THEATRES
~ ..~
..~
...~,m~m~m~~~.~ ~m~mNm,,m,m,,mo,m,~,
1% of the seats (at least two) must be accessible for wheelchair users,
:::::::::::::::::::::.·::.·:::::::.·:::::::::.·::::. ..","
Historical review
if possible in connection with a seat for an accompanying person.
8 Row width 20 places 8 Row width 25 places, door needed
Auditorium volume
Typology
Auditorium
1----- 2.0 - - - l Stage
This is determined by acoustic requirements (reverberation) -7 Subsidiary rooms
p. 221 as follows: playhouse approx. 4-5 m3/spectator; opera house Workshops and
staff rooms
approx. 6-8 m3/spectator. Air volumes must not be less for technical
---t ---1Jilllit··-- ventilation reasons, in order to avoid too rapid air changes (draughts).
Rehearsal and
public rooms
Modernisation

----1t0-s::~~U__U__U __ U_____ _
Proportions of the auditorium
These are derived from the psychological awareness and angle of
aisle view of the spectator, or the requirement for a good view from all
seats. Options are:
---- -----~----~---~----~-
::: :. . : ;: -------
10 seats . · . :_ •, 1. Good view, without moving head, but light eye movements of
J ____ -- ----
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::. 1---- 2.4 ---l
approx. 30°.
2. Good view with slight head movements and light eye
0 Row width max. 10
places, side 0 Boxes may have ~20 loose chairs, movements of approx. 60° 0.
aisle at left and right or fixed seating if necessary; per
person ~0.65 m2 floor area
3. Max. awareness angle without head movement approx. 110°,
i.e. all actions in the field are 'in view'. Outside this field, there
1. 2. I0-Jine (proscenium line) is uncertainty, because 'something' is out of view.
last middle
row 4. Full head and shoulder movement allows an angle of view of360°.
proscenium width Proportions of the classic auditorium
at 24m~ 13m
at 32m~ 17m Opera, multi-purpose theatre, and traditional playhouse -7 0: distance
of the furthest row from the start of the stage should not exceed:
- playhouse, max. 24 m (max. distance for the recognition of facial
expressions); opera, 32 m (large movements are still recognisable).
Auditorium width is determined by the spectators at the side being
able to see the stage adequately -7 G. The comfortable proportions
24(32)m stage and sometimes good acoustics of the classic theatres of the 18th and
auditorium
19th centuries are based on particular rules of proportion -7 0 - GD.
0 Proportions of traditional auditorium plan

--. II I 0-llne CA=4R CA = CB =radius of the semicircle AB

::: 1111 -width of auditorium j e:~d~~enium account is taken of the
AB = tangents CE =CD=2CA
E = mid-point of the arc BE'
A -last row --._BI fact 1hat the hatched D =mid-point ofthe arc AD'
8/C - proscenium width~ --J~'777.'777777l' section cannot be seen
BCDE- acting area of stage /I by the side seats

fi ·--·--·-...
A. : .
p

·-- P =point to
determine
width of
D

--·__..-·..-C. auditorium
.--· ~ 2 x proscenium width ----4
.--·-- ~ 1 x proscenium -l
I width Design of auditorium's contour, Design of the auditorium's curve,
depth of stage acting area
Teatro alia Scala, Milan.
e Auditorium width
Grand Th68.tre, Bordeaux
Arch.: Victor Louis 1778 Arch.: Piermarini

211
 0-llne,
1proscenium line THEATRES
. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.row . Seating
I
. lines of sight,
I I I
super-elevation
I I

.lo ~:~T
1
as """"• ' T -1.10 :..-- The elevation (gradient) of the seating in the auditorium is
:::}:.•.z.:J,I)):::.•::,IJ~ _L--- ~uper-el~vation
. 1
pont T -1.10 [ ----
of derived from the sight lines. The sight line construction applies
I forestage height :•:.'.:.:::::::::::. - - - eye lev~l- ~~~ ~~!'g1hi~~ery for all places in the auditorium (stalls, but also tiers) --7 0. It can
i ~~~·d.~o~.90m f~~,s~~~~g {or6_cm'perrow); be assumed that the spectators sit sensibly and so only every
j · · · ~~~~~edn\ OJ~~ not second row requires full sight super-elevation (12 em). Specialised
0pron stage above this, steps
I = 4-Sm --t--- 1.5 -1---o.a +o.a-+o.a -10.9--+-------. mathematical literature addresses problems of view in the theatre,
including, for example, the distribution of people's heights.
0 Elevation of seating (gradient) Rows of spectators should be positioned in arcs, not only for
better alignment toward the stage, but also to achieve a better
perception of each other (security effect) --7 8. The stepped side
----------------!Ideal logarithmic rise
:..._. ___________ _ _______ ....- aisle must rise 10-19 em and the tread must not be less than
26 em. The floor between the seats must be on the same level as
~0'-'0»>T~0'-'0»>T0'-'00'-'0~rn Modification as broken the adjacent aisle at the side.
:·:·: straight line

Overall layout of the auditorium

f) Gradient curve and its modification Firstly, determine the height of the proscenium. In stalls theatres,
the relationship should be:

middle seats proscenium height 1

proscenium width 1.6
THEATRES
Historical review side seats
Typology
This derives from the golden section and the physiological field of
Auditorium 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.row awareness, respectively --7 0. After determining the proscenium
Stage
Subsidiary rooms 0 Offsetting of the seats In a row is achieved through variable seat widths (0.5()-{).53-0.56)
height, the ramp height, the pitch of the stalls and the volume of
the room, this gives the room height. The ceiling is to be adapted
Workshops and
staff rooms l!!li!!l!llll!!l for acoustic requirements. It should be the case that the noise
Rehearsal and II ! I f ! ! i l ! ! i i ! ! l l
public rooms reflected from the stage and apron is distributed evenly over the
llll!!l!!l!i !!!Ill
Modernisation room --7 0.
g;,"«;llllllll!!l!l!l.':':':'l
For tiers, it is important that there is also a sufficiently deep view
feeling of integration {mutual perception)
of the stage from the uppermost level --7 8- This may render it
necessary to make the proscenium higher.

Proportions of an experimental space --7 p. 213

These are neutral or open theatre spaces, which permit different
arrangements of spectators and stage areas. This variable
arrangement is achieved through:
G Contact relationship between the audience and the stage and with each other A. Mobile stage platforms and mobile stands for the audience on
a fixed floor.
overall perception width ~
.._..______ ___. - - 3D visual field for B. Mobile sections of floor, which consist of moveable podiums .
both eyes This solution is technically more elaborate and is therefore
used only in larger spaces for min. 150-450 or more people.
The simpler option A is particularly suitable for smaller theatres
and for unused spaces, which normally do not have extensive
space underneath. Size: up to max. 199 places, because the
regulations apply from 200.
199 seats x 0.5 m2 =100 m2 (2/3) + 30 m2 (1 /3) stage area =130 m2 ,

9 Field of perception and proportions of the proscenium arch

circle 2

T stalls
Air volumes
min. 2m
............................................................. .......:.::-·
.. .......... :·:-:·:·:·
Actors
Actors 4-5 m 1>
Opera 6-8mb.
···············::~;;~;~~·~:-~;~ ..Y::t·:·.-:·:-.. . . . . .:-:-:-:-:-::::::-~::·:-:.--·- per spectator
(stage)

e Tiered theatre and view of stage

Acoustics must be adapted through appropriate measures like ceiling shape or
acoustic 1Sails' -----7 p. 220

212
 extendable
THEATRES
Stage
Tr--r-.----.----.----,
2.20
lr----L----~--~L_--~
A. extendable stand; on Size of stage
rollers or air cushions·
volume The Places of Assembly Regulations, which apply to all venues

~· .,,:..,.,.,' .:.:::·~·~· ~ .. t.~'"'"J"'*"

with audiences of more than 200, differentiate two types of stage:
large stage and open stage (single-room theatre).

