Fundamentals Circuit

Review for the Exit Exam

I-Basic Concepts
II-Basic Laws
III-(a) DC circuit analysis methods
-(b) Theorems
IV- Transient analysis
V-AC circuit analysis
Electric Circuit

An electric circuit is an interconnection of

electrical elements
e.g.

elements

Simple electrical circuit Complicated real circuit

Basic Concepts

Charge

Current

Voltage

Power

Energy

Circuit Elements
Charge

Charge is an electrical property of the atomic

particles of which matter consists, measured in
coulombs (C)
Note: An electron has a magnitude of 1.602 X10-19C (with –ve sign)
1 electron = -1.602 X10-19C
6.24 X1018 electrons = -1 C
Flow of Electric Charge

Electric Charge is mobile, it can be transferred from

one place to another.

When a conducting wire is connected to

a battery (a source of electromotive force),
the charges are compelled to move.
The movement of +ve and –ve charges
create electric current.
electrons

Note:
Current in a circuit is a flow of electrons. Electrons have a –ve charge. Because
they are –ve the current is conventionally considered to be in the opposite direction
to the flow of electrons
Current

Current is the time rate of charge, measured in

amperes (A)
dq
i=
dt
1 ampere = 1coulomb/second
t
Q = ∫ i dt
t0
Note:
If the current does not change with time, but remains constant, it is called direct
current (dc) and the conventional symbol is I
An alternating current (ac) is a current that varies sinusoidally with time and the
cpnventional symbol is i
Quiz 1

How much charge is represented by 4,600

electrons ?

1 electrons = -1.602 X10-19C

4,600 electrons = -7369.2 X10-19C
(4,600 x -1.602 X10-19C)
Voltage

Voltage (or potential difference) is the energy

required to move a unit charge through an
element, measured in volts (V).
dw
vab =
dq
1 volt = 1 joule/coulomb
= 1 newton-meter/coulomb
 Polarity of Voltage

Voltage across an element ( represented by a rectangular block)

connected to points a and b. The plus (+) and minus (-) signs are
used to define reference direction or voltage polarity.

Points a is +9V above Points b is -9V above

point b. point a.
Or there is a 9-V voltage Or 9-V voltage rise from
drop from a and b b to a

Note:
A constant voltage is called a dc voltage and represented by V
A sinusoidally time-varying voltage is called an ac voltage and is represented by v
Power

Power is the time rate of expending or

absorbing energy, measured in watts (W).
dw
p= 1 watt = 1 joule/second
dt
dw dq
p= .
dq dt
p = vi To relate power and energy to voltage
and current
Passive sign convention

By convention, the power of an element is:

– The positive product of voltage and current if the
element is absorbing power

i.e. current enters the positive terminal

– The negative product of voltage and current if the

element is supplying power

i.e. current enters the negative terminal

This allows conservation of energy

– the algebraic sum of power in a circuit is zero
– i.e. [supplying power (-)] + [absorbing power (+)]=0
Quiz 2

P1 = 5(-8) = -40W P3 = 0.6(5)(3) = 9W

P2 = 2(8) =16W P4 = 3(5) =15W
Energy

Energy is capacity to do work, measured in

joules (J).

Note:The electric power utility companies measure

energy in watt-hours (Wh), where
1Wh = 3,600 J
Quiz 3

A stove element draws 15A when connected to a 120V

line. How long does it takes to consume 30kJ?

i = 15A P = dw / dt
V = 120V t = w/p
P = VI =
=15 x 120 30000/1800
= 1800 W = 16.7s
Circuit Elements

An element is the basic building block of a

circuit.
Type of elements:
Passive Elements Active Elements
Not capable of generating Capable of generating energy
energy

Resistors
Generators

Capacitors
Batteries

inductors
Operational amplifier
 Sources

There are two kinds of sources: Independent and dependent.

An ideal independent source is an active element that provides a

specified voltage or current that is completely independent of other circuit
elements.

Symbols for independent voltages sources: Symbols for independent current sources:
a)Constant or time-varying voltage
b)Constant voltage (dc)
An ideal dependent (or controlled) source is an active element in
which the source quantity is controlled by another voltage or
current.

Dependent sources are usually designated by diamond-shaped

symbols.

There are 4 types of dependent sources, namely

1. A voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS)
2. A current-controlled voltage source (CCVS)
3. A voltage-controlled current source (VCCS)
4. A current-controlled current source (CCCS)
II-Basic Laws

Ohm’s Law

Kirchhoff’s Laws
- Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
- Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
Resistance (R)

Resistance ( R ) of an element denotes its

ability to resist the flow of electric current, it is
measured in ohms (Ω.)

Circuit element used to model current-resisting

behaviour of a material is the resistor.

Carbon film type Wirewound type

Ohm’s Laws

Ohms’ law states that the voltage v across a

resistor is directly proportional to the current i
flowing through the resistor.

The constant of proportionality is termed the

resistance, R:

v = iR
Two extreme possible values of R

Short Circuit is a circuit with resistance

approaching zero, R = 0

Open Circuit is a circuit element with resistance

approaching infinity, R =∞
Conductance

The inverse of Resistance is Conductance

Conductance is the ability of an element to

conduct electric current; it is measured in mhos
( ) or Siemens (S)
Ω
Network Topology

In network topology, we study the properties

relating to the placement of elements in the
network and the geometric configuration of the
network. Such elements include:
i) Branches
ii) Nodes
iii) Loops.
Branch

Branch represents a single element such as a

voltage source or a resistor

5 Branches
Nodes

Nodes are the point of connection between two

or more branches

5 branches 3 nodes
Nodes 2

Recognising nodes is very important:

All one node

All one node as well!

Loop

A loop is a closed path through the circuit

It may not pass the same node twice

If it has at least one branch not in any other
independent loop, it is an independent loop

Branches = Loops(indep) + Nodes – 1

If two elements share one node  series

If two elements share two nodes  parallel
Quiz 1

How many branches and nodes does the circuit in the below figure have?
Identify the elements that are in series and in parallel.

5 branches, 3 nodes, 1Ω, 2Ω are in parallel. 10V and 4Ω are in parallel

Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)

KCL states that the algebraic sum of currents

entering a node (or a closed boundary) is zero

Alternative Form of KCL

The sum of the currents
entering a node is equal
to the sum of the
currents leaving the
node

i1 + i 3 + i 4 = i 2 + i 5
Quiz 2

Find vo and io in the circuit

i v
− 6 + i0 + 0 + 0 = 0
4 8
v0 = i0 (2)
i i
− 6 + i0 + 0 + 0 = 0
4 4
− 24= −6i0
i0 = 4A
v0 = 4(2) = 8V
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

KVL states that the algebraic sum of all

voltages around a closed path (or loop) is zero

− v1 + v 2 + v 3 − v 4 + v 5 = 0
Quiz 3

Find the currents and voltages in the circuit

KVL

− 5 + 2 i1 + 8 i 2 = 0
− 8 i 2 + 4 i3 − 3 = 0
KCL

i1 − i2 − i3 = 0
v1 = 3V, v2=2V, v3= 5V,
i1=1.5A, i2=0.25A, i3=1.25A
Equivalent Resistance

The equivalent resistance is the resistance of

an element which could replace all the
resistors in the loop.

For resistors in series, just add each
resistance together to get the equivalent

For resistors in parallel, add each
conductance together to get the equivalent
conductance, and then find the resistance
from there
Series Resistor

Summation: R1 + R2 = RT

By Ohm’s Law: V1 V2 VT
+ =
I I I
The above is used to calculate voltage division in series
Parallel Resistor

R1

R2 RT

Summation of
1 1 1
Conductance:
+ =
R1 R2 RT
R1R2
RT =
R1 + R2
Quiz 4

3-Ω and 6-Ω are parallel

3x6/3+6 = 2-Ω
12-Ω and 4-Ω are parallel
12x4/12+4=3-Ω
Delta to Wye

Some forms of circuit are hard to analyse

‘Delta’ configuration ‘Y’ / ‘Wye’ configuration

Hard to analyse Easier to analyse

OBJECTIVE: Change ‘Delta’ configurations to ‘Y’ configurations

Delta to Wye 2
Rc 1 3
1 3

R1 R2
Rb Ra
2 4 R
2 3
4
1) Write the equivalent equations for each resistor in Delta in terms of Wye
1 Rb ( Ra + Rc )
R12 (Y ) = R1 + R3 R12 (∆) = =
1 1 Ra + Rb + Rc
+
Rb Ra + Rc
Rc ( Ra + Rb )
R13 (Y ) = R1 + R2 R13 (∆) =
Ra + Rb + Rc
R34 (Y ) = R2 + R3 Ra ( Rb + Rc )
R34 (∆) =
Ra + Rb + Rc
Delta to Wye 3

Rearranging the previous equations produces:

Rb Rc Rc Ra Ra Rb
R1 = R2 = R3 =
Ra + Rb + Rc Ra + Rb + Rc Ra + Rb + Rc
Note that this is of the form:
Resistance of Y-resistor = product of two adjacent
Delta-resistors divided by sum of Delta-resistances

The method of the Delta to Wye conversion is more

useful than the resulting equations

This can be applied in many difficult to analyse
situations, practice Wye to Delta as well
Wye to Delta

The reverse procedure to the Delta to Wye

conversion produces a Wye to Delta
conversion.

The result is left as an exercise (answer
below)

Answer:
Each resistor in the Delta network is the sum of all possible products of Y
taken two at a time, divided by the opposite Y resistor.
Wye to Delta (2)

R1 R 2 + R 2 R 3 + R 3 R1
Ra =
R1

R1 R 2 + R 2 R 3 + R 3 R1
Rb =
R2

R1 R 2 + R 2 R 3 + R 3 R1
Rc =
R3
III-Methods of Analysis
Reminder

Nodes are the point of connection between two

or more branches

5 branches 3 nodes
Techniques for Circuit Analysis

Nodal Analysis
Nodal analysis provides a general
procedure for analyzing circuits using node
voltages as the circuit variables.

