T h e survival o f t h e Knights' Church in Tripoli

David Mallia

Reconquista i n 1 4 9 2 a n d e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f presidios i n N o r t h A f r i c a n c i t i e s

T h e c u l m i n a t i o n o f t h e S p a n i s h reconquista c a m e a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f 1 4 9 2 w h e n
t h e last Nasrid r u l e r o f G r a n a d a s u r r e n d e r e d t h e city t o t h e C a t h o l i c M o n a r c h s . T h e
m o m e n t u m g e n e r a t e d b y t h i s e v e n t l e d t o t h e c r e a t i o n o f presidios a l o n g t h e N o r t h
African littoral. A n u m b e r o f strategic port c i t i e s - s u c h as Ceuta, Bougie, Oran, Algiers,
La G o u l e t t e , M a h d i a a n d O j e r b a - w e r e c o n q u e r e d b y t h e S p a n i s h f o r c e s a n d h e l d a s
f o r t i f i e d o u t p o s t s . T h e f u n c t i o n o f t h e s e presidios w a s m a n i f o l d . T h e y w e r e m e a n t
t o s e r v e as a s p r i n g b o a r d f o r t h e e v e n t u a l c o n q u e s t a n d r e - C h r i s t i a n i s a t i o n o f A f r i c a
(the h o m e o f St A u g u s t i n e ) a n d also t o p r e v e n t t h e use o f t h e s e h a r b o u r s by M u s l i m
corsairs. T h e y also served as a place o f exile f o r criminals a n d as t r a d i n g posts w i t h
t h e h i n t e r l a n d . L i f e i n t h e s e presidios m a y b e c o m p a r e d t o l i f e i n a f r o n t i e r t o w n a n d
m a n y o f t h e m w e r e e p h e m e r a l conquests, since t h e greater part w e r e retaken by t h e
M u s l i m forces, a l t h o u g h Ceuta a n d Melilla r e m a i n Spanish t o this day.

The Spanish conquest o f Tripoli in 1 5 1 0 and t h e arrival of t h e Hospitallers

In July 1 5 1 0 C o u n t P e d r o N a v a r r o u n d e r t o o k t h e conquest o f Tripoli' o n behalf o f

F e r d i n a n d t h e C a t h o l i c . 2 T h e city w a s d e v a s t a t e d a n d t h e r e w a s a g r e a t loss o f life
a m o n g t h e defenders.2 A considerable n u m b e r o f its f o r m e r inhabitants sought
refuge in t h e n e a r b y s e t t l e m e n t s o f Janzur a n d Tajura." T h e city and its i m m e d i a t e

1 Torobulousgorb or Tarabulus al Gharb means Tripoli of the West, which helps distinguish this city in Ubya from the
other Tripoli in tebanon.
.' G. ta Manha. 'La secreria o dogana di Tripoli'. Archivto Storito SKttiano, vol. XLI - 1916. 469¬
3 E, Rossi. II Dominio degti Spogooli e de> Cavalier t dr Motto a Tripoli {SS10-ISS1), Rome. 1937.17.
4 lamur is some IS km west of Tripoli and Taiura the same distance to the east.
David Mailia
T h e survival o f t h e Knights' Church in Tripoli

h i n t e r l a n d t h u s c a m e u n d e r direct c o n t r o l o f t h e Sicilian viceroy, U g o de M o n c a d a . ^

Considerable e f f o r t s w e r e m a d e t o encourage Chrisitan s e t t l e m e n t in t h e city.6 Early
in t h e reign o f Charles I, e f f o r t s w e r e m a d e t o e n c o u r a g e t h e r e t u r n o f M u s l i m
i n h a b i t a n t s w h o h a d f l e d i n 1 5 1 0 b y p e r m i t t i n g t h e f o r m e r sheik o f t h e c i t y t o l e a v e
S i c i l y a n d s e t t l e t h e r e . 7 T h e r e is a l s o e v i d e n c e o f c o n s i d e r a b l e m e r c h a n d i s e p a s s i n g
t h r o u g h t h e c i t y - t o w a r d s E u r o p e a n d A f r i c a - as a t t e s t e d t o b y t h e t h r e e s e t s o f
Capitoii d a t e d 1 5 1 1 , 1 5 1 2 a n d 1 5 2 1 , w h i c h r e g u l a t e d t r a d e a n d i n d i c a t e d t a r i f f s f o r
g o o d s e n t e r i n g o r leaving t h e city.8 H o w e v e r , t h e s i t u a t i o n r e m a i n e d t e n u o u s i n
v i e w o f t h e w e a k n e s s o f t h i s presidio ( s e e F i g s . 1 a n d 2 } .
M e a n w h i l e o n t h e o t h e r side o f t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n , t h e O t t o m a n s succeeded in
r e m o v i n g a p e r n i c i o u s t h o r n in t h e i r f l e s h by expelling t h e Knights o f St J o h n f r o m t h e
island o f R h o d e s a t t h e end o f 1522.* T h e O r d e r had b e e n in Rhodes since 1 3 0 7 and
had constantly preyed o n M u s l i m shipping.'0 Under pressure f r o m t h e inhabitants o f
t h e island, S u l t a n Suleiman's g e n e r o u s t e r m s w e r e a c c e p t e d by t h e Order, w h o sailed
f r o m t h e island w i t h flags f l y i n g o n 1 January 1 5 2 3 . ! i T h e O r d e r had lost its h o m e and
h a d it n o t b e e n f o r t h e t e n a c i t y o f G r a n d M a s t e r LTsle A d a m m i g h t h a v e p e r i s h e d
a l t o g e t h e r . T h e O r d e r w a s g r a n t e d r e f u g e i n V i t e r b o b y t h e p o p e . It s o o n b e c a m e
obvious t h a t t h e desired recapture of Rhodes w a s n o t an o p t i o n a n d failing that,
t h e idea t o o k root t h a t t h e Order might take o v e r a n o t h e r M e d i t e r r a n e a n island t o
Fig. 1. Sixteenth-century map of Tripoli by P. Furlani/B. Zaltirie (courtesy I s t l t u t o i t a l i o n o di culturo Tripoli)
c o n t i n u e t h e i r crusading activities.1-' T h e O r d e r began n e g o t i a t i o n s w i t h t h e e m p e r o r
t o acquire M a l t a , b u t t h e e m p e r o r insisted t h a t t h e granting of M a l t a included Tripoli.
T h e Order sent a d e p u t a t i o n composed of o n e knight f r o m each langue t o inspect
M a l t a , G o z o a n d Tripoli a n d t h e y d r e w u p a r e p o r t o f t h e i r visit w h i c h w a s rather
unfavourable.'3 The Order was opposed t o accepting Tripoli w i t h M a l t a because o f
t h e distance and t h e expenses involved. However, t h e e m p e r o r was obdurate and
after much procrastination,t h e Order accepted these terms.