Large stage
flat floor extended folded
Large stages are defined as having a stage area of more than
B. travelling folding podium,
height adjustable 200 m2 behind the stage opening and with an upper stage of
0 Experimental theatre space
2.5 m height above the stage opening or an apron. The essential
requirement is the fire-resistant separation of stage and auditorium.
This necessitates an iron protection curtain between the stage and
the auditorium in case of danger.

Open stage
Open stages are divided into those with more or less than 200 m2
and those with or without sprinkler systems. The special feature of
open stages is the regulations about curtains and scenery. These
affect above all the operation and not the design of the open stage.

Spaces for experimental forms of theatre (black box theatres)

tables and chairs all can abolish the separation of stage and audience in various ways
directed play with round, dance band at
1fa orchestra pit the back:, dancing floor In through differentiated design of the floor topography (mobile THEATRES
(234 seats) the centre (178 seats)
sections of floor or podiums) and the free distribution of audience Historical review
f) Space variants, at the MOnster City area and stage. Example: Playhouse on the Lehniner Platz, Berlin
Typology
Auditorium
Theatre, Kleines Haus
~e-o. Stage
Subsidiary rooms
Workshops and
Section of the room for single-room {black box) theatres staff rooms
Rehearsal and
Single rooms can make do without the technical ceiling ~ 0, but public rooms
manual lifting devices can be provided (battens, which are lifted Modernisation
into the ceiling with manual hoists). In large theatres, a smaller,
more variable space is often included for experimental theatre.
Examples: Podium Ulm, Arch:. Schafer, approx. 150-200 places,
1969 ~ 0 + f); Kleines Haus MOnster, Arch:. v. Hansen, Rane,
completely Ruhnau, 1971, 180-380 places, central field of the floor can be
for lectures and
free room
(for exhibitions,
varied with mobile podiums~ f)- e.
conferences the dances, etc.)
whole room iS reduced
to one level; small podium
for the directors and speakers

.-....? f) Arch.: v. Hausen, Rawe,

Ruhnau

e Ulm Theatre, section through podium Arch.: Fr. Schafer e Playhouse on the Lehniner Platz, Berlin, 1982 Arch.: J. Sawade

0 Playhouse on the Lehniner Platz, six variants for arrangement of possible open
f) Podium Ulm, six variants for arrangement of performance areas stages

213
 THEATRES
Stage

Scenery stage
The classical stage system of the 18th and 19th centuries had only
the main stage; the scenes were changed, in little space and with
uncanny speed, using sliding painted scenery. A small rear stage
had the function of providing room for deeper stage perspectives
~o.

Full stage
In order to be able to quickly change more elaborate and
sculptural scenery structures, stages were supplemented by
wings and under-stages of about the same size. Complete
+I Pullout:
scenery
l Moving:
carriage
sets of scenery were mounted on wagons, lifting platforms or
turntables and could be prepared with little effort during the
performance~ e.
t Pull
(bar/point)
......._. Carriage

For design purposes, the technical constraints must be established

Lift/lower
;) Turning: - ~f- early, e.g. whether a turntable on a wagon is sufficient or whether a
stages
(revolving stage)
turntable with single lifting elements or even a two-level turntable
;~ Turntable o&!'_:'~~
Tilting:
sloping should be used.
stages

0 Backdrop theatre: change of scene f) 'Peephole' single-room stage. Large Proportions of the stage
THEATRES by pushing the painted scenery wing and rear stage areas enable the The proportions of the stage are developed from the sight lines in
Historical review quick changing of scenery structures
the auditorium. The stage is the area for acting and also a handling
Typology
Auditorium and working area. The conventional layout of a traditional full
Stage
Subsidiary rooms
stage~ e-e.
:-:·J·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:·:·:·
Workshops and
staff rooms
Rehearsal and
. . :tj Roller platform t: The mobile scenery surface is formed by platforms of adjustable
height or through lifting platforms. The variability of form is
[::.·::::::::.·::::.·:.·:.:l.~~B:~.:..~..:.~~-:::.:::.....:}1
public rooms
Modernisation Upper stage fL::::::::::::.·:.·:: achieved by splitting the surface into separate flats. Basic
· Li hting e uipment : with galleries ·::;: module 1 x 2 m.
Foyer ., :1'! l: Adjustable for pridge :.~_-:.
Public or proscenium Section of stage
:-:·:·:·:-~:~-~::-~.:-:·:·:-:-:-:-:::·:·:·:·:·~.':.':
......:::::]-:_;- ! I
1
• Main stage
Understage
....................::::
:::::::::::::::::::::::.
The size of the stage space is determined by the number of
scenery sets to be kept ready, which can be moved into the
·: ::::.·:::·t'.·:.·:::.·:::::.·:'...:'·:::::::::
Orchestra pit 1 0-line level of the "iron curtain" stage quickly by lifting or pushing. At least one rear space and
one wing are usual. The height of the stage space is determined
0 System section of theatre
by the (iron) safety curtain, which must be able to close the fire
compartment between auditorium and stage within 30 s in case
of fire. It is a complete closure joined at the ends to a fire wall
(F90) and no cables or scenery are permitted in the space for the
® multi-section orchestra safety curtain.
lifting podium
® back-drop lifting stage
(J) proscenium towers Stage direction room
@stairs Control of lighting and sound on stage, with sound mixing desk, light
® stage manager's lift controls, computer connections and projection equipment~ f).

G) lifting podia, two-storey

@ lifting podia, single-storey

® scenery transporting
@ steel safety curtain
@ border curtain- side stage
@ border curtain -rear stage ® side-stage trolley with
(13 divisible main curtain compensating podia
@) rear-stage trolley with
turntable and compensating
podia
e Typical plan of opera house 0 Typical section of opera house--> 8

214
 doors for the general public, 1-5. allow THEATRES
space to compensate for height differences
3J 4 Subsidiary Rooms
doors uniformly
distributed for
2 variable room use
E
Experimental (black box) theatre
Open stages require subsidiary areas for scenery and storage
room height places for platforms and stands. The subsidiary areas should be of
connecting doors the same size as the stage. The space required for storage can be
D A-E, height of the
secondary area as calculated from the folded platforms and stands. Subsidiary areas
for the room itself
plus storage area amount to about 30% of the total area--> 0.
secondary/storage areas Considerably less scenery is used with open stages than with
normal stages, the reasons for which are:
0 Subsidiary areas/storage space for open stages
- the stage is viewed from many sides.
- regulations limit the use of scenery for safety reasons.
Large stages
Storage areas are required for:
Scenery, backdrops, furniture, props, costumes, hats, shoes, make-
up, wigs, lighting, etc. Scenery and costume stores require a great
amount of space.
Scenery store:
traditional storage of back-drops
- on edge in boxes, manual transport, modern back-drop storage Specially for heavy items. Location: at stage level and immediately
large proportion of area required, - loading of containers by hand from next to the stage. At access points and on traffic routes (particularly
height: 9-12m secondary stage, or specific storage areas
- in boxes, manual transport, large - transport of container to external store at fire exits and lifts), the height of the scenery, normally proscenium THEATRES
proportion of area required for moving - computer-controlled storage of
containers in multi-storey shelving height+ 2 m, must be taken into account. Historical review
f) Storage near the stage 0 Storage in containers A rough estimate for the size of the scenery and costume store
Typology
Auditorium
can be made from the number of productions in the repertoire and Stage
Subsidiary
the frequency with which they are played. For theatres the number rooms
of productions might be 15-20 and for multi-purpose theatres and Workshops and
staff rooms
opera up to 50 per season. About 20-25% of the stage area is Rehearsal and
required for storage per production, i.e. for theatres about 3 times public rooms
the stage area, for the opera at least 10 times. Practice shows Modernisation