Mesh Analysis
Mesh analysis provides a general procedure
for analyzing circuits using mesh currents
as the circuit variables.
Determining Nodal Voltages Without
Voltage Source (Nodal Analysis)

Choose a node as a reference node

Number all nodes based on the reference
node (v1 v2 v3 etc.)

Apply KCL to each of the non-reference
nodes

Solve the resulting equations
Nodal Voltage Example

Reference node

The nodes are numbered 1, 2… Write the current on each branch

Number all nodes based on the numbered according to the node.
reference node (v1 v2 v3 etc.)
Nodal Voltage Example

v1 − v2
i2 =
R2

v2 − 0
i3 =
R3

v1 − 0
i1 =
R3

Write Ohm’s law for each branch Now… solve these simultaneous
between node 1 and another node equations with the data available
Nodal Voltage Example (2)

G1 + G2 − G2   v1   I1 − I 2 
 −G    =
G2 + G3  v2   I 2  
 2
Example

Calculate the node voltages in the circuit

Circuit For Analysis
Example

Determine the voltages at the nodes

Determining Nodal Voltages With
Voltage Source (Nodal Analysis)
Situation 1
If a voltage source is connected between the reference note and non reference
note, the voltage at the nonreference node equal to the voltage of voltage source,
in this case v1 = 10V

nonreference node

v1 = 10V

Reference node
Determining Nodal Voltages With
Voltage Source (Nodal Analysis)
Situation 2
If a voltage source (dependent or independent) is connected between two nonreference
nodes, the two nonreference nodes form a generalized node or supernode; both KCL and
KVL can be applied to determine the node voltages.

Nonreference Nodes
KCL must be satisfied at a supernode, hence
i 1 + i 4 = i 2 + i 3

Or
v1 − v 2 v − v3 v −0 v −0
+ 1 = 2 + 3
2 4 8 6
known
v 1 = 10
v 2 − v 3 = 5
Example

For the circuit shown in figure, find the node voltage

Example
Find the node voltage in the circuit
Mesh Analysis
Mesh analysis is only applicable to a circuit that is planar. A planar circuit is
one that can be drawn in a plane with no branches crossing one another.

redrawn

A planar circuit A nonplanar circuit

Note: A mesh loop is a loop which does not contain any other loops within it
What is Mesh?

A mesh is a loop which does not contain any

other loops within it

Paths abefa and bcdeb are meshes. The current through a mesh is
known as mesh current
Determine Mesh Currents Without
Current Source (Mesh Analysis)

Assign mesh currents i1,i2,…,in to the n

meshes

Apply KVL to each of the n meshes

Solve the resulting n simultaneous equations
to get the mesh currents
 Mesh Current Example

Step 2: Apply KVL

Step 1: Assign Mesh
Currents Mesh 1: − V1 + R1i1 + R3 (i1 − i2 ) = 0
Mesh 2: R2i2 + V2 + R3 (i2 − i1 ) = 0
Step 3: Solve the mesh

 R1 + R3 − R3   i1   V1 
 −R 
R2 + R3  i2  - V2 
  =
 3

Branch Current (I) ≠ Mesh Current (i)

I1= i1, I2= i2, I3=i1-i2
Example

For the circuit in below figure, find the branch currents I1, I2 and I3
using mesh analysis.
Example
Use mesh analysis to find the current I0 in the below figure
Determine Mesh Currents With Current
Source (Mesh Analysis)
Situation 1
When a current source exists only in one mesh.
Step 2: Apply KVL
Step 1: Mesh Currents − 10 + 4i1 + 6(i1 − i2 ) = 0
Set i2 = -5A
i1 = -2A
Determine Mesh Currents With
Current Source (Mesh Analysis)
Situation 2
When a current source exists between two meshes. Create a supermesh by
excluding the current source and any elements connected in series with it
Step 1: Mesh Currents
Step 3: Apply KVL

− 20 + 6i1 + 10i2 + 4i2 = 0

Step 4: Apply KCL to a node in the branch
where 2 meshes intersect

Step 2: Supermesh i2 = i1 + 6
Step 5: Solve it

i2 = 2.8A i1 = −3.2A
Example
Find i1 and i4 using mesh analysis
Summary

Nodal Analysis with Voltage Mesh Analysis with Current

Sources (Properties of a Sources (Properties of a
supernode) supermesh)

The voltage source inside the
The current source in the

supernode provides a constraint supermesh provides the
equation needed to solve for the constraint equation necessary
node voltages to solve for the mesh currents

A supernode has no voltage of its
A supermesh has no current of
own its own

A supernode requires the
A supermesh requires the
applicatiin of both KCL and KVL application of both KVL and
KCL
Nodal or Mesh Analysis?

Either choose method to reduce no. of equations:

Many series connected elements  mesh

Parallel-connected  nodal

Fewer nodes than meshes  nodal
Or choose method to give answer easiest:

Looking for node voltages  nodal

Looking for branch/mesh current  mesh
IV-Circuit Theorems
 Linearity Property
Linearity is the property of an element describing a linear relationship
between cause and effect.

This property is a combination of both the homogeneity and additivity

property

Homogeneity Additivity
If the input is multiplied by a constant, The response to a sum of input is the sum
then the output is multiplied by the same of the responses to each input applied
constant separately

kiR = kv v=(i1+i2)R
=i1R+i2R
= v1+v2

Note: For this chapter, the linearity property is limited to the resistor.
Example of a Linear Circuit

current i
Linear circuit has through R as
Vs as input the output
voltage no independent
source sources

If vs = 10V gives i = 2A, then according to linearity principle ,

when vs= 1V, will give i=0.2A
(Reminder: Describing a linear relationship between cause and effect)
Example

For the circuit below, find Io when vs=12V and vs=24V

Applying KVL to the 2 loops,
12i1 – 4i2+vs=0 ----------------------(1)
-4i1+16i2-3vx-vs=0 ----------------------(2)
given vx=2i1, eq (2) becomes
-10i1+16i2-vs=0 ----------------------(3)
Adding eq (1) and eq (3)
2i1+12i2=0----------------------i1=-6i2 ------------(4)
Substituting eq (4) into eq (1)
-76i2+vs=0----------------------i2=vs/76

When vs=12V, Io=i2=12/76A

When vs=24V, Io=i2=24/76A (Io doubles)

 Example

Assume Io = 1A and use linearity to find the actual value of Io in the circuit below

node 1 node 2
Given Io = 1A, Given V2-V1 = 2I2
V1=(3+5)Io=8(1)=8V V2 = 2I2-V1 I3 = V2/7 = 2A
I1=V1/4=8/4=2A KCL
KCL I4 -I3 -I2 =0, I4 -2- 3=0 I4= 5A =Is
I2–Io–I1 =0, I2–1–2= 0, I2= 3A If Io= 1A, gives Is= 5A
Then actual Is= 15A, gives Io= 3A
Superposition Principle
If a circuit has two or more independent sources, 1 way to determine the
value of a specific variable (voltage or current is to use nodal or mesh
analysis. Another way is to use superposition principle.

The superposition principle states that the voltage across (or current
through) an element in a linear circuit is the algebraic sum of the voltages
across ( or current though) that element due to each independent source
acting alone.

Steps to use superposition principle:

1.Turn off all independent sources except one source. Find the output (voltage or
current) due to that active source using the techniques discussed before
2.Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources
3.Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the contributions due to the
independent sources
Example
Use the superpositon theorem to find v in the circuit below

There are 2 sources To obtain v1, set the To obtain v2, set the voltage
current source to zero source to zero
Let v = v1 + v2
KVL Using current division,
12i1 – 6 = 0 i3= I R2/ (R2 + R3)
i1 = 0.5A = 3(8)/(8+4) = 2A
V1= 4i1 = 2V V2= 4i3= 4(2) = 8V
Therefore v= v1+v2 =2+8= 10V
Voltage or Current Divider

Voltage Divider
R2
+ R1 +
v0 = vi
R1 + R2
vi R2 vo vo R2
- -
=
vi R1 + R2
Current Divider
R1
i2 = I
I
R1 + R2
R1 R2
R2
i1
i1 = I
i2 R1 + R2
 Example Find io in the circuit below using superposition

io = I’o+I”o

Steps to use superposition principle:

1.Turn off all independent sources except one

source.
 Cont… To obtain I”o turn off 20V

To obtain i’o turn off 20V

Loop 1: i1= 4A -----(1) Loop 4: 6i4-1i5-5i”o=0 -----(7)

Loop 2: -3i1+6i2-1i3-5i’o=0 -----(2) Loop 5: -i4+10i5-20+5i”0 -----(8)
Loop 3: -5i1-1i2+10i3+5i’0 -----(3) Given : i5 = -I”o -----(9)
At node 0: i3=i1-i’o= 4-i’o -----(4) Substitute eq (9) and eq (7)
Substitute eq (1) and eq (4) into (2) 6i4– 4i”o = 0 -----(10)
3i2 – 2i’o = 8 -----(5) Substitute eq (9) and eq (8)
Substitute eq (1) and eq (4) into (2) I4 + 5i”o = -20 -----(11)
I2 + 5i’o = 20 -----(6) Eliminate eq (10) and eq (11)
Eliminate eq (5) and eq (6) I”o = -60/17A
i’o = 52/17A Therefore: i0= 52/17 -60/17 = -8/17A
Source Transformation

Source transformation is a tool for simplifying circuits. It is the

process of replacing a voltage source vs in series with a resistor R
by a current source is in parallel with a resistor Rf or vice versa
Change:
Resistor-Voltage in Series to Resistor-Current in Parallel

a a
R
VS + iS
-
R
b b

Note: Note possible where R=0 (ideal voltage source)

Example Use source transformation to find vo in the circuit

Replacing current source in parallel Replacing voltage source in series with

with resistor replace with a voltage resistor with current source in parallel
source in series with resistor with resistor
 Cont…

Combine 2A and 4A

Current division
2
i= (2) = 0.4A
2+8
v0 = 8i = 8(0.4) = 3.2V Combine 6 Ω and 3Ω in parallel

Alternatively, since 8 Ω and 2Ω in

parallel, they have the same voltage
across them
8x2
v0 = (8ll2) = (2) = 3.2V
10
Thevenin’s Theorem

Thevenin’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be

replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source VTh
in series with a resistor RTh, where VTh is the open-circuit voltage
at the terminals and RTh is the input or equivalent resistance at the
terminals when the independent sources are turn off.