In 1 5 3 0 , t h e c i t y o f T r i p o l i a n d t h e M a l t e s e I s l a n d s w e r e g r a n t e d as a f i e f t o t h e
K n i g h t s o f S t J o h n a n d t h e O r d e r a p p o i n t e d a s e r i e s o f g o v e r n o r s t o r u l e t h e city. T h i s
w a s considered t o be a critical a p p o i n t m e n t in v i e w o f t h e continual t h r e a t t o t h e city
f r o m land and s e a . H T h e arrival of t h e O r d e r seems t o have induced a r e d u c t i o n in
trade, w h i c h resulted in a serious r e d u c t i o n o f r e v e n u e . This m a y have been d u e t o a
shifting of the trade routes away f r o m Tripoli t o nearby Tajura. M e a n w h i l e t h e Order

5 La Manria. 471. Ugo de Moncada was given 'possession' of the castle of Tripoli for life in 1513¬
6 G. Longo, Lo Sicifio e Tripoli, Catania 1912. 23. 26. 36-39.
7 Rossi 1937, 32.
8 Rossi The foil ten of these capitoii is given from 478-490.
9 R.E. de Vertot, The History of the Knights of Malta, vol. I. facsimile edition, Malta 1 9 3 9 , 4 6 6 .
10 Vertot vol. 1,202.
11 Vertot vol. i,46S.
12 E. Rossi, 'II domirao del Cavalleri dl Malta a Tripoli', Archivium Melitense, VI. Malta 1924. 2.
13 The original report Is lost, however considerable portions of it, Including a description of the condition and extent
of the fortifications of Tripoli have survived In G. Basic's DeH'Istono dello sacra Religione el l/lusirissimo Militia dl
Fig. 2. Map of Tripoli c. 1560 by H. van Schoel (courtesy h t i t u t o i t a i i a n o dl culturo Tripoli) Son Giovanni Gierosollmitono, vol. Ill, Rome 1629. Ill, 29 et seq.
14 Rossi 1924, 4.
30
31
David Mallia
T h e survival o f t h e Knights' Church in Tripoli