that, as time passes, the store always turns out to be too small,
T and theatres, and particularly operas, have to make arrangements
outside the building.
The high cost of transport has forced the introduction of the
most modern transportation and storage technology: container
systems with computer-controlled warehouse technology (per
performance about 2-4 containers - in special cases for operas
about 12 containers).
Examples:
Deutsche Oper Berlin: the stores are in direct connection with
the stage --> 0
Nationaltheater Mannheim: storage outside the building in
containers.
The storage area required for costumes is determined by the number
of productions in the repertoire and the size of the ensemble, e.g.
for opera: the chorus and ballet in addition to the singers. Space
.l required for costumes: 1-12 em/costume or 1-15 costumes per
running m of rail --> 0- 0.

0 Deutsche Oper Berlin, plan

Main stage Bacl<sta:J Scenery store

wr ,-se-m~'> <
Store

Workshop
Wing
room

.__.___ __,LAJ L-J.

Painter's worksh;-1 Joinery ~veries
Access points from the subsidiary areas to the stage. Height and location of doors Two-level hanging and storage of
0 Single-level -> 0
and lift must be determined from max. backdrop height and fire protection measures costumes in fixed clothing storage

215
 90 -----------------------;
1---- 25 ---t-3+-6+-10+6+-12 --t--17--+3+--a-;
THEATRES
Workshops and Staff Rooms

Workshops for production of scenery

The area required for scenery workshops is 4-5 times the main
stage area for medium-sized theatres (theatres and multi-purpose
theatres); in large opera houses or double theatres (opera
and theatre), 10 times. Workshops, in or outside the building,
paint store; 30m2 should always be accommodated on one level. The Workplace
2 paint mixing; 30m2
3 sculpture store; 78m2 Regulations and their technical rules and the work protection
4 sculptors; 130m2
5 spraying room; 78m2 and accident prevention rules of insurers have to be taken into
6 loading ramp account in the design. In some cases, the company and collective
7 construction room; 144m2
8 metalworking shop; 204m2
9 supervisor; 12m2
agreements with the employees can also have an effect.
10 we Scenery workshops are categorised as follows:
11 wood store; 174m2
12 supervisor; 12m2 a) Painting room:
~6+-19 13 steel store; 96m2
1---- 25 ---1 The floor area must be designed to accommodate two large
50
backdrops or 'cycloramas' (Rundhorizonte - curved backdrops)
0 Workshop building, ground floor Arch.+ Techn.: Biste u. Gerling rolled out on the floor for painting. The average size of a cyclorama
is 10 x36 m.lt must be possible to sub-divide the room with a thick
1---- 3.0 --+- 3.0 ---1 curtain for spraying work. Also required are underfloor heating to
dry the painted backdrops; wooden floors for spreading out the
canvases; a gallery from which to check the work lying on the
floor. The painting room is located next to the sewing room (with
a size about 14 of the painting room) joining the pieces of material.
THEATRES b) Carpenter's shop:
Historical review Divided into bench and machine rooms, it has wooden floors and
Typology
Auditorium an adjoining timber store for 3-10 productions.
Stage c) Upholstery: approx. 1/10 area of painting room.
Subsidiary rooms
Workshops and d) Metalwork: as carpenter's shop, screeded floor.
staff rooms Soloist dressing room Soloist dressing room e) Sculpture workshop.
Rehearsal and S;3.8-5 m2/person ~5 m2/person
public rooms
f) Workshops should be grouped round an assembly room, which
Modernisation serves to test-assemble the scenery and has the same floor area
1-- 3.0 --+- 3.0 --j as the stage. The height should be proscenium plus 2 m, diameter
f-- 3.0 ----+- 3.0 --;
9-10m.
0 DODO g) Changing, washing, and rest (canteen) rooms are to be provided
0
0
c::o for technical staff, and offices for the technical management.
Further workshops for sound, lighting, props and costumes, size
DODO
0
c::o as required (production intensity, personal equipment).
Personnel rooms
Artistic staff, stage manager, administration. Historically, personnel
rooms were situated on both sides of the stage: left, ladies, right,
Chorus dressing room Dressing and tuning-up room for gentlemen, although this was operationally impractical. Today,
~2.75 m2/person orchestra players i=:';2 m2/person these rooms are located on one side, opposite the technical side
on several floors. This includes make-up, frequently also the
f--- 3.0 --!-- 3.0 ---1 costume workshop, administration and stage manager.
1---- 3.0 ----j
Dressing rooms: ---7 f) - 0 typical floor plans.
DO
D
DO Visitors Sanitary facilities
DO for 30-40 female visitors 1 we, 1 washbasin
D
DO
for 40-50 male visitors 1 we, 2 urinals, 1 washbasin
for 1DOD visitors 1 wheelchair we, accessible
Theatre and opera performers incl.
chorus, ballet and extras
e Dressing room for additional chorus
and/or extras ~1.65 m2/person
f) Changing and rest room for
technical staff
for 10 female performers
for 15 male performers
1WC
1 we, 2 urinals
for room for 1 soloist 1 washbasin
for dressing rooms for 2 soloists 1 washbasin, 1 shower
for the soloist dressing rooms 1) together 2 baths
for every 4 ballet, chorus memberorextra1l 2 washbasins, 1 shower
for the bailet 1l 2-4 foot washbasins
0
0 Staff of workshops etc.
0 for 15women 1WC
for20 men 1 we' 2 urinals
0 for 4 people 1l 1 washbasin
for 5 people 1l 1 shower
for 10 people 1l 1 bath

The composition of the visitors is assumed to be 3/5 women and 2/5 men.
1> The facilities are to be provided separately for women and men.
Dressing room for ballet Make-up room and work room for
group S;4 m2/person make-up artist Cil) Guidelines for sanitary facilities in theatres

216
I I":J----~~k.~~/71------- I I
THEATRES
I a.Q) I I Rehearsal and Public Rooms
~! !~~ i
c~;:;"""'-max.
~~
;:1 15: 0
~~ ·~e!" playing !:@
5:1
:
~§:/area~'~
@~ I : \] Rehearsal rooms
~~l .I C1+~ Every theatre needs at least one rehearsal stage to back up the main
All -; 1.0
_J ~ i ·-
r"AII
stage. For example, a small theatre: the main stage has the scenery
of the current play and the rehearsals take place on the rehearsal
forestage/orchestra pit
I stage. The dimensions should correspond to the main stage. Typical
production space,
--oT-· storage area - - - - floor plan of the rehearsal stage of a traditional theatre -7 0. Multi-
co; Above: lighting/sound
purpose theatres and opera houses also require: orchestra rehearsal
B recording studio ca. 1.4m2jsinger, minimum 50m2
ca. 7 m3fslnger room -7 e, chorus rehearsal room -7 e, soloist rehearsal room and
0 Large rehearsal stage, typical plan f) Chorus rehearsal room, typical plan ballet room.
Experimental theatres
These also require, in reduced form, staff and rehearsal rooms,
workshops and stores, if in continual operation.
Technical rooms
ca. 2.Q-2.4m2Jmusician
ca. 8.0-10m3fmusician Rooms for transformer, medium- and low-voltage switchgear,
emergency power supply batteries, air conditioning and ventilation
plant, water supply (rainwater system), according to local conditions
and specialist design work.