Original circuit Thevenin equivalent circuit

2 Situations of Application of RTh
Situation 1

If network has no dependent sources, turn off all independent source. RTh
is the input resistance of the network
 Situation 2
If network has dependent sources, turn off all independent source. Apply a
voltage source v0 at the terminals a and b and determine the resulting current io.

vo
R Th =
io
Alternatively, insert a current source io at terminals a-b and find the terminal
voltage v0.

vo
R Th =
io
 Example Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit shown below , to the
left of the terminals a-b. Then find the current through
RL=6,16 and 36Ω.

Step 1:Turn off all independent sources, RTh is the input resistance of the network

4X12
RTh = 4 II12 +1 = +1 = 4Ω
16

Step 2:To find VTh.Applying mesh analysis to the two loops.

-32+4i1+12(i1-i2)=0 given i2=-2A
i1=0.5A
VTh = 12(i1-i2)=12(0.5+2)=30V
 Cont…
Found RTh = 4Ω
VTh =30V V Th 30
I L = =
R Th + R L 4 + R L

when R L = 6
30
IL = = 3A
10
when R L = 16
30
IL = = 1 .5 A
20
when R L = 36
30
IL = = 0 . 75 A
40
Norton’s Theorem

Norton’s Theorem provides another equivalent circuit.

It can be found by source-transformation of a Thevenin
Circuit.
Linear two-terminal circuit 
Current Source IN in Parallel with Resistor RN
IN – Short-circuit current through terminals
RN – Equivalent resistance at terminal when all the
independent sources are turned off
 Find the Norton Equivalent circuit in the circuit below at
Example terminal a-b

Find RN in the same way as RTh

Step 1: Set the independent source equal
to zero

20X5
RN = 5 ΙΙ(8+ 4 +8) = 5 II 20= = 4Ω
25

To find IN, short circuit terminals a and b.

i1 = 2A, 20i2 − 12 − 4i1 = 0

i2 = 1A = isc = I N
Cont…

i3 = 2 A
25 i 4 - 4 i3 - 12 = 0 i 4 = 0.8A
v oc = V Th = 5 i 4 = 4V
Hence
V Th 4
IN = = = 1A
R Th 4
Maximum Power

Maximum power is transferred to the load when the

load resistance equals the Thevenin resistance:
RL = RTh The power is small for a small or
large value of RL but maximum for
some value of RL between 0 and ∝
Maximum power occurs when RL is
equal to RTh. This is known as the
Maximum Power Theorem
VTh
V 2 Th P = i 2 RL = ( ) 2 RL
P max = RTh + RL
4 R Th
This is only applicable when RL=RTh
 Find the value of RL for maximum power transfer in the
Example circuit below.

Step 1: Find RTh and VTh

Step 2: Set the
independent source equal
to zero

RTh = 2+3+6 II 12= 5+ (6X12)/18 = 9Ω

-12+18i1-12i2=0 i2=-2A
i1=-2/3A
-12+6i2 +3i2+2(0) + VTh = 0 VTh = 22V
RL = RTh=9Ω
Maximum power is, Pmax= V2Th/4RL=222/4X9=13.44W
V-Capacitors and Inductors
 Capacitor
A passive element designed to store energy
A capacitor consists of two conducting plates separated by an insulator (or
dielectric)

A capacitor with applied voltage v

A typical capacitor When a voltage source v is connected to the

capacitor, the source deposits a +ve charge
q on one plate and a –ve charge –q on the
other.
q = Cv
q = amount charge store
Fixed capacitor Variable capacitor C = Capacitance of the capacitor
Circuit symbols for capacitors v = applied voltage
 Capacitance
Capacitance is the ratio of the charge on one plate of a capacitor to the
voltage difference between the two plates, measured in farads (F).
However, capacitance depends on the physical dimensions of the
capacitor, which is shown in following equation

C = єA/d
C = Capacitance
є = Is the permittivity of the dielectric material between plate
A = Is the surface area of each plate
d = Is the distance between the plate

Note: According to the passive sign convention,

if v>0 and i>0 or if v<0 and i<0, the capacitor is being charged
if vּi <0, the capacitor is discharging
 Voltage-Current Relationship for a Capacitor
Capacitor function:
Variable capacitors are used in radio receivers allowing one to tune to various
stations. In addition, capacitors are used to block dc, pass ac, shift phase,
store energy, start motors, and suppress noise

Current-voltage relationship of the capacitor:

i= dq/dt q = Cv
i= Cdv/dt

Voltage-current relationship of the capacitor:

1 t 1 t
v = ∫ idt or v = ∫ idt + v(t0 )
C − ∞ C −∞
where v(t0 ) = q(t0 )/C is the voltage across the capacitor at the time t0
The instantaneous power delivered to the capacitor is
dv
p = vi = Cv
dt
The energy stored in the capacitor is therefore
t t dv t 1 2 t
w = ∫ pdt = C ∫ v dt = C ∫ vdv = Cv
−∞ −∞ dt −∞ 2 t = −∞

Note v(−∞) = 0, because the capacitor was

uncharged at t = −∞
1 2 q2
w = Cv or w=
2 2C
both represent the energy stored in the electric field
that exits between the plates of the capacitor
 Capacitor’s Properties
i= C dv/dt
Above equation shows that when the voltage across a capacitor is not
changing with time (i.e., dc voltage), the current through the capacitor is
zero. Thus, a capacitor is an open circuit to dc. If a battery (dc voltage)
is connected across a capacitor, the capacitor charges.
The voltage on a capacitor must be continuous

Ideal capacitor does not dissipate energy

A real, nonideal capacitor has a parallel-model leakage resistance. The

leakage resistance may be as high as 100MΩ and can be neglected for most
practical applications.

Nonideal capacitor
 Example
(a) Calculate the charge stored on a 3pF capacitor with 20V across it.
(b) Find the energy stored in the capacitor

q = Cv
q = 3 x10 −12 x 20 = 60 pC
The energy stored in the capacitor is
1 1
w = Cv = x 3 x10 −12 x 400
2

2 2
= 600pJ
 What is the voltage across a 3µF capacitor if
Example the charge on one plate is 0.12mC?How
much energy is stored?

q = Cv
−3 −6
0 . 12 x 10 = 3 x 10 xv
0 . 12 x 10 − 3
v =
3 x 10 − 6
= 40 V
The energy stored in capacitor is
1 1
w = Cv 2 = x 3 x 10 − 6 x 1600
2 2
= 2400x 10 − 6 J
= 2.4mJ
 The voltage across a 5µF capacitor is
Example v(t) = 10 cos 6000tV
Calculate the current through it

By definition , the current is

dv d
i (t ) = C = 5 x10 − 6 (10 cos 6000 t )
dt dt
= - 5 x10 - 6 x 6000 x10 sin 600 t
= − 0 . 3 sin 6000 t A
 Obtain the energy stored in each capacitor in
Example the circuit below under dc conditions

Under dc conditions , replace each Hence, the voltage v1 and v 2 across the
capacitor with an open circuit, capacitors are
shown in figure (b). The current v1 = 2000i = 4V
through th e series combinatio n v 2 = 400i = 8V
and the energies stored in them are
of the 2k Ω and 4k Ω is obtained
1 2 1
by current division as w1 = C1v1 = ( 2 x10 − 3 )( 4 ) 2 = 16 mJ
2 2
3 1 1
i= ( 6 mA) 2
w2 = C 2 v 2 = ( 4 x10 − 3 )(8) 2 = 128 mJ
3+ 2+ 4 2 2
= 2mA
 Parallel Capacitor
Note that the capacitor have the
same voltage v across them.
Applying KCL,
i = i1 + i 2 + i3 + ... + i N
But i k = C k d v /d t .
Hence
dv dv dv dv
i = C1 + C2 + C3 + ... C N
dt dt dt dt
 N  dv dv
= ∑ Ck  = Ceq
 k =1  dt dt
where
C eq = C 1 + C 2 + C 3 + ... + C N

Note: Capacitor in parallel combine in the same manner as resistor in series

Series Capacitor
Applying KVL to the loop,
v = v1 + v 2 + v 3 + ... + v N
t
1
But v k =
Ck ∫ i ( t ) + vk ( t 0 ). Therefore,
to
t t
1 1
vk =
C1 ∫t i ( t ) d t + v 1 ( t 0 ) +
C ∫
2 t0
i (t ) d t + v 2 (t 0 )
0

t
1
+ ... +
CN ∫ i (t ) d t + v
t0
N (t 0 )

t
1 1 1
C N t∫0
=( + + ... + ) i ( t ) d t + v1 ( t 0 ) + v 2 ( t 0 )
C1 C 2
+ ... + V N ( t o )
t
1
=
Ceq ∫ i (t ) d t + v (t
t0
0 )

1 1 1 1 1
where = + + + ... +
C eq C1 C 2 C 3 CN
C 1C 2 C 3 .... CN
C eq =
C 1 + C 2 + C 3 + ... C N
 Find the equivalent capacitance seen between
Example terminal a and b of the circuit

The 20 µF capacitor are in series;

This 30 µF is in series with the 60 µF
their equivalent capacitor is
capacitor. Hence, the equivalent
20x5
= 4 µF capacitance for the entire circuit is
20 + 5
The 4 µF is in parallel with the 6 µF 30 x60
C eq = = 20 µF
and 20 µF capacitors; their 30 + 60
combine capacitance is
4 + 6 + 20 = 30 µF
 Example For the circuit below, find the voltage across each
capacitor

q 0 .3
The 2 parallel capacitors in Fig a can be v1 = = −3
= 15 V
C 1 20 x10
combined to geta40+20=60mF. This 60mF
capacitors is in series with the 20mF and q 0 .3
30mF capacitors. Thus
v2 = = −3
= 10 V
C 2 30 x10
1
C eq = mF = 10 mF KVL, v 3 = 30 - v1 - v 2 = 5V
1 1 1
+ +
60 30 20 40mF and 20mF are parallel, have the
same voltage as v3 and the combined
The total chargebis capacitance is 40+20=60mF
q = Ceq v = 10 x10 −3 x30 = 0.3C v3 =
q
=
0.3
= 5V
60mF 60 x10 −3