c o n t i n u e d t o i m p r o v e t h e f o r t i f i c a t i o n s o f t h e c a s t l e a n d t h e city- I n 1 5 3 3 t h e n e w
Preparations for the re-conquest of Tripoli
g o v e r n o r o f T r i p o l i Fra G a r z i a C o r t e s t o o k t h e O r d e r ' s e n g i n e e r P i c c i n o w i t h h i m f o r
a d v i c e . T h e w o r k w a s c o n t i n u e d u n d e r t h e n e x t g o v e r n o r Fra G e o r g S c h i l l i n g . ' 5
In 1 5 2 6 t h e sheik fled f r o m t h e city of Tripoli a n d t o o k refuge a m o n g t h e i n h a b i t a n t s
of Tajura, w h o organised t h e m s e l v e s a n d appealed t o t h e Sultan f o r assistance in
retaking t h e i r city,'5 The sultan initially sent o n e o f Khair ud-Din's lieutenants -
T h e Barbary Corsairs A y d i n R e i s - k n o w n a s devil-driver b y t h e S p a n i a r d s , a n d w h o b e c a m e t h e e f f e c t i v e
ruler o f T a j u r a . " It w a s t h e base f r o m w h e r e he attacked Tripoli a n d c o n t i n u a l l y
As e a r l y as 1 5 1 2 t h e M u s l i m c o u n t e r o f f e n s i v e w a s b e i n g p l a n n e d w i t h attacks by t h e harassed its i n h a b i t a n t s . H e w e n t so f a r a s t o build a s m a l l f o r t r e s s less t h a n a
Barbary corsairs o n Tripoli. These corsairs w e r e destined t o be t h e O t t o m a n Empire's m i l e f r o m t h e city w a l l s . H o w e v e r , this w a s s o o n d e s t r o y e d by f o r c e s led b y Fra
v a n g u a r d i n t h e W e s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n . " By 1 5 1 5 t h e ' B a r b 3 r o s s a ' b r o t h e r s w e r e G e o r g Schilling, w h o , h o w e v e r did n o t m a n a g e t o t a k e T a j u r a . " A y d i n Reis d i e d i n
based in Tunis a n d w e r e t h r e a t e n i n g T r i p o l i . " T h e d e a t h o f Ferdinand t h e Catholic 1 5 3 5 a n d a r o u n d 1539 t h e Sultan a p p o i n t e d M u r a d Aga t o t a k e charge of T a j u r a . "
i n 1 5 1 6 a n d t h e i m p a s s e w h i c h f o l l o w e d m e a n t t h a t t h e r e c e n t l y a c q u i r e d presidios M u r a d Aga w a s o n e o f t h e e u n u c h s o f t h e Seraglio a n d his a p p o i n t m e n t m a y w e l l
lost s o m e o f t h e i r i m p o r t a n c e m a k i n g t h e m m o r e o p e n t o attack. T h e s a m e year h a v e b e e n i n f l u e n c e d by t h e Sultan's s o n - i n - l a w ( a n d later G r a n d Vizier) R u s t e m
U r u j B a r b a r o s s a s u p p o r t e d by local chiefs r e t o o k Algiers, w h i c h h e r u l e d u n t i l his P a s h a . " M e a n w h i l e , t h e post o f a d m i r a l in chief, w h i c h had b e e n vacated o n t h e
d e a t h in 1 5 1 8 . " H e w a s s u c c e e d e d b y h i s y o u n g e r b r o t h e r K h a i r u d - D i n , w h o s e f i r s t d e a t h o f Khair ud-Din in 1 5 4 6 , w a s given t o G r a n d Vizier R u s t e m Pasha's b r o t h e r
a c t i o n w a s t o p u t h i m s e l f u n d e r t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e S u l t a n , w h o a p p o i n t e d h i m as Sinan. Dragut w a s o f f e r e d t h e post of 5 o n c o k ( g o v e r n o r ) o f Karlieli (Acarnia), b u t he
Beylerbey, o r G o v e r n o r G e n e r a l . " H e t h e n p r o c e e d e d t o r e t a k e a s m a n y presidios r e f u s e d t h e a p p o i n t m e n t , preferring t o r o a m and raid in t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n r a t h e r
as h e c o u l d , t h e r e b y c a r v i n g o u t a k i n g d o m f o r h i m s e l f w h i c h w a s o n l y n o m i n a l l y t h a n enter t h e nebulous w o r l d of Seraglio i n t r i g u e . " M o r e o v e r , in 1546, Jean d e
controlled f r o m Istanbul.10 Khair ud-Din eventually retired t o Istanbul leaving Algiers Valette was a p p o i n t e d g o v e r n o r of Tripoli, u n d e r w h o s e c o m m a n d and discipline
t o h i s s o n H a s a n P a s h a . K h a i r u d - D i n ' s fleet w a s c o n s i d e r e d t o b e l a r g e a n d a m o n g t h e city's f o r t u n e s r e v i v e d . For v a r i o u s reasons h e p r o p o s e d t h a t t h e O r d e r s h o u l d
his l i e u t e n a n t s w e r e f a m o u s c a p t a i n s s u c h a s Salih Reis, S i n a n t h e Jew, A y d i n Reis t r a n s f e r its m a i n base t o Tripoli a n d leave M a l t a a s a m e r e o u t p o s t . M u r a d Aga
a n d Dragut Reis, perhaps his m o s t f a m o u s p r o t e g e . passed o n this i n f o r m a t i o n t o t h e Sultan w h o h a r d e n e d his resolve t o t a k e t h e c i t y . "
D r a g u t Reis w a s b o r n in Karabag ( n e a r B o d r u m , T u r k e y ) t o w a r d s t h e e n d o f t h e
f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r y . 2 1 T h e s o n o f a M u s l i m f a r m i n g f a m i l y , h e w e n t t o sea at a n e a r l y
age, a n d s o o n m a d e a n a m e for h i m s e l f d u e t o his skill in a r t i l l e r y . " H a v i n g l e a r n e d
The O t t o m a n re-conquest of Tripoli in 1 5 5 1
his n a v i g a t i o n a l skills w i t h Kljair u d - D i n B a r b a r o s s a , h e a c h i e v e d a n o t a b l e success
in 1 5 3 8 d u r i n g t h e naval b a t t l e o f Prevesa in w h i c h t h e O t t o m a n n a v y d e f e a t e d t h e
fleet of t h e Holy League. Later captured and enslaved by Giannetino Doria, h e w a s Early in 1 5 5 1 S u l t a n S u l e i m a n gave o r d e r s t o his chief a d m i r a l Sinan Pasha - G r a n d
subsequently r a n s o m e d by Khair ud-Din, soon becoming o n e of t h e m o s t r e n o w n e d Vizier R u s t e m Pasha's b r o t h e r - t o c o n q u e r T r i p o l i . 5 2 Dragut w a s also o r d e r e d t o j o i n
corsairs in t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n o f his t i m e . " T h e link b e t w e e n Dragut a n d Khair ud- t h i s e x p e d i t i o n b u t w a s o n l y p e r s u a d e d t o j o i n by b e i n g p r o m i s e d t h e g o v e r n o r s h i p
Din Barbarossa w a s f u r t h e r strengthened w h e n Dragut's daughter m a r r i e d Hassan, o f t h e city. In fact, D r a g u t n a r r o w l y m i s s e d b e i n g c a p t u r e d in D j e r b a by A n d r e a D o r i a
K h a i r u d - D i n ' s s o n a n d s u c c e s s o r as D e y o f A l g i e r s . " w h o c o r n e r e d h i s fleet i n t h e b a y s o u t h o f B u r j e ! - K a s t i l y a . T h e b a y i s s e p a r a t e d
f r o m t h e o p e n sea by a P u n i c - R o m a n causeway. D r a g u t o r d e r e d his m e n t o o p e n a
s m a l l c h a n n e l in t h e c a u s e w a y a n d t o h a u l t h e vessels t h r o u g h . By m o r n i n g D r a g u t
15 S. Splteri. Fortresses of t h e Cross, Malta 1994. 286
16 S. Lane-Poole. The Barbary Corsairs, facsimile edition. London 1842, 26.
17 Rossi 1937,38. Ol the four 'Barbarossa' brothers, only Aruj and Hayreddin were actually known as Barbarossa. The 25 Rossi 1937. 39.
others - Ishak and Myas - were not. Neither was his son Hasan Pasha known as Barbarossa. 26 A. Sutherland, The achievements of t h e Knights of M o l t o , v o \ . M. Edinburgh 1831, 210.
18 Lane-Poole 1842, 52 27 Sutherland 1831.126.
19 Rossi 1937, 39. 28 Rossi 1937. Vertot, 1989,123. O. Kologlu. SQOyillik Tiirkiye ve Libya ocosmdakiillfkilerln, istanbul 2007, 23.
20 Lane-Poole 1842. 55. 29 N. de Nicolai. Novigotioni e r . „„•,- in Turchlo. : \ 1580, p 22 Nicolai. who saw Mured Aga during the siege
o( Tripoli in 1551, spoke to him and was told that be was 'a eunuch from (tagusa (Dubrovnik] who was an expert
21 Dragut is the European version of Turgor (Turkish] and Dorghut (Arabic]. The town of Karabag was renamed
in the art of war'. A. Kavas, Osmonti-Afrika ilijkiteri, Istanbul 2006.44.
Turgutreis In 1972 in honour of Dragut
22 A.R. Seyfi, Turgor fieri (reprint of the 1911 edition], Istanbul 200S, 9. 30 Seyfi2O05.7B.
23 H. Ballkflll. Torgur fieri. Istanbul 1966.207 31 A.P. Vella. 'The Order of Malta and the defence of Tripoli 1S30-15S1', M e l i t o Histonca, vol. VI no 4. Malta 1975,
362-381.
24 J. Morgan, A complete history of Algiers, London 1729, vol. 11.432 quoting Vertot, vol II, bookxiii. 10,
32 Seyfi 2005, 83.