~
Public rooms
The classical Italian opera had only narrow entrances and stairs,
F-------------------------CI with no actual foyer. This makes the generous public rooms at the
Grand Opera in Paris particularly impressive. The Vienna theatre
THEATRES
Historical review
C) Orchestra rehearsal room, typical plan fire in 1881 led to extensive changes: the audience is now required Typology
to have enclosed emergency stairs for each tier. This requirement Auditorium
Stage
continues in principle today (Public Assembly Regulations). Subsidiary rooms
Workshops and
In the traditional theatre, the foyers are split into: actual foyer staff rooms
(lobby), restaurant (buffet), smoker's foyer. Area of the foyers Rehearsal and
public rooms
0.8-2.0 m2/spectator (more realistic is 0.6-0.8 m2/spectator). The Modernisation
function of the foyer has changed today: it must include provision
see also:
for exhibitions, performances and regular plays there.
Location of
Cloakrooms building -> p. 223

Per 100 visitors: 4 running m of rail. Sometimes lockers are also 8-0
provided: one locker for every four visitors. The foyer is also a
waiting and queuing room, and has the usual extent of associated
WCs: one WC/1 00 people. 1fa gents, 2fa ladies; min. one gents' and
one ladies' WC. Total number of sanitary facilities: -7 p. 216 G).
1 entrance foyer Entrance hall (lobby) with day and evening cash desks, which
2 cloakroom foyer
3 tickets
should be opposite each other.
4 ticket office
5 steps to External access, emergency exits
underground garage
6 steps
According to local conditions -7 p. 211 0 - 0 and Public
7 visitors' we Assembly Regulations.
8 studio foyer
9 studio
10 canteen
11 kitchen
12 kitchen store
13 orchestra pit 18 conductor
14 substage 19 director 23 changing rooms
16 rehearsal room 20 tuning room 24 battery room 26 medium·voltage
16 extras 21 stores 25 low-voltage switch room
17 choir 22 electrical shop switch room 27 transformer cells

e Entrance floor of Heilbronn City Theatre Arch.: Blste u. Gerling

Evacuation plan, Trier City Theatre (626 seata) Arch.: G. Graubner and
H. Schneider; stage technician: A. Zotzmann 1964
e Evacuation plan, LOnen City Theatre (765 seats) Arch.: G. Graubner;
stage technician: W. Ehle 1958

217
 THEATRES
Modernisation and Extension

Saxony State Theatre, Radebeul

The home base of a renowned travelling theatre that covers
the entire spectrum of a multi-purpose stage company (music,
dance, theatre) consisted before rebuilding of a conglomeration
of extensions and reconstructions at various times of a former
hotel hall. The intention was to relieve the resulting functional
and organisational problems and improve the external
appearance.

The entrance for the audience was extended with a new two-
storey foyer area of steel and glass, in which the cloakrooms,
lobby and a snack bar could be integrated.

An extension of the storeroom and wings was possible only on

one side because of the plot boundaries and the topographical
situation, but the mostfunctional possible connection of workshops,
rehearsal rooms and props was still the intention. Another feature
was the improvement of fire protection and workplace safety.

The existing stage equipment was only renewed and slightly

extended. No elaborate solutions like lifting platforms or turntables
THEATRES
were planned, in order that plays developed here can also be
Historical review
Typology
presented on simple stages on tour.
Auditorium
Stage The extension of the existing building with new elements will still
Subsidiary rooms
Workshops and be possible after completion.
staff rooms
Rehearsal and
public rooms
Modernisation

G) New foyer @stage

®Main foyer @wtng
@ Theatre courtyard @ Stage make-up
@ Cloakrooms, WCs @ Scenery store
® Auditorium @Store
@Canteen @ Changing/orchestra practice
(J) Changing rooms @ Small rehearsal room, ballet hall
0 Saxony State Theatre Radebeul, ground floor with new @ Orchestra pit @ External restaurant
building hatched

f) Saxony State Theatre Radebeul, sections Arch.: meyer+ bassin, Dresden

218
 Staff
entrance
Deliveries CONCERT HALLS
........ Origins, Variants

Acoustic multi-purpose rooms

Churches were the first form of
concert hall, with strong rever-
beration. The echo increases the
holiness of the place, but domes
and vaults are problematic for
sermons and orchestral music.
The first theatres and opera hous-
es were stages and auditoriums
installed into existing halls.
There was good understanding
of speech due to the open view
and short distance to the stage,
but insufficient reverberation due
to decoration with soft materials
and surfaces with little reflection
of sound.
In a tiered theatre, the stalls are
surrounded on three sides by
tiers, generally leading to short
reverberation times, as empty CoNCERT
HALLS
wall surfaces are obstructed by
Origins
boxes and galleries and are full Variants
of people. This is advantageous Requirements
Organs
for the understanding of speech Orchestra
but music sounds rather dull and Acoustics
toneless.
Concert halls
--Direct functional relationship
·········Indirect functional relationship
.........
Visitor entrance
Today four types of concert hall
are common (possibly modified):
Q Functional scheme of a concert building with one hall (Skoda --> refs) block, arena, fan and horseshoe
-> 0 - 0. The selection of hall
Concert houses type depends on the urban plan-
Intended for musical performances, but other uses are also possible (congresses, lectures etc.), ning situation, intended space and
can also if required be supplemented by chamber music hall, rehearsal hall, tuning and warming up acoustic requirements.
rooms and stores. Hall sizes of 1500 and 2000 (in isolated cases 2800) seats in the audience have
become usual, for chamber music 400 to 700 seats.

Block form Arena Horseshoe form Circle/arc form

Rectangular plan Polygonal ground plan Horseshoe-shaped plan Fan-shaped plan
Pattern: redoubt, ballroom and dance hall Pattern: amphitheatre Pattern: box theatre Good view, good direct sound transfer
View is not optimal due to flat stalls Orchestra area is completely surrounded Good view, good direct sound transfer Acoustic disadvantages due to fan-shaped
Polyfunctionally usable with level seating by audience Sufficient short reflections, few complex opening of hall
Primary structure according to conditions, Optimal viewing conditions, communicative reflections Optimal acoustics are possible,
similar to the golden section enables a very effect Little space and good sound transparency but expensive to create
good sound Good direct sound transfer
Optimal acoustics are possible,
but expensive to create

Block form: Lucerne Concert Hall,

1995-98 Arch.: Jean Nouvel
Arena form: Philharmonie Berlin,
1960-63 Arch.: Hans Scharoun
e Horseshoe fonm: Carnegie Hall, New
York, 188&-91 Arch.: W.B. Tuthill
Fan shape: Brucknerhaus Linz,
1969-73 Arch.: Heikki Siren

219
 CONCERT HALLS

fiJ ~iJ
uo
GO -o
Q)
Technical Requirements, Organ, Orchestra
. P~. 0..

D
® ® © There is little stage equipment: elements of floor structure in
IBl-CD the area for the orchestra, adjustable wall and ceiling fixtures,
80/UO transport aids, loudspeakers and lighting equipment.
Lifts to extend/reduce the stage
Large concert halls have special compartmentalised systems
in the orchestra area to make various orchestra configurations
@ ® possible, enlarge the stage area or maximise the number of seats
in the hall by placing seating units on lifts. There is also transport
of items between basement and stage, electrical spindle drive
with limited lift and low raising speed.