Charge for v1 and v2

 Inductor
A passive element designed to store energy in its magnetic field

An inductor consists of coil of conducting wire

If current is allowed to through an inductor, if
is found that the voltage across the inductor
is directly proportional to the time rate of
change of the current.

v =L di/dt
L = Inductance of the inductor

A typical form of an inductor Circuit symbol for Inductor

air-core Iron-core variable iron-core

Circuit symbols for inductors

 Inductance
Inductance is the property whereby an inductor exhibits opposition to the
change of current flowing through it, measured in henrys (H)

2
N µA
L=
l

N = Number of turns
l = Is the length
A = Is the cross-sectional area
µ= Is the permeability of the core
Voltage-Current Relationship for an Inductor
di
v=L
dt
1
d i = vd t
L
t t
1 1
i = ∫ v (t ) d t or i = ∫ v (t ) d t + i (t 0 )
L −∞ L t0
Power delivered to the inductor is
di
p = vi = ( L )i
dt
The energy stored is
t t t
di 1 2 1 2
w = ∫ pdt = ∫ ( L )idt = L ∫ idi = Li (t ) − Li ( −∞ )
−∞ −∞
dt −∞
2 2
since i(- ∞ ) = 0
1 2
w= Li
2
 Inductor’s Properties
v= L di/dt
Show that when the voltage across an inductor is zero when the current
is constant. Thus, an inductor acts like a short circuit to dc

The current through an inductor cannot change instantaneously

Ideal inductor does not dissipate energy

A real, nonideal has significant resistive component. This resistance is

called the winding resistance Rw, and it appears in series with the inductance
of the inductor. The presence of Rw makes it both an energy storage device
and an energy dissipation device. The nonideal inductor also has a winding
capacitance Cw due to the capacitive coupling between the conducting coils.
Cw is very small and can be ignored.

Nonideal inductor
 The current through a 0.1H inductor is i(t) = 10te-5t A.
Example Find the voltage across the inductor and the energy
stored in it.

di
Since v = L and L = 0.1H
dt
d − 5t − 5t −5 t −5t
v = 0.1 10te = e + t (−5)e = e (1 − 5t )V
( )
dt
1 2 1 2 −10t 2 −10t
w = Li = (0.1)100t e = 5t e J
2 2
 Example Consider the circuit below. Under dc conditions, find:
(a) i, vc,and iL (b) the energy stored in the capacitor
and inductor

Under dc conditions , replace each The voltage vc is the same as the voltage
capacitor with an open circuit, across the 5 Ω . Hence,
and the inductor w ith short circuit, v c = 5i = 10V
as shown in figure (b). (b) The energy in the capacitor is
12 1 2 1
i = iL = wc = Cv c = (1)(10 ) 2 = 50 J
2 2
1+ 5
and that is the inductor is
= 2A
1 2 1
wL = Li L = ( 2 )( 2 ) 2 = 4 J
2 2
Series Inductor

v = v1 + v2 + v3 + ... + v N
substituting vk = LK di/dt
di di di di
v = L1 + L2 + L3 + ... + LN
dt dt dt dt
di
= (L1 + L2 + L3 + ... + LN )
dt
N
di di
= (∑ Lk ) = Leq
k =1 dt dt
where Leq = L1 + L2 + L3 + ... + LN
Parallel Inductor i = i1 + i2 + i3 + ... + iN
t
1
But ik = ∫ vdt + ik (t 0 )
Lk t0
t t
1 1
i = ∫ vdt + i1 (t 0 ) + ∫ vdt + i2 (t 0 )
L1 t0 L2 t0
t
1
+ ... + ∫
LN t 0
vdt + iN (t 0 )

t
1 1 1
= ( + + ... + ) ∫ vdt + i1 (t 0 ) + ... + iN (t 0 )
L1 L2 LN t 0
N tN
1
= (∑ ) ∫ vdt + ∑ iK (t0 )
k =1 Lk t 0 k =1

t
= Leq ∫ vdt + i (t 0 )
t0

1 1 1 1 1
where = + + + ... +
Leq L1 L2 L3 LN
 Find the equivalent inductance of
Example the circuit below

10H,12H and 20H are in series, thus combining them gives a

42H inductance. 42H inductor is in parallel with the 7H
inductor so that they are combine, to give

(7 x 42)/(7+42)= 6H
The 6H inductor is in series with the 4H and 8H inductor.
Hence,
Leq = 4+6+8=18H
 Example
For the circuit below, i(t) =4(2-e-10t) mA. If i2(0) = -1 mA, find:
a) i1(0), b) v(t), v1(t), and v2(t); c) i1 (t) and i2(t)
 Cont…

From i ( t ) = 4 ( 2 -e -10 t ) mA , i (0) = 4(2 - 1) = 4 mA.

a) Since i = i1 + i 2
i1 ( 0 ) + i ( 0 ) − i 2 ( 0 ) = 4 − ( − 1) = 5 mA
b) The equivalent inductance is
L eq = 2 + 4 12 = 2 + 3 = 5 H
Thus,
di
v ( t ) = L eq = 5 ( − 4 )( − 10 ) e − 10 t mV = 200 e − 10 t mV
dt
and
di
v1 ( t ) = 2 = 2 ( − 4 )( − 10 ) e − 10 t mV = 80 e − 10 t mV
dt
since v = v1 + v 2
v 2 ( t ) = v ( t ) − v1 ( t ) = 120 e − 10 t mV
 Cont…
The current i1 is obtained as
1 t 120 t
i1 (t ) = ∫ v 2 dt + i2 (0) = ∫ e −10 t dt + 5 mA
4 0 4 0

t
−10 t
= −3e + 5mA = −3e −10 t + 3 + 5 = 8 − 3e −10 t mA
0

Similarly,
1 t 120 t
i2 (t ) = ∫
12 0
v 2 d t + i2 ( 0 ) =
12 ∫ 0
e −10 t dt − 1 mA
t
−10 t
= −e − 1mA = − e −10 t + 1 − 1 = − e −10 t mA
0

Note that i1 (t ) = i2 (t ) = i (t )
Application
Capacitors and inductors possess the following three special
properties that make them very useful in electric circuits:
• The capacity to store energy makes them useful as
temporary voltage or current sources. Thus, they can be
used for generating a large amount of current of voltage for a
short period of time. (DC)
• Capacitors oppose any abrupt change in voltage, while
inductors oppose any abrupt change in current. This
property make inductors useful for spark or arc suppression
and for converting pulsating dc voltage into relatively smooth
dc voltage. (DC)
• Capacitors and inductors are frequency sensitive. This
property makes them useful for frequency discrimination.
(AC)
VI-First-Order Circuits
 Introduction
2 types of of simple circuits will be examined:
a. A circuit comprising a resistor and a capacitor (RC circuit)
b. A circuit comprising a resistor and an inductor (RL circuit)

The analysis of RC and RL circuits can be performed by applying Kirchhoff’s

laws. However, by applying Kirchhoff’s laws produces differential equation. The
differential equations resulting from analysing RC and RL circuits are of the first
order. Hence, the circuits are collectively known as first-order circuits.
2 ways to excite the RC and RL circuits:
1st: Initial conditions – assume energy is in capacitative or inductive elements.
Current flows in circuit and is dissipated. No independent sources allowed,
dependent sources allowed.
2nd:Independent sources – for now we consider only DC sources which are
excited
 Source-Free RC Circuit
A source-free RC circuit occurs when its dc source is suddenly disconnected.
The energy already stored in the capacitor is released to the resistors.
Integrating both sides,
t
ln v = − + ln A
RC
In A is the integration constant. Thus
v t
ln = − This shows that the voltage
A RC response of the RC circuit is an
−t exponential decay of the initial
RC
v(t ) = Ae voltage. Since the response is
Initially the capacitor is charged, due to initial energy stored and
v(0) = A = V0 . not external voltage, so it is called
we can assume that at time t = 0, −t the natural response of the circuit
RC
the initial voltage is
v(t ) = V0 e
v( 0 ) = V0
As t increases, the voltage decreases to zero
ic + i R = 0
and the rapidity with which the voltage
dv v decreases is expressed in term of the time
C + =0
dt R
constant (τ)
dv v
+ =0
dt RC
(1st order differenti al eq)
 Cont…
The time constant (τ) of a circuit is the time required
for the response to decay to a factor of 1/e or 36.8
percent of its value.
This implies that at t=τ
−t
v (t ) = V0 e τ

v (t ) V0 − t τ
V0 e −τ / RC = V0 e −1 = 0.368V0 i (t ) = = e
or
R R
The power dissipated in the resistor is
τ = RC
In term of time constant, V 2 0 −2t τ
p (t ) = viR = e
voltage response of the RC R
circuit can be written as The energy absorbed by the resistor up to t is
t V 2 0 −2t τ
t
wR (t ) = ∫ pdt = ∫ e dt
0 0 R

τV 2 0 − 2 t τ t 1 2
−2t
=- e = CV 0 (1 − e τ )
2R 0 2
 Source-free RC circuit Summary

The Key to working with a source-free RC circuit is to find:

1. The initial voltage v(0)= V0 across the capacitor
2. The time constant τ (τ=RC, R is usually the Thevenin equivalent resistance)
With these 2 items, we obtain the capacitor voltage vc(t)=v(t)=v(0)e-t/τ.
Once vc is found, ic , vR and iR can be determined
 Example Let vc(0)=15V. Find vc,vx and ix for t>0

1st: Convert the circuit into standard RC circuit

2nd: Find the equivalent resistance or Thevenin
resistance at the capacitor terminals
3rd: Goal is to find vc 1st the solve vx and ix