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T h e survival o f t h e Knights' Church in Tripoli

a n d his ships had v a n i s h e d leaving a n a s t o n i s h e d a n d d i s a p p o i n t e d A n d r e a Doria

authority, he also encouraged t h e e c o n o m y , culture and architecture of t h e city.41
wondering h o w this could have been d o n e . " T h e expedition got u n d e r w a y early
in t h e s u m m e r a n d s o o n reached t h e M a l t e s e Islands. F o l l o w i n g a t h r e e day siege Apart f r o m strengthening t h e existing fortificationsa n d adapting t h e m t o m o d e m
o f t h e island o f Gozo, Tripoli w a s besieged f r o m land a n d sea f o r o n l y t w o w e e k s w a r f a r e , he erected a n u m b e r o f n e w buildings w i t h i n t h e city t h e r e b y spearheading
b e f o r e c a p i t u l a t i n g . N e g o t i a t i o n s h a d b e e n m e d i a t e d by t h e F r e n c h a m b a s s a d o r t o building activity in Tripolitania.4' These included: a fortress built a t t h e north
t h e S u b l i m e P o r t e G a b r i e l Francis D ' A r a m o n t a n d as a r e s u l t t h e g o v e r n o r G a s p a r d w e s t e n d o f t h e c i t y , 4 3 w h i c h i s s o m e t i m e s r e f e r r e d t o a s F o r t Dragon on m a p s ; "
de Vallies w a s given an h o n o u r a b l e surrender. T h e y left o n I S August w i t h 3 0 0 m e n a g u n p o w d e r f a c t o r y (dar al-barud)n, a l s o s h o w n d u e s o u t h o f t h i s f o r t o n t h e s e
o n ships p r o v i d e d by t h e ambassador. m a p s a n d is r e f e r r e d t o a s Fon Dragon;"6 a p a l a c e o r serail, w h i c h i s r e f e r r e d t o a s
Palazzo edificato da Draguto Corsaro," as w e l l as a m o s q u e , hammam ( p u b l i c b a t h )
In s p i t e o f t h e p r o m i s e s m a d e t o h i m , S i n a n P a s h a a p p o i n t e d M u r a d A g a a s
a n d turbe ( m a u s o l e u m ) n e a r t h e S e a G a t e . 4 8 D r a g u t ' s n a m e b e c a m e i n s e p a r a b l e
Beylerbey ( g o v e r n o r ) o f T r i p o l i . 1 4 D r a g u t l e f t a n d t h e e n t i r e O t t o m a n f l e e t f o l l o w e d h i s
g a l l e y i n t o t h e T y r r h e n i a n , d e c l a r i n g t h e y w o u l d o n l y a c c e p t h i m as t h e i r c o m m a n d e r . f r o m t h e history o f O t t o m a n naval activities in t h e Central M e d i t e r r a n e a n w h e r e he
Dragut considered this mutiny and treason t o b e unacceptable and returned t o was a d o m i n a n t figure for m o r e t h a n a d e c a d e 4 9
I s t a n b u l . S u l t a n 5 u l e i m a n ' s s o l u t i o n a r o u n d t h i s d o m e s t i c crisis w a s t o o f f e r D r a g u t
t h e g o v e r n o r s h i p o f K a H i e l i a g a i n , " b u t a l s o t o i n s t r u c t S i n a n P a s h a t o do what ever
Dragut says. D e s p i t e h i s s h o r t t e n u r e o f o f f i c e a s t h e O t t o m a n g o v e r n o r , M u r a d A g h a F r o m church t o m o s q u e : Its e v o l u t i o n , e m u l a t i o n a n d r e s t o r a t i o n
m a n a g e d t o p a c i f y T r i p o l i a n d its v i c i n i t y . I n T r i p o l i h e r e p a i r e d t h e w a l l s a n d b u i l t n e w
t o w e r s a n d b a t t l e m e n t s and s t r e n g t h e n e d t h e castle, t h e seat o f his a d m i n i s t r a t i o n Prior t o t h e c o n q u e s t o f t h e city, t h e r e w e r e a n u m b e r o f c h u r c h e s t h e r e i n . A p a r t
f o r p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t p o s s i b l e a t t a c k s b y t h e K n i g h t s o f St J o h n . 3 6 H o w e v e r , h e is b e s t f r o m t h e c h u r c h o f St L e o n a r d w h i c h w a s s i t u a t e d w i t h i n t h e castle itself,511 o t h e r
r e m e m b e r e d for t h e construction of t h e great m o s q u e of Tajura, t h e design o f w h i c h c h u r c h e s i n c l u d e d t h e c h u r c h of Santo Maria degli Angeli,''' St G e o r g e al Marzoquilo
i n d i c a t e s t h a t it w a s a l s o i n t e n d e d t o s e r v e a s a f o r t r e s s a g a i n s t i n c u r s i o n s b y t h e ( o v e r l o o k i n g t h e Menscia), S t L a z a r u s i n t h e g h e t t o " a n d t h e c h u r c h o f t h e O r d e r .
O r d e r o f St J o h n . 3 ' T h e l a r g e r e c t a n g u l a r b u i l d i n g is d e l i n e a t e d b y m a s s i v e e x t e r i o r T h i s a n c i e n t c h u r c h w a s s i t u a t e d n e a r t h e sea a n d w a s b u i l t a n d u s e d by t h e Knights