Key
Mobile seating units
GO great organ The lifting platforms can be lowered to allow a smaller stage and
so swell organ the positioning of additional seating, which can be in the form of
co choir organ
ChO chair organ mobile units.
®-@ uo upper organ
p positive Orchestra stage
0 Sizes and forms of organs Ped pedal organ Modular system with flexible stage options for music groups.
Transport and storage is on storage wagons in the store room.
Type Size Registers Height(m) Width(m) Depth (m) The floor covering matches the concert platform.
A chest 3-7 0.6-0.8 1.1J.-1.2 0.7-1.2
B positive 8-12 2.5-3 1.6-2.5 0.6-1.6 Choir platforms
CONCERT c small organ 12.20 4-6 3-3.5 1.2-1.8 Additional to the choir seats, when extra space is required, large
HALLS D II manuals 20-30 6-7 5.5-6.5 1.2-2
Origins E
seating platforms are rolled onto the stage and mounted in front
II manuals 25-35 6.5-9 4.5-7 1.5-2.5
Variants F-G Ill manuals 30-60 7.5-10 7-9 2-3 of the fixed choir seating; the seating in both types is identical.
Requirements
Organs
H-1 IV-V manuals 60-100 9-13 8-12 2-4 Access is via detachable balcony elements in the choir seating
Orchestra area or up temporary stairs on the choir platform.
Acoustics f) Organ types and sizes (housing)
Mixing desk
see also:
Religious Register number~ room volume in m 2/300 + number seats/50 Area consisting of three rows in the auditorium stalls; can be
buildings quickly adapted for the most varied performance and conference
pp. 285 ff.
Formula to determine the number of registers (according to Walcker) conditions.
A motorised platform under the stalls can be occupied in various
b - · - - ---1 a~ Width including filing ways: mobile seating unit, mobile mixing desk, or empty (e.g. if
b ~ Deep including bank
c ~ Height without music stand
guest musicians bring their own mixing desk).
Cyclorama scaffold
Motorised tubular scaffold, used to fix curtains and banners,
portable stage lighting and other production elements at the
rear of the stage, and can if required be partially or completely
dismantled.
Organ built into the concert hall

2 Manuals 3 Manuals 4 Manuals

00%
A \!Pill]~ 17
There is no fixed standard for the layout, with organs being
designed musically and architecturally for each individual space;
z_J<!)\lJ CD~<ib
a 180 200 220 it is an important visual eye-catcher. The location of the organ
b 150 160 170
c should be at the back of the stage, with a location in front of the
/]~
110 120 130

Free-standing console and its

c:Q back wall being ideal, free-standing and not in a niche.
c::r:::J OJ c::::::LJ The size depends on the volume of the hall, acoustics, position in the
dimensions
e German seating arrangement
room, number of seats, musical requirements (solo or accompanist
instrument). The better the acoustics and the location of the organ,
the smaller can it be -+ 0- 0.
To the depth of the organ housing should be added: 1-2 m for
the organist and min. 0.5 m for tuning access behind the organ,
min. 1.5 m free space necessary above the organ -t 0 - 0.
In concert halls, a second organ platform is necessary (electric,
mobile); this is placed near the orchestra, so the organist becomes
part of the orchestra. The dimensions depend on the size of the
organ-+ 0 + 4!). Necessary cable connections should be provided.
f) American seating arrangement Orchestra sizes and layouts
1. Conductor 1D. Bassoon The various orchestra seating layouts, formerly German and today
2.1stviolins 11. Trumpets mostly American, are important for the sound in the hall -t 0- f).
3. 2nd violins 12. Horns
4. Violas 13. Trombones The following sizes of orchestra are usual today in Europe and
5. Cellos 14. Tubas North America: large symphony orchestra with 60-150 musicians
6. Basses 15. Harps
and chamber orchestra with 25-40 musicians; this determines
7. Flutes 16. Percussion
8. Oboes 17. Kettle-drums the additional space requirement on the stage (e.g. Gewandhaus
0 Organ with IV manuals (section) 9. Clarinets Leipzig, approx. 180m 2).

220
AP.··.. CONCERT HALLS
.......... .':.;:.:::···l·························································.. ·························· .. ·························· Acoustics

,: ~:~: :r,: :;~:> \

The most important objective in designing a concert hall is a
superb sound. Acoustics result from the interaction of various
elements: size, volume and proportions of the concert space,
number and arrangement of the seats, materials used, surfaces
and finishes.
The sound properties of various instruments and the human
(singing) voice have to be taken into account, alone and together,
and also differences in pitch range and character (volume,
frequency distribution and time structure of a sound). The various
A d . ····/~. layouts of the orchestra are of significance for the sound in the
hall: the positioning of various groups of instruments (particularly

;~·~:.::.:'::-::·..1 the string section).

For the effect of the instruments in the hall, the relationship of the
sound travelling directly to the listener to the early reflection from
0 Sound waves and sources of reflected sound in an auditorium. A= sound source the sides plays a decisive role ---> 0.
A1 = source of first order reflected sound etc. (Kuttruff -> refs)
Optimal reverberation is important for the quality of hearing:
excessive reverberation reduces clarity, and too little reverberation
makes music sound dull. It is dependent on air changes/person
(older concert halls 4-5m 3 /seat, newer over 6-15m 3/seat).
The acoustics are influenced by hall size, shape and (surface) material CONCERT
HALLS
used; these can be adapted for different acoustic requirements
Origins
through the selection of various materials. The following variants are Variants
possible and usual: Requirements
Organs
Acoustic reflector Orchestra
Acoustics
Installed over the stage, this is an adjustable, wide, heavy, sound-
reflecting surface consisting of two or three independent sections;
each section must be 2-3 m above the stage and adjustable up
to 2 m under the ceiling. The height and position of reflectors is
determined by the type of concert: smaller concerts, light chamber
music and concerts with string instruments require a lower height
for the reflectors.
Sound-absorbing curtains and banners
These influence the length and strength of the reverberation
(lowered by widening the curtains). If not required, the curtains
are retracted into curtain niches (and must then be without effect).
Acoustic regulation spaces (promenades)
Volume V (m 3) Additional volume can be gained for works with long reverberation
(those for organ, large orchestras and large choirs, as well as with
f) Relationship of reverberation, hall volume and music type (Hall -> refs)
acoustic amplification) through the extension of the auditorium.
Access passages and foyer areas can be used for this. They can
be opened into the hall with movable panels using central control.

The reflection characteristics of Frequency (Hz) 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000
various materials are of great im- acoustic board, suspended hard 0.2 0.4 0.7 0.8 0.6 0.4
portance for the acoustic design. acoustic board, suspended in frame 0.5 0.7 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.5
Hard surfaces are preferable acoustic rough plaster 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.7
to achieve long reverberation. normal plaster on laths 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0.04 0.05
The seats should also be pro- plasterboard 16 mm on squared timber 0.3 0.1 0.05 0.04 0.07 0.1
vided with surfaces of hard mat-
plywood 8 mm on squared timber 0.6 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
erial. Upholstering of seats can
artificial stone, untreated surface 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.3
achieve uniformity of reverbera-
painted concrete 0.1 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.1 0.1
tion, even with different numbers
fair-faced concrete 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.03
in the audience.
brick 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.07
heavy carpet on concrete 0.02 0.06 0.15 0.4 0.6 0.6
heavy carpet with felt underlay 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
stage flooring, wood 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.15 0.1
window glass 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.07 0.04
wall hanging, medium velour 0.07 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.7 0.6
upholstered seats, occupied 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.9 0.9 0.9
upholstered seats, unoccupied 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.7 0.6 0.6
Degree of sound absorption (alpha)
wooden or metal seats, unoccupied 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.06 0.06 0.05
of various surfaces (Hall -> refs)