−t
v(t ) = V0 e τ

8Ω and 12Ω are in series = 20Ω τ = ReqC

20Ω and 5Ω are in parallel = 20x5 =4Ω τ = 4(0.1) = 0.4 s
20+5 −t
Thus, v = v( 0 )e 0 .4
vc = v = 15e -2.5t V
12
vx = v = 0.6(15e − 2.5t ) = 9e − 2.5t V
12 + 8
v
ix = x = 0.75e − 2.5t A
12
 Source-Free RL Circuit
Goal is to determine the circuit response, which assume to be the current i(t)
through the inductor.
Integrating both sides,
di
i (t ) t R
∫I0 i = − ∫0 L dt
Rt
ln i (t ) − ln I 0 = − + 0
L
i (t ) Rt This shows that the natural
ln =− response of the RL circuit is an
I0 L exponential decay of the initial
− Rt current.
L
i (t ) = I 0 e
At time t = 0, it is assumed that
the inductor has an initial current I 0 As t increases, the current decreases to zero
i( 0 ) = I 0 and the rapidity with which the current
vL + vR = 0
decreases is expressed in term of the time
di
constant (τ). It is evident that from above eq
L + Ri = 0 that the time constant for the RL circuit is
dt
di R L
+ i=0
dt L τ=
(1st order differenti al eq) R
 Cont…
i (t ) = I 0e − t /τ
Voltage across the resistor is
vR (t ) = iR = I 0 e −t /τ R
The power dissipated in the resistor is
2
p = vR i = I 0 e − 2t /τ R
The energy absorbed by the resistor is
t t
wR (t ) = ∫ pdt = ∫ I 0 e − 2t /τ Rdt
2
0 0

1 2 − 2t /τ t
= - τI 0 e
2 0

1 2
= LI 0 (1 − e − 2t /τ )
2
1 2
Note as t → ∞, w R (∞) → LI 0 which is the same the initial energy stored in th inductor.
2
The energy initially stored in the inductor is eventually dissipated in the resistor
 Source-free RL circuit Summary

The Key to working with a source-free RL circuit is to find:

1. The initial current i(0)= I0 through the inductor
2. The time constant τ (τ=L/R, R is usually the Thevenin equivalent resistance)
With these 2 items, we obtain the inductor current iL(t)=i(t)=i(0)e-t/τ.
Once IL is found, VL , vR and iR can be determined
 Assuming that i(0)=10A, calculate i(t) and ix(t) in the circuit
Example
Method 1
1st: The equivalent resistance is the same as thevenin
resistance at the inductor terminal
2nd: Add a voltage source with v0=1V because of the
dependent source

Applying KVL to the 2 loops :

1
2(i1 − i 2 ) + 1 = 0 i 1 -i 2 = - ........ eq (1)
2
5
6 i2 − 2 i1 − 3i1 = 0 i 2 = - i1 ........ eq ( 2 )
6
substitue eq(2) into eq(1)
i1 = − 3 A i0 = i1 = 3 A
v0 1
Hence R eq = RTh = = Ω
i0 3
1
L 3
Time constant, τ= = 2 = s
R eq 1 2
3
The current through the inductor is

i(t) = i( 0 )e -t/τ = 10e −( 2 / 3 )t A t>0

 Assuming that i(0)=10A, calculate i(t) and ix(t) in the circuit
Example
Method 2
1st: Using KVL
For loop 1 :
1 di1
+ 2(i1 − i2 ) = 0 or
2 dt
di1
+ 4i1 − 4 i2 = 0 ...... eq (1)
dt
For loop 2 :
5
6 i2 - 2 i1-3i1 = 0, i1 ..... eq ( 2 )
i2 =
6
substitute eq (2) into eq(1)
di1 2
+ i1 = 0
dt 3
di1 2
= − i1
dt 3
Since i1 = i , replace i1 with i and integrate :
i (t ) t
2 i (t ) 2
ln i =− t or ln =− t
i (o ) 3 0 i (0) 3

i (t ) = i ( 0 ) e − ( 2 / 3 ) t = 10 e − ( 2 / 3 ) t A
 Step Response of an RC Circuit
When the dc source of the RC circuit is suddenly applied, the voltage or current
source can be modelled as a step function, and the response is known as a step
function 1st: Assume an initial voltage V on the capacitor, this is
0
not necessary for the step response
v (0 − ) = v (0 + ) = V0
v(0-) is the voltage across capacitor just before switching
v(0+) is the voltage across capacitor just after switching

dv v − V su (t )
c + = 0 or
dt R
Before switching dv v Vs
+ = u (t )
dt RC RC
Where v is the voltage across the capacitor. For t>0
dv v V
+ = s
dt RC RC
dv v − Vs
=− or
dt RC
After switching dv dt
=−
v − Vs RC
 Cont…
Integrating both sides and introducing the initial conditions
v (t )
t t
ln( v − V s ) =−
V0 RC 0

t
ln( v ( t ) − V s ) − ln( V0 − V s ) = − +0 or
RC
v - Vs t
ln =− This is known as the complete
V0 − V s RC
response (or total response ) of the
Taking the exponential of both sides RC circuit to a sudden application of
a dc voltage source, assuming the
v − Vs −t
=e τ τ = RC capacitor is initially charged
V0 − Vs
−t
v − Vs = (V0 − Vs )e τ
or
−t
v(t ) = Vs + (V0 − Vs )e τ
t >0

v (t ) = V0 t<0
-t
v(t ) = Vs + (V0 - Vs )e τ
t>0
 Cont…
If the capacitor is assume to be uncharged initially, V0=0
v (t ) = 0 t < 0
− t
v ( t ) = V s (1 − e τ ) t > 0
which can be written as
− t
v ( t ) = V s (1 − e τ ) u(t) or
Vs − t
i (t ) = (1 − e τ ) u(t)
R
There is a short-cut method for finding the step response of an RC and RL circuit, let
look at the equation below
− t
v (t ) = V s + ( V 0 - V s )e τ
v(t) has 2 components

Complete response = natural response + forced response

stored energy independent source
v = vn + vf

−t − t
V0 e τ
V s (1 - e τ
)
 Cont…
Another method is to break the complete response into 2 components:
Complete response = transient response + steady-state response
temporary part permanent part

v = vt + v ss
-t
( v 0 - v s )e τ
vs
Whichever way we look at it, the complete response may be written as

−t
v(t) = v(∞) +[v(0) − v(∞)]e τ
 The switch in the circuit below has been in position A for a
Example long time. At t=0, the switch moves to B. Determine v(t) for
t>0 and calculate its value at t=1s and 4s

For t > 0, the switch is in position B.

The Thevenin resistance connected
to the capacitor is R Th = 4KΩ, and
the time constant is
τ = RTH C = 4 x103 x0.5 x10 −3 = 2 s
Since the capacitor acts like an open
For t<0, the switch is at position A. The
capacitor acts like an open circuit to dc,
crcuit to dc at steady state, v(∞) = 30V
but v is the same as voltage across the v(t) = v(∞) + [v(0) - v(∞)]e −t /τ
5KΩ resistor. Hence, the voltage across
the capacitor just before t=0 is obtained = 30 + (15 - 30)e- t/2
by divided as = (30 - 15e-0.5t )V
5 at t = 1, v(1) = 30 - 15e -0.5 = 20.9V
v (0 − ) = (24) = 15V
5+3 at t = 4, v(4) = 30 - 15e-2 = 27.97V
Since the capacitor voltage
can' t change instantenously,
v(0) = v(0- ) = v(0+ ) = 15V
 Step Response of an RL Circuit
i = it + i ss
−t L
it = A e τ
(transient response) τ =
R
Vs
i ss = (steady - state response)
R
−t Vs
i = Ae τ
+ .......... .......... .eq(1)
R
Before switching
Determine the constant A from the initial value of i. Let I0 be the
initial current through the inductor, which may come from a source
other than Vs.

i ( 0 + ) = i (0 − ) = I 0
t = 0, eq(1) becomes
V
I0 = A + s
R
V
A = I0 - s
R
After switching
V V −t
i(t ) = s + ( I 0 − s )e τ
R R
This is the complete response of the RL Circuit
 Cont…
The complete response can
t
be written as
−
i (t ) = i ( ∞ ) + [ i ( 0 ) − i ( ∞ )]e τ
if the switching take place at time t = to instead of t = 0
− ( t −t0 )
i (t ) = i ( ∞ ) + [ i ( t 0 ) − i ( ∞ )]e τ

If I 0 = 0
i (t ) = 0 t<0
V -t
i (t ) = s (1 - e τ ) t <0
R
or
Vs -t
i (t ) = (1 - e τ )u(t)
R
This is the step response of the RL circuit with no initial inductor current,
the voltage across the inductor is
di L − tτ L
v (t ) = L = Vs e , τ = t>0 or
dt τR R
L − tτ
v ( t ) = Vs e u (t )
τR
 Example Find i(t) in the circuit below for t>0. Assume that the switch has
been closed for a long time.

For The Thevenin resistance across

the inductor terminal is
RTH = 2 + 3 = 5Ω
For the time constant
1
L 1
τ= =3= s
RTH 5 15
When t < 0, the 3Ω resistor is short - circuited, Thus
and the inductor acts like short circuit. The i(t) = i(∞) + [i(0) - i(∞)]e- t/τ
current through the inductor at t = 0 -
= 2 + (5 - 2)e -15t = 2 + 3e −15t A t>0
(i.e., just before t = 0) is
To check, for t > 0, KVL must be satified; that is
10
i (0 − ) = = 5A di
2 10 = 5i + L
dt
When t > 0, the switch is open.
di 1
The 2Ω and 3Ω resistors are in 5i + L = [10 + 15e −15t ] + [ (3)(−15)e −15t = 10
dt 3
series so that
10
i(∞) = = 2A
2+3
VII-Second-Order Circuits
 Introduction
In this section circuits containing 2 storage elements will be considered, this is
also known as second-order circuit because their responses are described by
differential equations that contain 2nd derivatives. Typical 2nd-order circuits are
RLC circuits.