w a l l s a n d t h e i n t e r i o r is d i v i d e d i n t o a s e r i e s o f b a r r e l v a u l t s s u p p o r t e d b y r e d g r a n i t e
c o l u m n s f r o m Leptis M a g n a . 5 8 In 1 5 5 3 / 4 , w h i l e R u s t e m Pasha had been t e m p o r a r i l y 41 Feraud 2005,128.
r e m o v e d f r o m o f f i c e , D r a g u t w a s a p p o i n t e d a s Beylerbey ( G o v e r n o r G e n e r a l ) o f 42 Splteri 1994, 282. G. Messana, C I M M M M musuimpno d e l i a Libia. Castetfrarico Veneto 1973. 103.
T r i p o l i a n d M u r a d A g a , a l t h o u g h n o m i n a l l y s t i l l pasha, r e t r e a t e d t o T a j u r a w h e r e h e 43 feraud 2005. 140. 144.
44 Vide Plan de Trlpoly en Barbane. by Nicholas le Fer. 1705
died in 1 5 5 6 a n d w a s buried just o u t s i d e his m o s q u e . 5 9 45 C. Bergna. Tripoli d a l 1 5 1 0 a l 1 8 5 0 . Tripoli 1924. 78.
46 Vide Plan de Trlpolyen Barbane. engraved map by Nicholas le For. 1705.
47 Vide Tripoli cittd di B o r b a r i a . engraved map from G e a g r a f l a Tavole moderne di Geogrofia de l a maggior parte
del mondo di dlversi oufori raccolte e l messe secondo I'ordine di Tofomeo con idisegni dl molle c i t t o e l Forteui
dl diverse Provlatie s t a m p a t e in r a m e cin studio e t diligemo in Homo ll$A5-72f, Biblioteca Nationale Centrale di
Dragut in Tripoli Firenie. This interesting map shows the artists impression of the projected retaking of the dty of Tripoli in 1559¬
60. The map's legend describes the city surrounded by the fleet of Philip II of Spain led by the Duke of Medina-Cell,
Viceroy of Sicily as well as those of the Pope, the Duke of Florence and the Order of 5t John, some 60 galleys in all:
O n b e i n g a p p o i n t e d Beylerbey o f T r i p o l i D r a g u t b e g a n a n a m b i t i o u s p r o g r a m m e sperondo con f'oiuro di DIO di r e p o r t a r n e V i t t o r i o . In actual (act the fleet did not make it to Tripoli but retreated
to Djerba, where it was set upon by the Ottoman fleet headed by Dragut. Occhiali and Piali Pasha, and suffered a
of w o r k s t o reorganise t h e city and t h e province, w h i c h was intensified once he terrible defeat that has come down in history as t h e disaster a t D j e r b a .
w a s p r o m o t e d t o pasha.'0 A p a r t f r o m f o r c i n g t h e l o c a l t r i b e s t o s u b m i t t o O t t o m a n AS Feraud 20O5, 76.
49 Seyfl 2005, 7.
33 5*yfl 2005. 71. 50 Rossi 1937. 52 This church Is now the castle mosque.
34 UC. Feraud. Annates Trlpolltomes, reprint o( first edition, Pans 2005, 73. 51 This church was founded about the year 1680 when the Apostolic Prefect of the Roman Catholic Church in Tripoli
35 Although it has been suggested that Dragut was initially ottered Algiers: Feraud. 75. received a gift of land in what is now the Old City that was allocated to the Franciscan Order which thee came to
36 A. Mas ud El-Ballushi. A History of Libyan Mosque Architecture Oaring t h e Ortomon ond Karomanli Period 1551¬ Tripoli to care for the captives taken in the struggle for the control of the Mediterranean 5ea. The property was
1911, Tripoli 1979, IS. developed to include a hospice and a chapel. The foundation stone of the church was laid on 14 September 17Q3.
37 R. Bartoccino. 'ta moschea di Murad Agha in Tajura Trlpolltania'. Arch/fetfurc e a r t e decorative, vol I, Rome 1921. The hospice and the church were paid for by Simone Barbara, son of Francesco, who came to Malta in 1703. Me
337-346. was a very learned, pious and widely-travelled gentleman, who spent a fortune redeeming hundreds of slaves for
38 The flat ends of the barrel vaults are punctured by small apertures which seem to be musketry loopholes rather one hundred piastres each. Hence he was known throughout Barbary aspodredeipoverischidvrcrrshanr. Simone
than windows; author's note. was a personal friend of Pope Clement XI. Personal communication by Marquis Anthony Cremona-Barbaro: the
39 feraud 2005. 75. church referred to now forms part of the sacristy of the later church built by the Italians in the twentieth century,
40 El-Ballushll979.29. which still exists and is now in the care of the Anglican community.
52 Vide Tripoli dl B o r b a r i a . engraved map published 'alia Librrrla della Colonna (Venecia)', 1S67.
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T h e survival o f t h e Knights' Church in Tripoli