221
 CINEMAS
Projection

Before embarking on the design of a cinema, ask the advice of a

cinema equipment company.
Picture projection: Fire-separation materials are no longer
required in the projection room due to the use of safety film. One
projectionist operates a number of projectors, so the projection
room is no longer considered as continuously occupied by staff.
It has 1 m spacing from the projector at the back and on the
max. outer edge of seating block
operator side, 2.80 m height, ventilation and extraction, and sound
= outside edge of picture insulation to the auditorium. The projection rooms of several
last row of seats auditoriums can be combined together.
Film widths are 16 mm, 35 mm and 70 mm. The centre of the
projection beam should not deviate more than so horizontally and
vertically from the centre of the screen or it should be redirected
by a deflection mirror -'> 0.
Conventionally, two projectors are operated with cross-blending.
Automated operation with one projector plus horizontal film tray
showing 4000 m reels without pause has become established
worldwide, in many projection rooms remotely run from projection
and control points. The film gives automatic signals for all
projection functions like lens changing, hall lighting, stage lighting,
plan view curtain and picture covering.
CINEMAS
Projection
Auditorium
0 Optimal auditorium Picture sizes: These depend on the distance of the projector
from the screen and having a height-side relationship of 1:2.34
Multiplex cinemas
Drive-in cinemas (Cinemascope) or 1:1.66 (wide screen) with a narrow auditorium
width. The angle from the centre of the back row of seating to the
outer edge of the picture should not exceed, for Cinemascope,
38° = distance of the back row : screen = 3:2 -7 f) - e.
Screen: Distance of the screen from the wall with BTX (-'> p. 223)
is min. 120 em; according to cinema size and system this can be
reduced to 50 em on the setting up of the sound system.
The screen is perforated (sound-permeable). Retracting blinds
or curtains restrict the screen at the sides with the same picture
height. Large screens are curved in a radius centred on the back
row of seats. The lower edge of the screen should be min. 1.20 m
I I wide screen 1:1.85
'Kinoton' format 1:2 above the floor -'> 0.
70mm
Cinemascope 1:2.34
I I Auditorium: This should receive no incoming light except for
emergency lighting. The walls and ceilings should be of non-
Picture formats with same picture height reflecting material in relatively dark colours. The audience should
sit within the outer edge of the screen. The viewing angle from the
first row of seats to the centre of the picture should not exceed 30°.

1JJJ
1
8 Picture formats with same picture width
Ur e
31.5 83 125 250 500 1K

Permissible reverberation time depending on frequency

2K 4K 8K 16K frequency

60
2.0

i
ro
IL
50

40
\
~ 1.0
6 '\. !
~ !./
...E 0.5
X
N 30
/
"
>
0
" .,"
0 _......v
""
-g 20 0.4
!':
~
""' '-...... -e" o:s
10
.............. ">~
0.2 ...........
/ v
F::::::
,.,.,.""
64 126 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000 0.1 /
frequency 30 m3 300 m3 3000 m3
e Permissible disturbance level e Reverberation time relative to auditorium volume

222
 1---- 2.0 ------1
CINEMAS
Auditorium

Up to a 10% floor gradient is permissible, or else steps with max.

16 em risers and aisles of 1.20 m width~ 0. Up to 10 seats may
be arranged on each side of each aisle ~ e.
:T~ Acoustics
f--1 f--1 Adjacent auditoriums should be separated by walls of approx.
;:;;4o ;:;;4o
1-1.2 m row spacing 1 - - 2.4 ------1
85 dB 18-20 000 Hz ~ p. 222 0. The ceiling should feature
sound-directing surfaces with low acoustic delay difference
0 Spacing and rows of seats. Cinema Boxes may have ~20 loose chairs;
time.
seats are normally larger than the "'0.65 m2 floor area for each person
minimum dimensions stipulated by
The reverberation time can increase with growing auditorium
the Public Assembly Regulations.
volume and reduces from 0.8 to 0.2 s from low to high frequencies.
90 1.2 ~ p. 222. The rear wall behind the last row of seats should have
t---1 f--------1 an insulated surface to prevent echo .

. mtw~1 :m~~·m:·"··" Loudspeakers are distributed in the auditorium so that the

difference in volume between the front and back rows does not
exceed 4 dB.
Sound reproduction
In addition to mono optical sound reproduction, the Dolby
;r a~ ~~viation: stereo optical system with four channels will be required in the
A : 6 C
0 0 future, using three loudspeaker combinations behind the screen
!!!·E·o:;: .. m
...;:;:;: ...;:;:;:.r----=ro:>:J!l E!ll!!D
...:;:;, "" " " ' " ' " " " ' ''"""!'"'"''''"'' CINEMAS
f--1 f--------1 2.00 corridor and additional speakers at the sides and back. For 70 mm
90 1.2 film, 6 channel magnetic sound, there are additional speaker Projection
Auditorium
Seating -A: for auditorium "'200 people; B: "'200 people; C: 50 seats, if there
combinations behind the screen. With BTX, behind the screen Multiplex cinemas
there is a sound-absorbing wall (following the Lucas film system), Drive-in cinemas
is a door at the side for every four rows
in which the loudspeaker combinations are installed. Model Public
Assembly

~lmfn"'.'"'"'
Cash desks Regulations
Predominantly electronic booking and reservation systems: 1 cash
desk per 300-400 seats, requiring approx. 5 m2 •
Types of cinema
'Programme cinemas': As a counter-trend to multiplex

.... cinemas ~ p. 224, city centres have seen the establishment of

3.50 .

~t----~~~~~:rr:r·
'programme cinemas', which mostly show specialist films. Sizes
of 50-200 seats are usual, normally in combination with eating/
drinking facilities~ 0.

f)
Ill ~Ill wall

Access roads and through roads 9 Distance of the building from the
Circarama/Panorama cinemas: Round or spherical screens
increase the impression of being directly involved in the action.
Because special film techniques are required for these (a
plot boundaries depending on
number of visitors number of cameras have to film the same view simultaneously),
there are only a few films available, and this type of cinema
is therefore restricted to adventure parks and planetariums ~
e-e.

I
Auditorium

I
I !D
"'II
!D
VII

I
I
12'

e Auditorium for panoramic films Circarama. Picture surface spherical

(360'), on which a consolidated
Zazie 'programme cinema' with 0 Auditorium for flat films picture from 11 simultaneously
running projectors can be shown.
cafe and bar, Halle (Saale)
Arch.: Complizen.com Example: Brussels Expo