Finding Initial and Final Values

In this chapter v denoted capacitor voltage, while i is the inductor current. This
section is explicitly devoted of getting v(0),i(0),dv(0)/dt,di(0)/dt,i(∞) and v(∞).
There are 2 key points in the determining the initial condition:
1st: Handle the polarity of voltage v(t) across the capacitor and the direction of
the current i(t) through the inductor carefully
2nd: Keep in mind that the capacitor voltage is always continuous so that
v(0+) = v(0-)
And the inductor current is always continuous so that
i(0+) = i(0-)
 The switch in the circuit below has been closed for a
Example long time. It is open at t=0. Find (a) i(0+),v(0+),(b)
di(0+)/dt,dv(0+)/dt,(c) i(∞),v(∞)

As the inductor current and the capacitor

voltage cannot change abruptly,
i(0+)=i(0-)=2A, v(0+)=v(0-)=4V
At t=0+, the switch is open;The same current
flows through both the inductor and and
The switch is closed for a long time capacitor. Hence
before t=0. At t=0 (dc steady state), ic(0+)=i(0+)=2A
the inductor acts like a short circuit,
while the capacitor acts like an open
circuit.

Since Cdv/dt=iC, dv/dt=ic/C and

dv(0+)/dt=ic(0+)/C=2/0.1=20V/s
At t=0-,

i(0-)= 12/(4+2)=2A, v(0-)=2i(0-)=4V

 Cont…
Similarly, since Ldi/dt=vL/L. vL can be obtained by applying KVL to the loop in the
circuit below.
For t>0, the circuit undergoes transience.
But as t ∞, the circuit reaches steady
state again. The inductor acts like a short
circuit and the capacitor like an open
circuit , so that the circuit becomes

-12+4i(0+)+vL(0+)+v(0+)=0
-12+4(2)+vL(0+)+4=0
or
vL(0+)=12-8-4=0V
Thus,
i(∞)=0A, v(∞)=12V

di(0+)/dt=vL(0+)/L=0/0.25=0A/s
 Source-free Series RLC Circuit
It is important to understand the natural response of the series RLC circuit.
di 1 t
Ri + L + ∫ idt = 0
dt C − ∞
Ri L di 1 t
L dt LC ∫− ∞
+ + idt = 0
L
R di d 2 i i
+ 2 + =0
L dt dt LC
d 2 i R di i
The circuit being excited by energy 2
+ + = 0 .........e q(1)
dt L dt LC
initially stored in the capacitor and
inductor. The energy is This is a 2nd-order differential equation. In order to
represented by the initial capacitor solve the equation, it requires two initial conditions
voltage v0 and initial inductor di (0)
current I0. Thus at t=0 Ri (0) + L + V0 = 0
dt
1 0 di (0)
v(0) = ∫ idt = V0 initial condition L + RI 0 + V0 = 0
C −∞ dt
i (0) = I 0 initial condition di (0) 1
= − ( RI 0 + V0 ) = 0....used to solve eq(1)
dt L
Applying KVL around the loop
 Cont…
Eq(1) can be solved using exponential form 2
R  R  1
i = Ae st s1 = − +   −
2L  2L  LC
A and s are constants, i = Ae st int o eq(1) 2
R  R  1
d 2 ( Ae st ) ARd (e st ) Ae st
s2 = − −   −
+ + =0 2L  2L  LC
dt 2 Ldt LC A more compact wa y of expressing
2 st As Re st Ae st the roots is
As e + + =0
L LC 2 2
s1 = − α + α 2 − ω 0 , s 2 = − α − α 2 − ω 0 ,
R 1
Ae st ( s 2 + s + )=0 where
L LC
R 1
α = ω0 =
i=Aest is the assumed solution, so only solve 2L LC
the expression in parentheses
where a=R/2L ω0=1/LCThe roots s1
2R 1 and s2 are called natural frequencies, ω0
s + s+ =0 is known as the resonant frequency or
L LC undamped natural frequency, α is the
neper frequency or the damping factor
The quadratic equation is known as the
characteristic equation of the differential eq 2
2
(1), since the roots of the equation dictate the s + 2αs + ω0 = 0
character of i.
 Cont…
2 2
s + 2αs + ω0 = 0 i (t ) = A1e s1t + A2 e s2t
s and ω02 are important quantities that
where the constants A1 andA2 are
will be discuss throughout the rest
determined from the initial values i(0)
of the section
and di(0)/dt
The 2 values of s in the above
equation indicate there are 2 possible 2 2
s1 = −α + α 2 − ω 0 , s 2 = −α − α 2 − ω 0 ,
solutions for i, each of which is the
form of assumed solution for equation
s1t s2t From the equation above, we can infer 3 types of
i = Ae ,
1 1 i =Ae
2 2 solutions:

Since eq(1) is a linear equation, any linear 1.If α>ω0, we have the overdamped case
combination of the 2 distinct solution of i1 and 2.If α=ω0, we have the critically damped case
i2 is also a solution of eq(1) 3.If α<ωo, we have the underdamped
d 2 i R di i Each case will be considered separately
2
+ + = 0 .........e q(1)
dt L dt LC

The natural response of the series of the

series RLC circuit is
Overdamped Case (α>ω0) implies C>4L/R2
With decay and
approaches to zero as t s1 and s2 are real and negative. The
increases response is as followed
s1t s2t
i1 = A1e , i2 = A2 e

Critical Damped Case (α=ω0) implies C=4L/R2

s1 = s2=-α = R/2L

i (t ) = A1e −αt + A2e −αt = A3e −αt

A3=A1+A2.This cannot be the solution,

because the 2 initial conditions cannot be
satisfied with the single constant A3.
 Cont…
Let go back to eq(1). di
+ αi = A1e −αt
When α=ω0= R/2L eq(1) becomes dt
d 2i di d αt d αt αt d
+ 2α
di
+ α 2
i=0 eαt + eαtαi = A1 e = i e +e i
dt 2 dt dt dt dt dt
d di di d αt
( + αi ) + ( + αi ) = 0......eq(a ) (e i ) = A1
dt dt dt dt
di Integrating both side
Let f = + αi...........eq(b)
dt eαt i = A1t + A2 or i = ( A1t + A2 )e −αt
substitute eq(b) into eq(a)
df A2 is a constant. The natural response
+ αf = 0 of the critically damped circuit is a sum
dt of two terms: a negative exponential
and a negative exponential multiplied
the above equation is 1st-order
by a linear term, or
differential equation with solution
f=A1e-αt, where A1is a constant

i = ( A1t + A2 )e −αt
 Cont… Underdamped Case (α<ω0) implies C<4L/R2
2
s1 = −α + − (ω0 − α 2 ) = −α + jω d
2
s2 = −α − − (ω0 − α 2 ) = −α − jωd
2
j = - 1 and ωd = ω0 − α 2 which is
called the damping frequency.
ω0=undamped natural response, ωd=damped natural frequency

i ( t ) = A1e − ( α − jw d ) t + A 2 e − ( α + jw d ) t
jw d t
= e − α t ( A1e + A 2 e − jw d t )
Using Euler' s identities ,
e j θ = cos θ + j sin θ , e − j θ = cos θ − j sin θ
i ( t ) = e − α t [ A1 (cos ω d t + j sin ω d t ) + A 2 (cos ω d t − j sin ω d t )]
= e − α t [( A1 + A 2 ) cos ω d t + j ( A1 − A 2 ) sin ω d t ]
Replacing constant (A1+A2) and j(A1-A2) with constant B1 and B2
i (t ) = e −αt ( B1 cos ωd t + B2 sin ωd t )
 In below circuit, R=40Ω, L=4H and C=1/4F. Calculate the
Example characteristics roots of the circuit. Is the natural response
overdamped, underdamped or critically damped

R 40
α= = =5
2 L 2(4)
1 1
ω0 = = =1
LC 1
4x
4
α > ω0
The roots are
2
s1,2 = −α ± α 2 − wo = −5 ± 25 − 1
s1 = −0.101
s2 = −9.899

α > ω0 , is overdamped
The roots are real and negative
 Source-free Parallel RLC Circuit
Look at the parallel RLC circuit below, assume initial inductor current I0 and
initial capacitor voltage V0 Apply KCL at the top node,
v 1 t dv
+ ∫ vdt + C =0
R L −∞ dt
Taking the derivative with respect
to t and dividing by C
d 2v 1 dv 1
+ + v=0
dt 2 RC dt LC
similarly
1 0 1 1
s2 +
L ∫∞
i (0) = I o = v(t )dt s+ v=0
RC LC
v(0) = V0 The roots of the characteri stics equation are
1 1 2 1
Since the 3 elements are in parallel, they s 1,2 = - ± ( ) −
2RC 2 RC LC
have the same voltage v across them
2
s 1,2 = -α ± α 2 − ω 0
1 1
α = w o =
2 RC LC
 Cont…
There are 3 possible solutions depending α>ω0 (overdamped),α=ω0 (critically
damped) or α<ω0 (underdamped)

Overdamped Case (α>ω0) when L>4R2C.