a n d sailors o f t h e Order's galleys. According t o a n ancient t r a d i t i o n t h e c h u r c h

since Christians, particularly in t h a t p e r i o d , w o u l d n e v e r have accepted t h a t o n e o f
survived t h e siege and w a s personally chosen b yDragut t o build his m o s q u e . "
their religious buildings could have resembled a m o s q u e .
B r u n o Z e v i d e f i n e s a r c h i t e c t u r e a s b e i n g u n i q u e a m o n g t h e a r t s i n t h a t i t is t h e
T h e r e f o r e t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f t h e Church into a m o s q u e , i n Dragut's t i m e ,
o n l y a r t f o r m t h a t is c o m p o s e d o f d i m e n s i o n a l v o l u m e s which include man w i t h i n ;
must have included t h e dismantling o f t h e roofs and t h e creation o f t h e small
a r c h i t e c t u r e is l i k e a s c u l p t u r e i n t o w h i c h m a n p e n e t r a t e s a n d w a l k s . 5 4 T h e e x i s t i n g
cupolas, w h i c h s u b s e q u e n t l y b e c a m e a characteristic e l e m e n t o f local m o s q u e s .
church seems t o have been a small rectangular building w i t h a flat roof supported
by t i m b e r beams. This typology was n o t d e e m e d t o c o n f o r m t o traditional m o s q u e F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e plan o f t h e c h u r c h , w i t h t h e c o l u m n s t h a t s u b d i v i d e it i n t o so m a n y
d e s i g n i n w h i c h t h e b u i l d i n g is g e n e r a l l y a t l e a s t a s w i d e a s i t is l o n g . D r a g u t ' s equal c o m p a r t m e n t s , m u s t have suggested, o r i m p o s e d , t h e idea o f a r o o f m a d e
s o l u t i o n resulted in t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e first O t t o m a n style m o s q u e in Tripoli. of m a n y small cupolas: a precursor t o m o d u l a r architecture. The style o f having
Construction seems t o have taken place a r o u n d 1 5 6 0 . " m u l t i p l e d o m e s w a s a d o p t e d by t h e builders o f Libyan m o s q u e s f o r t h e r o o f i n g o f
large sanctuaries because o f t h e l i m i t a t i o n s of t h e local architectural t r a d i t i o n . This
T h e plan o f Dragut's mosque, although apparently modelled o n T shaped
style o f m o s q u e w a s a l r e a d y p o p u l a r in Libya, albeit o n a m u c h s m a l l e r scale, a n d
Anatolian mosques, displays considerable differences f r o m t h e m : t h e position
t h e r e f o r e t h e a d o p t i o n o f t h i s f a m i l i a r style w o u l d h a v e pleased t h e local p o p u l a t i o n .
o f t h e mihrab ( d i r e c t i o n a l n i c h e ) is d i a m e t r i c a l l y o p p o s i t e . F u r t h e r m o r e , i n t h e
Until this t i m e t h e Libyan style m o s q u e s o f Tripoli w e r e generally o r n a m e n t e d
A n a t o l i a n m o s q u e s t h e s p a c e r e s e r v e d f o r p r a y e r is g e n e r a l l y r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e f o o t
o f t h e ' T ' w h i l e t h e r e s t o f t h e s p a c e is d e d i c a t e d t o t e a c h i n g a r e a s . I n D r a g u t ' s w i t h four small domes ( m a x i m u m o f nine) and t h e only mosque, w o r t h y o f this
m o s q u e t h e prayer hall covers t h e e n t i r e space. It w o u l d s e e m t h a t D r a g u t w a s a p p e l l a t i o n , w h i c h w a s t o be f o u n d in t h e e n t i r e city, w a s t h e m o n u m e n t a l F a t i m i d
a i m i n g a t s o m e t h i n g m u c h g r a n d e r . I n h i s Annates Tripolitaines, F e r a u d a s s e r t s t h a t m o s q u e , w h i c h w a s in a n a r c h a i c s t y l e . 5 8 I n t h e m o s q u e o f Sidi D r a g u t t h e r e w e r e
t h e O t t o m a n admiral f o u n d e d t h e m o s q u e that bears his n a m e , using a chapel twenty-seven small domes, and it was this high n u m b e r of d o m e s that p r o m o t e d
built by t h e Knights o f M a l t a , adding a w i n g o n e i t h e r side o f t h e existing b u i l d i n g t h i s s t y l e o f b u i l d i n g , f o r m e r l y r e s e r v e d f o r 'mesaged', t o b e c a m e a c c e p t a b l e f o r
and adding a m a u s o l e u m . Feraud w r o t e b e t w e e n 1 8 7 1 and 1878 and declares a 'gamaa' i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e w i s h o f i t s f o u n d e r . T h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n a
t h a t 'According t o t h e local t r a d i t i o n t h e old chapel r e m a i n e d intact'. H o w m u c h 'masgid' a n d a 'gamaa' is t h a t w h e r e a s t h e f o r m e r is a l o c a l m o s q u e u s e d p r i n c i p a l l y