223
 CINEMAS
\ I
\ I Multiplex Cinemas

.II
0 Access to cinema auditoriums
With a number of screens of various sizes in one building, multiplex
cinemas are often combined with shopping centres, car parks etc,
which require extensive parking space ~ p. 225. The auditoriums
are reached via a common entrance and sometimes stacked. On
account of the large numbers of visitors, good orientation and
clear signing to the individual screens is important. The location of
the screens in relation to the entrance foyer should be according
to their size (large screens nearest to the foyer), or the largest
screen in a central location/on the direct route from the foyer. The
sizes of the single auditoriums depend on the requirements of the
operator, as also the spacing of the rows, foyer design etc.
The cash desk zone should be near the entrance, the number of
desks dependent on the number of seats: approx. 5 m2 floor areal
cash desk; for 2500 seats, approx. 6-8 cash desks.
f) Schematic arrangement of cinema The entrance foyer should be of generous proportions, clearly laid
auditoriums on one level
out and at a prominent location in the building; it includes the main
entrance, food/drink counters and access to the screens. Before
the access points to the individual screens on different floors,
Screen -wall distance there are normally additional foyers with bar counters, WCs etc.
The main foyer should be of adequate size for events (premieres,
CINEMAS Screen
presentations etc.).
Projection
Auditorium Because eating and drinking are normally a significant part of the
Multiplex
cinemas
cinema concept, counters should be provided in central locations
Drive~in cinemas with the necessary storage and service facilities.
Model Public Atsle wtdth mm 90 em
Assembly Cinema auditorium
Regulations
The screen should fill the entire wall; there should be no exits in
this wall or the side walls near to it. Cross-passages should be
Row of seats ·. Row of seats
provided as a connection between the doors or at a side entrance
to reach the side aisles ~ p. 235.
Projection room
·~seatrowstepB 1.20mr- .'
Minimum room size: 6.50 x 2.80 x 2.80 m 0/IJ x D x H). Projection
window size approx. 150/250 x 50 em (one or two projectors) Film
can be supplemented by video projectors, and space should also
Steps ·.. fCross-passage step B = 1.80 m Steps
~ ·..!' : ,....,.....,-,- be provided for horizontal film tray equipment and control desk.
The platform under the projectors should be vibration-free. A
noise level of approx. 75 dB must be damped to 30 dB by the
projection window. The working temperature should not exceed
22oc in order to protect film copies and equipment.
Subsidiary rooms
These are to be provided as required: offices for the manager,
secretary and employees, archive, IT room, staff rooms (changing
rooms, ladies' and gents' WCs, staff rest room).
Projector
For the foyer and food/drink area: catering stores, counter stores,
Hall proportions: 1.1.3 -1.4:0.5 (W x D x H) Screen distance A= 1.20- 1.50 m cool room, room for empties, rubbish room, cleaning equipment
Curtain storage space 8: each side approx. 1O% of the screen width
Distance C (head front row- screen): approx. 75% of the clear room height room, stores for cleaning firm and decoration.
Width of curtain pocket: approx. 40 em
Screen curvature: circular arc (centre projector), from about 500 seats
Top of screen: about 0,30 m below ceiling, bottom of screen: about 0.80 m above FFL
Height of screen: results from the values given above
Width of screen: screen height x 2.35 (largest format: Cinemascope)
Clear ceiling height above the back row: min. 2.30 m

C) Generalised ground floor plan of a larger auditorium with technical dimensions

e Wide screen projection equipment e Projection room

224
 CINEMAS
Multiplex Cinemas, Examples

The town-planning situation plays a significant role in the number

of cinema screens that can be combined into a unit. Possible forms
are layered stacking (screens stacked as a cube, access and service
functions connected in free form at the side)--> 8- 0, or a horizontal
row of screens (larger cinemas from the 1960s were extended with
further screens, sunk into the ground for conservation reasons) -->
0 - f) or combination forms. A common form is the combination
with other functions like shopping centres and car parks, with sales
areas on the ground floor, cinema screens and parking on the first
floor: a prominent urban landmark in conjunction with two high-rise
point buildings --> 0- 0.

G) Cinemas
@Foyer
®Offices
@ Parking areas
CINEMAS
Projection
0 Kosmos cinema, Berlin, plan Arch.: Rohde Kellermann Wawrowsky Auditorium
Multiplex
cinemas
Drive-in cinemas

f) Kosmos cinema, Berlin, elevation/section Arch.: Rohde Kellermann Wawrowsky Neustadt Centrum Halle, first floor plan (cinema level i)
Arch.: Hermann & Valentiny with Noack und Partner

8 Filmpalast Dresden, plan Arch.: Coop Himmelb(J)au

Neustadt Centrum Halle, ground floor plan (shopping level)

Arch.: Hermann & Valentiny with Noack und Partner

Neustadt Centrum Halle, section

C) Filmpalast Dresden, view/section Arch.: Coop Himmelb(l)au Arch.: Hermann & Valentiny with Noack und Partner

225
 CINEMAS
t--out
Drive-in Cinemas

Drive-in cinemas, where the audience do not

have to leave their cars.
The size is limited by ramps, number of cars
~1 000-1300, while still ensuring a good
view. Normal is 450-500 cars ---> 0.

Cars No. ramps Screen to back edge of

ramp(m)