The roots of the characteristics equation are real and negative. The
response is
s1t s2t
v (t ) = A e 1 + A e 2
Critically Damped Case (α=ω0) when L=4R2C.
The roots are real and equal so that the response is
−αt
v (t ) = ( A1 + A 2 ) e
Underdamped Case (α<ω0) when L<4R2C.
The roots are complex and may be expressed as
s1, 2 = −α ± jω d where ω d = ω o 2 − α 2
v (t ) = e −α t ( A1 cos ω d t + A2 sin ω d t )
 Cont…
v(t ) = e −αt ( A1 cos ωd t + A2 sin ωd t )
The constant A1 and A2 in each case can be determined
from initial conditions, we need v(0) and dv(0)/dt

Vo dv ( 0 )
+ I0 + C = 0
R dt
dv ( 0 ) ( V 0 + RI 0 )
= −
dt RC
 Step Response of a Series RLC Circuit
A step response is obtained by the sudden application of a dc source.

d 2i R di i
2
+ + = 0.........eq(1)
dt L dt LC
The characteristic equation for the series RLC
circuit is not affected by the presence of the dc
source.
Applying KVL around the loop for t>0
Equation (2) has 2 components:
di dv The transients response vt(t) and steady state
L + Ri + v = Vs but i = C
dt dt response vss(t): v(t)=vt(t) +vss(t)
d 2v dv vt(t)=total response that dies out with time.
LC 2 + RC + v = Vs
dt dt Transient response is the same as the form of the
d 2 v RC dv v Vs solution obtained in source free series RLC circuit.
+ + =
dt 2 LC dt LC LC vt(t)=A1es1t+A2es2t (overdamped)
d 2 v R dv v Vs v(t)=(A1+A2)e-αt (critically damped)
2
+ + = ......eq(2)
dt L dt LC LC v(t)=(A1cosωdt+A2sinωdt)e-αt (underdamped)

Same as eq(1) from early note

 Cont…
The steady-state response is the final value of v(t). The final value of the capacitor voltage
is the same as the source voltage Vs. Hence, vss(t)=v(∞)=Vs
The complete solution for the overdamped,underdamped and critically damped cases are
vt(t)=VS+A1es1t+A2es2t (overdamped)
v(t)=Vs+(A1+A2)e-αt (critically damped)
v(t)=Vs+(A1cosωdt+A2sinωdt)e -αt (underdamped)
The values of the constants A1 and A2 are obtained from the initial condition:v(0) and
dv(0)/dt
Reminder:
Once the capacitor voltage vc=v is known, i=Cdv/dt, which is the same current through the
capacitor, inductor and resistor can be found.
The complete response for any variable x(t) can be found directly, because it has the
general form
x(t)=xss(t)+xt(t)

xss=x(∞) is the final value and xt(t) is the transient response

 Step Response of a Parallel RLC Circuit
Find I due to a sudden application of a dc current. Applying KCL at the top
node for t>0
d 2v 1 dv 1
+ + v = 0.....eq(3)
dt 2 RC dt LC
Equation (4) has 2 components:
The transients response it(t) and steady state
response iss(t): i(t)=it(t) +iss(t)

v dv di
+i+C = Is but v = L
R dt dt
L di d 2i The complete solution for the
+ i + LC 2 = I s
R dt dt overdamped,underdamped and critically damped
2
d i L di cases are
LC 2 + + i = Is i(t)=IS+A1es1t+A2es2t (overdamped)
dt R dt -αt
i(t)=Is+(A1+A2)e (critically damped)
d 2i L di i Is
+ + = i(t)=Is+(A1cosωdt+A2sinωdt)e-αt (underdamped)
dt 2 LCR dt LC LC
d 2i 1 di i I
2
+ + = s ......eq(4)
dt RC dt LC LC

Same as eq(3) from early note

 Cont…
The values of the constants A1 and A2 are obtained from the initial condition:i and di/dt
Reminder:
Once the inductor current iL=i is known v=Ldi/dt, which is the same voltage across inductor
capacitor, and resistor can be found.
The complete response for any variable x(t) can be found directly, because it has the
general form
x(t)=xss(t)+xt(t)

xss=x(∞) is the final value and xt(t) is the transient response

 General Second-Order Circuit
Given a 2nd-order circuit, we determine its step response x(t)(which may be
voltage or current) by taking the following four steps:
1. Determine the initial condition x(0) and dx(0)/dt and the final value x(∞)
2. Turn off the independent sources and find the form of the transient
response xt(t)by applying KCL and KVL. Once a 2nd-order differential
equation is obtained, determine its characteristics roots. Depending on
whether the response is overdamped, critically damped or
underdamped, xt(t) with two unknown constants will be obtained
3. Obtained the steady-state response as xss(t)=x(∞) (final value)
4. The total response is now found as the sum of the transient response
and steady-state response: x(t)=xt(t)+xss(t)
Determine the constants associated with the transient response by
imposing the initial condition x(0) and dx(0)/dt determined in step1
AC Circuit Sinusiods and
Phasors
 Introduction
A sinusoidal current is usually referred to as an alternating current (ac).
Circuits driven by sinusoidal current or voltage are called ac circuits.
Sinusoidal ac voltages are available from a variety of sources.

Solar Panel
Wind-power station

Hydroelectric Generators

Oscilloscope

Power Station
 Sinusoids
Sinusoidal voltage: v(t)=Vmsinωt
where
Vm = the amplitude of the sinusoid
ω = the angular frequency in radians/s
ωt = the argument of sinusoid

The time required to complete one revolution is

equal to the period (T) of the sinusoidal waveform Vmsinωt as a function of ωt
and the radians subtended in this time is are 2 π

ω= the angular frequency in radians/s

= 2 π /T (rad/s)

v(t) repeats itself every T seconds.

v(t+T)=Vmsinω(t+T)= Vmsinω(t+2 /ω) π Vmsinωt as a function of t
=Vmsin(ωt+2π )=Vmsinωt=v(t)
v(t+T) = v(t) is said to be periodic These are called sine waves. A
A periodic function is one that satisfied f(t)=f(t+nT), sine wave is a uniform wave that
is generated by a single frequency
For all t and for all integers n
 f(t)=f(t+T)
The period T of the periodic function is the time of one complete cycle or the
number of seconds per cycle. The reciprocal of this quantity is the number of
cycles per seconds, know as the cyclic frequency f of the sinusoid.
f =1/T
ω=2π f
ω is the radians per second (rad/s)
f is in hertz (Hz) A sinusoid can be expressed
in either sine or cosine form.
v1 lags v2 byφ sin(A ± B) = sin A cos B ± cos A sin B
cos(A ± B) = c os A cos B ± s inA sin B

sin( ω t ± 180 0 ) = − sin ω t

cos( ω t ± 180 0 ) = − cos ω t
φ
sin( ω t ± 90 0 ) = ± cos ω t
cos( ω t ± 90 0 ) = m sin ω t
v2 leads v1 by φ
Cont…
Question
Calculate the phase angle between
0 0
v 1 = − 10 cos( ω t + 50 ) and v 2 = 12 sin( ω t − 10 ).
State which sinusoid is leading.
Method 1 Method 2
0
v 1 = − 10 cos( ω t + 50 )
= 10cos( ω t + 50 0
− 180 0 )
v 1 = − 10 cos( ω t + 50 0 )
0
= 10cos( ω t - 130 ) or = 10sin( ω t + 50 0 − 90 0 )
= 10cos( ω t + 230 0 ) = 10sin( ω t - 40 0 )
v 2 = 12 sin( ω t − 10 0 ) = 10sin( ω t - 10 0 − 30 0 )
= 12 cos( ω t − 10 0
− 90 0 ) v 2 = 12sin ( ω t − 10 0 ).
= 12 cos( ω t − 100 0 ) v 1 lags v 2 by 30 0

The phase difference between

v 1 and v 2 is 30 0
v 2 = 10cos( ω t - 130 0 + 30 0 ) or
v 2 = 10cos( ω t + 260 0 )
v 2 leads v 1 by 30 0
 Phasor
A phasor is a complex number that represents both the magnitude
and the phase of sinusoid.
A complex number z can be written in rectangular form as
z= x + jy (Rectangular form)
x = real part of z
y = imaginary part of z
j = −1
The complex number z can also be written in polar or exponential
form as z = r∠φ (Polar form)
z = re jφ (Exponential form)
2 2 −1 y
r= x +y φ = tan
x
x = r cosφ y = r sin φ
z = x + jy = r∠φ
z1 = x1 + jy1 = r1∠φ1 z2 = x2 + jy2 = r2∠φ2
Cont… Given the complex number

z1 = x1 + jy1 =r1∠φ1 z2 = x2 + jy2 =r2∠φ2

the following operations are important

Addition : z1 + z 2 = ( x1 + x 2 ) + j ( y1 + y 2 )
Subtractio n : z1 − z 2 = ( x1 − x 2 ) + j ( y1 − y 2 )
Multiplica tion : z1 z 2 = r1 r2 ∠ φ1 + φ 2
z1 r1
Division : = ∠ φ1 − φ 2
z 2 r2
1 1
Re ciprocal: = ∠ −φ
z r
Square Root : z = r ∠ φ 2
Complex Conjugate : z * = x − jy = r ∠ − φ = re − jφ
Cont… The idea of phasor representation is based on
Euler’s Identity. In general,

e ± j φ = cos φ ± j sin φ
jφ
cos φ = Re( e )
jφ
sin φ = Im( e )

Given a sinusoid v(t) = V m cos (ωt + φ )

= Re( V m e j ( ω t + φ ) )
jφ jω t
= Re (V m e e )
jω t
v ( t ) = Re( Ve )
jφ
V = Vm e = Vm∠ φ ,
V is the phasor of the sinusoid v(t)
v(t) = V m cos( ω t + φ ) Time - domain
V = Vm ∠ φ Phasor - domain
Cont… A phasor diagram showing V = Vm ∠φ and I = I m ∠φ

Time domain representation Phasor domain representation

Vm cos(ωt + φ ) Vm ∠φ
Vm sin(ωt + φ ) Vm ∠φ − 900
I m cos(ωt + θ ) I m ∠θ
I m sin(ωt + θ ) I m ∠θ − 900
Question

Evaluate these complex numbers :

a) (40∠500 + 20∠ − 300 )1 2

Transform these sinusoids to phasors :

b) i = 6cos(50t - 400 )A
c) v = -4sin(30t + 500 )V

d) Given i1 (t ) = 4 cos(ωt + 300 )A and

i 2 (t ) = 5 sin(ωt − 200 )A, find their sum.
 Phasor Relationship for Circuit Elements
How to represent a voltage or current in the phasor or frequency domain involving the
passive elements R, L and C.
1st: Transform the voltage-current relationship from the time domain to the frequency
domain for each element.