o f t h e original building actually survived has been t h e subject o f s o m e discussion, f o r p r a y e r , t h e l a t t e r is t h e p r i n c i p a l c o n g r e g a t i o n a l m o s q u e i n w h i c h t h e F r i d a y
h o w e v e r t h e r e is n o d o u b t a b o u t t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e s i t e . 5 6 s e r m o n is d e l i v e r e d . T h u s , D r a g u t ' s i n t e r v e n t i o n s c r e a t e d a n e w s t y l e o f m o s q u e i n
Libya in w h i c h t h e relatively s i m p l e m e t h o d o f c o n s t r u c t i o n o f m a n y smaller d o m e s
T h e plan o f t h e S i d i D a r g h u t m o s q u e , w h i c h Feraud saw, w a s accurately s u r v e y e d
became t h e accepted style f o r even principal mosques. Dragut's m o s q u e w a s t h e
i n 1 9 2 1 b y t h e S u p e r i n t e n d e n c e o f M o n u m e n t s a n d E x c a v a t i o n s a n d is s h o w n
first congregational m o s q u e t o be re-built w i t h i n t h e city after t h e re-conquest and
b e l o w (Fig. 5 ) . " I n i t , t h e t w o w i n g s a r e e v i d e n t . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , e x a m i n a t i o n o f
it w a s a c h i e v e d w i t h a n a m a z i n g e c o n o m y o f m e a n s b y s i m p l y a d a p t i n g a n e x i s t i n g
t h e c e n t r a l p a r t o f t h e b u i l d i n g w i l l s u g g e s t t h a t t h e a b o v e s t a t e m e n t is n o t e n t i r e l y
c o r r e c t , i n t h a t s o m e p a r t s o f t h e b u i l d i n g h a d b e e n c h a n g e d . It s e e m s c e r t a i n t h a t b u i l d i n g a n d e x p l o i t i n g l o c a l b u i l d i n g t r a d i t i o n s t o t h e f u l l . It is a l s o t o b e n o t e d t h a t
the central body of t h e mosque had previously f o r m e d the perimeter of a Christian t h e t w o wings added by Dragut also apparently 'corrected' t h e m o s q u e plan by
c h u r c h , a s F e r a u d i n d i c a t e s . I n f a c t it w a s d i v i d e d i n t o a n o d d n u m b e r o f n a v e s ( 3 ) l e n g t h e n i n g t h e p l a n i n t h e d i r e c t i o n p a r a l l e l t o t h e qibta, w h i c h w o u l d h a v e b e e n a
w h i c h a r e d e v e l o p e d in a l o n g i t u d i n a l s e n s e , as i n a c h u r c h . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e s p a t i a l p o s i t i v e i n t e r v e n t i o n f r o m a n I s l a m i c p o i n t o f v i e w ( s e e Figs. 3 a n d 4 ) .
organisation of t h e building does n o t correspond t o t h e n o r m a l design criteria o f D i r e c t l y b e h i n d t h e mihrab w a l l is t h e f o u n d e r ' s t o m b i n a d o m e d c h a m b e r w h i c h
m o s q u e s . I t is t h e l o n g e r s i d e o f t h e r e c t a n g l e , w h i c h s h o u l d b e p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o also c o n t a i n s t h o s e o f t h e m e m b e r s o f his family. O v e r t h e c e n t u r i e s o t h e r n o t a b l e s
t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e qibta a n d n o t t h e s h o r t e r . M o r e o v e r , t h e o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e w e r e buried near t h e f o u n d e r and this has resulted i na m a u s o l e u m w i t h an area
b u i l d i n g is 2 7 d e g r e e s o u t o f t h a t p r e s c r i b e d , w h i c h m e a n s t h a t t h e a x i s o f t h e a l m o s t e q u a l t o t h a t o f t h e p r a y e r h a l l . A f i n e e x a m p l e is t h e t o m b o f O s m a n B e y ,
mihrab is o b l i q u e w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e w a l l i n w h i c h i t is s i t u a t e d . H o w e v e r , i t is m o s t w h o w a s buried t h e r e after being accorded an imposing funeral o n 29 S e p t e m b e r
unlikely that t h e church roof could have been originally composed of small cupolas 1 6 4 9 . 5 9 T h e r e is a s e c o n d mihrab i n t h e c o u r t y a r d , w h i c h is a l s o u s e d f o r p r a y e r ,
w e a t h e r p e r m i t t i n g ; a midha [ a b l u t i o n f o u n t a i n ) a n d a n O t t o m a n s t y l e m i n a r e t
w h i c h w a s r e m o d e l l e d d u r i n g t h e reign o f Iskander Pasha in 1 6 0 2 , as indicated o n
53 Feraud 2005, 76.
54 B. Z e v i , Saper vedere I'architettura, M i l a n 1 9 5 1 . 2 1 .
55 Messana 1973.103.
58 I n D r a g u t ' s t i m e It w a s s t i l l p a r t i a l l y i n r u i n s , f a l l o w i n g Its d e s t r u c t i o n I n 1 5 1 0 d u r i n g t h e S p a n i s h c o n q u e s t . I t w a s
56 Messana 1973, 105.
c o m p l e t e l y r e s t o r e d s o m e fifty y e a r s l a t e r b y g o v e r n o r S a f a r D a y .
E7 S. A u r i g e m m a . Tripoli e le sue opere d'orte. M i l a n 1 9 2 7 , l a v . X L H I .
59 Feraud 2005,118.