500 10 155
586 11 170
670 12 180
778 13 195
886 14 210

. . . 1000 15 225

~~~{:pea~~~
.. . .. .
•('
Location: on the motorway, near petrol
stations and services, with screening so that
t--out light and sound do not distract passing traffic.
CINEMAS Ramps are curved and sloping in order
Projection 0 Drive-in cinema in a fan shape with inclined ramps and low projection cabin, to lift the front of the cars, so back seat
Auditorium which only takes up two rows
Multiplex cinemas passengers also have a good view of the
Drive"in screen---> e.
cinemas
Entrance road: with waiting area, in order to
line of sight from rear seat to lower edge of screen avoid backing up of traffic on the road. Drive-

..
·~ ~.=~~-~-~.~.----------;--~~~:~-----
I
pos= · · · · ·'· ·.·.·.· · · · 'l'... ~=-1~·············'·'·'~
past ticket counter, so that tickets from the
cars can be checked ---> 0.
Exit: ideally after leaving the ramp forwards.
and electrical heating 7.60 90+-- 3.00 ··
1--------11.50----------1
Detailing of the entire area to avoid dust and
f) Ramp arrangement and dimensions: elevations can be different according to screen picture height skidding in wet weather.
Ticket counter: one counter for 300 cars;
two for 600; three for 800; four for 1000.
Screen: depends on the number of cars: for
650 cars 14.50 x 11.30 m; for 950 cars 17.0
x 13.0 m. Ideally facing east or north, which
enables earlier performances. For the Central
European latitude, the screen is better
installed in a solid, permanent structure.
Cinema screen in the Billbrook drive-in
cinema near Hamburg: 36 m high x 15.5 m
wide. Height above ground level depends
on ramp gradient and sight angle. Screen
tilted upward avoids distortion. Scaffolding
and screen must be able to bear wind
loading.
Rows of seats should be provided, and a
play area for children is also a good idea.
Projection building: mostly central, at a
; distance of 100 m from the screen.
0

Projection room contains projectors,

generators, sound amplification system.
Sound reproduction ideally has loudspeakers
inside the cars; the loudspeakers are
attached to a post for every two cars at 5.0
m separation and are attached inside the cars
by the visitors.
entrance

f) Double cinema. One projection room for both screens, with the possibility of staggered starting times. All Heating: on loudspeaker posts, possibly
other areas (cash desks, bar, toilets etc.) are common also a connection for heating in the cars.

226
 CIRCUS
Stationary

Show theatre, permanent venue

Amphitheatre-type hall, laid out as three quarters of a circle,
offering seats for an audience of 1600. The last quarter is intended
for the stage, which consists of five stacked lifting platforms. This
enables the stage sets to be changed very quickly ~ e.
Access to the hall on the third floor+ 13.00 m above road level. A
27 m high reinforced concrete dome spans the circus arena.

Project: Berlin Leipziger Platz

Arch.: Aldo Rossi Milan
Planungs AG Neufert/Mittmann/Graf, Berlin
Sceno-Pius Experts-Conseils, Montreal

CIRCUS
Stationary

space

0 Second floor+ 9.00 m (underfloor theatre)

8 Section

Show main!.
56 m'

f) Third floor (stage area)+ 13.00 m

0 Fourth floor (audience seating level)+ 16.50 m

227
 zoos
Basics
"Asia" Elephant, temple, tigers ...
"Africa" Zebras, giraffes, rhinoceroses ...
"Pongoland" Gorillas, chimpanzees ...
"Founder's garden" Zoo history
"South America" Anteaters, spectacled bears, giant otters
"Gondwana landu Giant tropical house (planned)

zoos
Basics
Keeping animals
Enclosures

Directive
1999/22/EC
Animal Protection 0 Master plan of a modern zoo with adventure world (animal geography),
from the example of Leipzig Zoo Arch.: Rasbachr Architekten
Objectives of zoos
Law Starting with Directive 1999/22/EC, zoos are subject to the
Report, Minimum
following requirements ---> f):
Requirements
for Animal
Husbandry,
1. Involvement in research activities for species conservation
Federal Ministry 2. Zoo educational publicity work
for Consumer
3. Keeping and feeding the animals correctly for the species
Protection,
Agriculture and 4. Protection against animals escaping or pests and vermin
Forests infiltrating
5. Keeping a register of the zoo collection

Infrastructure of a modern zoo ---> 0

Access: good accessibility, clear signposting, sufficient number
of parking spaces, stops for public transport
Main entrance: distinctive entrance area, pay booths/counters,
kiosks, administration, tidy paths, welcoming seating
Further infrastructure: event and lecture room, high-class
restaurant with view of zoo facilities and separate entrance from
outside (for evening business), further restaurants according to
zoo size, self-service cafeteria, kiosks, toilets, picnic sites, zoo
shops, zoo school
Operations and staff building: separate access (out of public
Zoo view) with adequate external areas for the storage of feed and
litter, building materials, etc., staff department with washing
and changing facilities, cafeteria, training and rest rooms
(security staff), breeding of feed animals, central/dispersed feed
The modern zoo attempts to balance the interests of research, animal protection and preparation, water distribution, storage and cool rooms, rubbish
the experience of nature. removal, sheds for parking and maintenance of cleaning machines,
On one side stand the requirements for keeping the animals, feeding, cage design transport vehicles and cages, workshops, gardening, heating, air
and veterinary care in line with the needs of the species, research activities for the
conditioning, ventilation
conservation of species, participation In international breeding programmes and zoo
educational publicity work.
Medical care of animals: animal clinic, quarantine station,
On the other hand, the zoo is also a business, whose success mainly depends on
visitor numbers and is in competition with other leisure providers.
laboratories, research facilities, acclimatisation and breeding
The basis of any zoo design is therefore the orientation on the state of research Into areas, cadaver storage
the keeping of animals In a way suitable for the species, and also the consideration of
the demands of the potential visitors. The staging of exotic ("near to nature") animal Access roads and paths: wheelchair-accessible main paths
worlds and spectacular visitor facilities should therefore be evaluated against this (5-6 m wide), with weather protection, laid out as round route,
background. side paths (3-4 m wide) to each group of animals, independent
f) Tasks of the modern zoo, combining the interests of research, animal operational roads (3-4 m wide) for supply, waste disposal, animal
conservation and providing exciting experiences transport and as emergency access (fire service, ambulance).

228
 zoos
Keeping Animals

'Hands-on', the traditional principle of keeping zoo animals: it

denotes direct contact between the (tame) animals, the keepers
(feeding, care) and the zoo visitors (petting zoo) ---7 e.
Functional aspects include separation into public and private or
invisible areas, assignment of visitor areas, enclosures, keeper
access and subsidiary rooms. The most important aspects are
hygienic considerations and the presentation of the animals.
Hands-off' (protected contact) was originally developed as a
safe method of handling dangerous animals (indirect, technically
supported contact between animal and keeper), and today often
corresponds to the expectations of zoo visitors for species-
appropriate keeping of animals in zoos ---7 0: The large area
and natural character of the reproduced original habitat, with
appropriate fixed points (drinking trough, climbing rocks, etc.) and
the possibility of observing from selected and protected (secretive)
positions are also seen as desirable regarding lack of disturbance
and encouraging reproduction in human care. "Hands-off"
0 Elephant park, Cologne Zoo Arch.: Oxen und Romer, external works: facilities have excellent potential for research and breeding.
Fenner, Steinhauser, Weisser

zoos
Basics
Keeping animals
caregiver Enclosures

0 Section -7 f)

f) Great ape facility, Wuppertal Zoo Hochbauamt Wuppertal

basin

0 Section --. 8
Baltic
aquarium Examples
Animal houses and open-air enclosures are differentiated.
Combinations are possible, with and without water:
The elephant park at Cologne Zoo ---7 0 is an example of an inte-
grated 'hands-off' facility (animal house and open-air enclosure). The
partially roofed area can be divided into various sections from a control
centre by means of mechanical gates. The visitor areas are separated
from the enclosures by water-filled ditches or differences in level
The great ape house at Wuppertal Zoo ---7 8 is an animal house
(with outside enclosure built subsequently), consisting of the
internal enclosure lit from above with protected sleeping bunks,
glass partition to the visitor area, keeper access frorn behind, feed
kitchen and special cages (sick bay, baby apes).
The Ozeaneum, Stralsund ---7 8, as an example of a multifunctional
animal house/aquarium with an extensive round tour for visitors,
thematically divided aquariums (Baltic, North Sea) and central
area for keepers. The facility serves the purposes of exhibition
and research and is elaborately conceived with spectacular views
into the tanks (shoal fish tank with 15 x 5 m glass pane, tunnel
C) Ozeaneum, Stralsund Arch.: Behnisch, Behnisch und Partner aquarium, overhead aquarium, touch pools, simulation tanks).

229
 zoos
Enclosures

Design aspects
Near to nature: The enclosure should correspond to the ideas of
the visitors regarding the appropriate habitat for the animals, be
aesthetically pleasing and give a generous impression.
Physical nearness: The nearer people can come to the animals,
the greater the interest and the longer they stay.
Emotional nearness: Enclosure boundaries should scarcely be
noticed.
Observation: Animal enclosures should work secretively and be
an invitation to exploration (e.g. view into the enclosure through
a cave or a waterfall). Routes should invite lingering, not passing
an enclosure but rather leading to it. It should be possible to see
0 Concealed visitor position only one enclosure from each location; distracting views, and also
masses of people in front of the enclosure, should be avoided.
Enable comfortable observation in a relaxed position, not into
the sun or through a reflecting pane of glass; the visitor should
look into a bright, lit enclosure from shadow (this also has the
advantage that the animals do not immediately notice the visitors).
Areas where the animals like to pass the time and are active should
be clearly visible.
Basics
Keeping animals Withdrawal: It is, however, also important that the animal can
Enclosures
withdraw from view and be unobserved.
Information: Signage; sufficient information should be available
Accessibility: Access to the enclosures (only for the zoo keepers)
is provided by dedicated roads and care areas; the appropriate
animal catching and transport facilities are here.
f) Indoor enclosure with glass corridor: view from dark into light
Barriers
Ditches were originally developed as dry ditches, but are today
l-2.00-------j
generally constructed as water barriers (moats)-+ 8. A natural
appearance is advantageous, but the water becomes dirty quickly
and the animals can leave the enclosure over the ice if it freezes
over, so the water level therefore has to be lowered in winter. There
are normally fences or walls to provide additional protection.
Glass is becoming accepted by most zoos -+ 8 + 0, because it
gives the impression of direct contact with the animals and also
prevents the infection of animals by humans.
8 Water barrier: visitor and animal outdoors
Iron bars disturb the visitor and the animal. The classic method
of keeping animals in cages is therefore avoided in modern zoos.
r------3.00------1

-------------------------------)
f-------3.00------1

G Water barrier: visitor behind protective glass screen and animal outdoors

-~->~
------r--

0 Aviary 0 Terrarium 8 Water barrier: the moat should be wide enough for large animals

230