Current : i = I m cos(ωt + φ ) Current : i = I m cos( ω t + φ ) Voltage : v = vm cos(ωt + φ )

di dv
Voltage : v = iR Voltage : v = L
Current : i = c
dt
= RI m cos(ωt + φ ) = − ω LI m sin( ω t + φ )
dt
recall - sin A = cos( A + 90 0 )
I = jωCV
Phasor Form
= ω LI m cos( ω t + φ + 90 0 ) I
V = RI m ∠φ V=
V = ω LI m e j (φ + 90
0
)
= ω LI m e j φ e 90
0
jωC
I = I m ∠φ
= ω LI m ∠ φ + 90 0
= jω L I
Question
0
The voltage v = 12cos(60t + 45 ) is applied to a 0.1 - H inductor. Find the
steady - state current through the inductor
 Impedance
The impedance Z of a circuit is the ratio of the phasor voltage
V to the phasor current I, measured in ohms (Ω)
1
V = RI V = j ωL I V=
jω C
V V V 1
Z= =R Z = = j ωL Z= =
I I I j ωC
when ω = 0
i.e., in dc source : Z L = 0 (inductor acts as short circuit)
and ZC → ∞(capacitor acts as open circuit)
when ω → ∞
i.e., for high frequency : Z L → ∞ (inductor acts as open circuit)
and ZC = 0(capacitor acts as short circuit)
As a complex quantity, the impedance may be expressed in rectangular form as
Z = R + jX = Z ∠θ
X
Z = R2 + X 2 , θ = tan -1
R
R = Z cos θ , X = Z sin θ
R = Re Z is the resistance
X = ImZ is the reactance
 Admittance
The admittance y is the reciprocal of impedance, measured in siemens (S)

1 1
Y= Y= Y = j ωC
R j ωL
As a complex quantity, the admittance may be expressed in rectangular form as
Y = G + jB
1
G + jB =
R + jX
1 R − jX
= •
R + jX R − jX
R − jX
= 2
R +X2
G = Re Y is the conductance
B = ImY is the susceptance
R X
real : G = 2 imaginary : B = −
R +X2 R2 + X 2
Question
Find v(t) and i(t) in the circuit shown in Fig
 Kirchhoff’s Laws in the frequency Domain
In the sinusoidal steady state , each voltage may be written in cosine form

Vm1 cos(ωt + θ1 ) + Vm 2 cos(ωt + θ 2 ) + ... + Vm n cos(ωt + θ n ) = 0

Re(Vm1e jθ1 e jωt ) + Re(Vm 2 e jθ 2 e jωt ) + ... + Re(Vmn e jθn e jωt ) = 0
Re[(Vm1e jθ1 + Vm 2 e jθ 2 + ... + Vmn e jθn )e jωt ] = 0
If we let Vk = Vmk e jθ k then
Re[(V1 + V2 + ... + Vn )e jωt ] = 0
since e jωt ≠ 0
V1 + V2 + ... + Vn = 0
By following a similar procedure, we can show that KCL
holds for phasor
I1 + I 2 + ... + I n = 0
 Impedance Combinations

1
V = V1 + V2 + ... + VN = I(Z1 + Z 2 + ... + Z N ) I = I1 + I 2 + ... + I N = V( )
Z1 + Z 2 + ... + Z N
V
Zeq = = Z1 + Z 2 + ... + Z3 1 I 1 1 1
I = = + + ... +
Zeq V Z1 Z 2 Z3
Yeq = Y1 + Y2 + ... + YN

If N = 2, the equivalent impedance becomes

If N = 2, the current through the 1 1 1 ZZ
Zeq = = = = 1 2
V Yeq Y1 + Y2 1 Z1 + 1 Z 2 Z1 + Z 2
impedance is I = V = IZeq = I1Z1 = I 2 Z 2
Z1 + Z 2
 Delta-to-wye and Wye-to-delta

Y to δ
δ to Y
Z Z + Z 2 Z3 + Z3 Z1
Za = 1 2 Z1 =
Z bZ c
Z1 Z + Zb + Z
a c
Z1Z 2 + Z 2 Z3 + Z3 Z1 Z cZ a
Zb = Z 2 =
Z2 Z a + Zb + Z c

Z Z + Z 2 Z3 + Z3 Z1 ZaZ b
Z
Zc = 1 2 3 =
Z + Zb + Z
Z3 a c
Question
Find the input impedance of the circuit in below Fig.
Assume that the circuit operates at ω = 50 rad/s
AC Circuit Sinusiods and
Phasors
 Introduction
Analyzing ac circuits usually requires three steps:
1. Transform the circuit to the phasor or frequency domain “ This is not
necessary if the problem is specified in the frequency domain”
2. Solve the problem using circuit techniques (nodal analysis, mesh
analysis, superposition, etc) “same as dc circuit analysis except that
complex numbers are involved”
3. Transform the resulting phasor to the time domain
 Nodal Analysis
Find iX in the circuit using nodal analysis
 Mesh Analysis
Determine current I0 in the circuit using mesh analysis.
 Superposition Theorem
Superposition theorem applies to ac circuit the same way it applies to dc
circuits. The theorem becomes important if the circuit has sources
operating at different frequencies. Since the impedance (z) depend on
frequency, there must be a different frequency domain for each
frequency. The total response must be obtained by adding the individual
responses in the time domain.
 Superposition Theorem
Use the superposition theorem to find I0 in the circuit
Source Transformation
Vs
Vs = Z s I s ⇔ Is =
Zs
 Source Transformation
Calculate Vx in the circuit using the method of source transformation
Thevenin and Norton Equivalent
Circuits

VTh = Z N I N ZTh = Z N

Thevenin Equivalent Norton Equivalent

 Thevenin and Norton Equivalent
Circuits
Obtain the Thevenin equivalent at terminal a-b of the circuit
Frequency Response
 Introduction
Until now we have learned how to find voltages and
currents with a constant frequency (ω). If we let the
amplitude of the sinusoidal source remain constant and
vary the frequency, we obtain the circuit’s frequency
response.
The sinusoidal steady-state frequency responses of
circuits are of significance in many applications,
especially in communications and control system. A
specific application is in electrical filters that block out or
eliminate signals with unwanted frequencies and pass
signals of the desired frequency.
 Transfer Function

Transfer function H(ω) (network function) is a useful

analytical tool for finding the frequency response of a circuit.
A transfer function is the frequency-dependent ratio of a
forced function to a forcing function (or of an output to an
input).
The transfer function H(ω) of a circuit is the frequency-
dependent ratio of a phasor output Y(ω) (an element voltage
or current) to a phasor input X(ω)(source voltage or current).
Thus,
Y(ω )
H(ω ) =
X(ω )
There are four possible transfer functions:

V0 (ω )
H(ω ) = Voltage gain =
Vi (ω )
I 0 (ω )
H(ω ) = Current gain =
I i (ω )
V0 (ω )
H(ω ) = Transfer Impedance =
I i (ω )
I 0 (ω )
H(ω ) = Transfer Admittance =
Vi (ω )
Cont…
The transfer function H(ω) can be expressed in terms
of its numerator polynomial N(ω) and denominator
polynomial D(ω) as
N(ω )
H(ω ) =
D(ω )
The roots of N(ω)=0 are called the zeros of H(ω) and
are usually represented as jω=z1,z2,…Similarly, the
roots of D(ω)=0 are the poles of H(ω) and are
represented as jω=p1,p2…
To avoid complex algebra, replace jω temporarily with
s when working with H(ω) and replace s with jω at the
end.
Question 1
For the circuit shown below, calculate the gain I0(w)/Ii(w) and
its poles and zeros.
 Series Resonance

• Resonance is a condition in an RLC circuit in which the

capacitive and inductive reactances are equal in magnitude,
thereby resulting in a purely resistive impedance.
• Resonant circuits are useful for constructing filters, as their
transfer functions can be highly selective. They are used in
many applications such as selecting the desired stations in
radio and TV receivers.
 Series Resonance

• Consider this series RLC circuit.

The input impedance is:
1
Z = R + j ωL +
j ωC
 1 
Z = R + j  ωL − 
 ωC 
• Resonance results when the imaginary part of the transfer
function is zero.
1
ωL − =0
ωC
 Series Resonance

• The value of ω that satisfies this condition is called

the resonant frequency ωo. Thus, the resonance
condition is:
1
ωo = rad / s
LC

• The average power dissipated by the RLC circuit is:

1 2
P(ω ) = I R
2

• The highest power dissipated occurs at resonance,

when Vm2
I =
R
 Series Resonance

• Half-power frequencies are

obtained by setting Z equal to (√ 2)R.
•Therefore, the half-power
frequencies are:
2
R  R  1
ω1, 2 =  +   +
2L  2 L  LC

• The width of the response curve depends on the

bandwidth B:
B = ω 2 − ω1
 Series Resonance

• The quality factor (Q) of a resonant circuit is the ratio

of its resonant frequency to its bandwidth.
ωo L
1
Q= =
R ωoCR

• Thus,
R ωo
B= =
L Q

• *For any circuit with a high Q (Q ≥ 10), the half-

frequencies can be found using:
B
ω1, 2 = ω o 
2
Question 2
For the circuit shown below, R = 2 Ω, L =1 mH and C = 0.4
µF. (a) Find the resonant frequency and the half-power
frequencies. (b) Calculate the quality factor and bandwidth.
 Parallel Resonance
• Resonant frequency remains the same:
1
ωo = rad / s
LC

• For half-power frequencies, replace R, L and C in the

series circuit with 1/R, C and L respectively.
2
1  1  1
ω1, 2 = +   +
2 RC  2 RC  LC

1 • Again, for Q ≥ 10,

B = ω2 − ω1 =
RC
B
ωo R ω1, 2 = ω o 
Q= = ωo RC = 2
B ωo L
 Passive Filters
• A filter is a circuit that is designed to pass signals with
desired frequencies and reject or attenuate others.

1) Lowpass filter:
- Designed to pass only frequencies
below the cutoff frequency ω = 1
c
RC

2) Highpass filter:
- Designed to pass only frequencies
above the cutoff frequency 1
ωc =
RC
 Passive Filters

3) Bandpass filter:
- Designed to pass all frequencies
within a band, ω1 < ω < ω2

4) Bandstop filter:
- Designed to stop all frequencies
within a band, ω1 < ω < ω2

1
• For both these cases, ωo =
LC 17
 Active Filters

• There are 3 major limitations to the passive filters

considered in the previous section:
i) They cannot generate gain greater than 1.
ii) They may require bulky and expensive inductors.
iii) They perform poorly at frequencies below the audio
range.
• Active filters consist of combinations of resistors,
capacitors and op-amps.