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T h e survival o f t h e Knights' C h u r c h in Tripoli
David Mallia T h e survival o f t h e Knights' Church in Tripoli

an engraved inscription above t h e door.60 Further additions t o t h e complex included

Dragut Mosque, Tomb & H a m m a m (1947) a hammam o r T u r k i s h b a t h , w h i c h s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n c o n s i d e r a b l y a l t e r e d i n 1 6 0 4 ,
ou perl m position or All kfas'ud E l - B e l l u e h & Aurtgemms
a l t h o u g h according t o t h e plaque placed a b o v e t h e door, it w a s 'constructed' at this
t i m e . H o w e v e r , t h e f a c t t h a t t h e hammam is n a m e d a f t e r D r a g u t a n d n o t a f t e r t h e
person w h o paid for t h e w o r k in 1604 strongly implies t h a t either t h e r e was already
a b a t h built at t h e t i m e o f Dragut's reign, o r at least t h a t it w a s already envisaged by
D r a g u t a n d t h a t a s u i t a b l e s u m o f m o n e y h a d b e e n l e f t f o r i t s c o n s t r u c t i o n . It s h o u l d
b e n o t e d t h a t a hammam h a d a l r e a d y b e e n n o t e d i n t h e c i t y o f T r i p o l i b y A l - T i d j a n i
in 1 3 0 8 ( s e e F i g . 5 a n d Fig. 6 } . 6 1
It h a s b e e n r e m a r k e d t h a t t h e m o s q u e o f P i y a l e P a s h a , i n I s t a n b u l , i s u n i q u e
a m o n g architect Sinan's w o r k s in being t h e o n l y m u l t i - d o m e d m o s q u e he ever b u i l t . 6 2
Its s t y l e is n o t r e l a t e d t o e i t h e r h i s e a r l i e r o r l a t e r w o r k s . 6 3 P i y a l e P a s h a ' s v i c t o r i e s
in N o r t h A f r i c a s t i m u l a t e d a s t r o n g l i n k w i t h N o r t h A f r i c a , s o m u c h s o t h a t w h e n
h e b e c a m e vizier, h e c a u s e d a hill in I s t a n b u l t o be levelled a n d t u r n e d i n t o a p a r k
in w h i c h h e p l a n t e d v i n e s a p l i n g s f r o m T u n i s i a , w h i c h i s n o w a c e m e t e r y t h r o u g h
w h i c h a s p i n e - r o a d c a l l e d Tunusbagi p a s s e s . " It is t h e r e f o r e u n d e r s t a n d a b l e t h a t
w h e n h e c o m m i s s i o n e d t h e c o u r t architect Sinan t o design his m o s q u e , h e insisted
that t h e design be based o n t h e Tripolitanian m o d e l s w i t h w h i c h he had b e c o m e
f a m i l i a r d u r i n g his association w i t h Dragut.6'' This explains t h e e n i g m a t i c design o f
t h i s m o s q u e b y S i n a n as a u n i q u e e x a m p l e w h i c h e m u l a t e s t h e T r i p o l i t a n i a n m o d e l s
r a t h e r t h a n as t h e p r o g e n i t o r o f all t h e T r i p o l i t a n i a n m o s q u e s (Fig. 7 ) . 6 6
T h e m o s q u e w a s r e s t o r e d in t h e 1920's a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y hit by a b o m b d u r i n g
the Second W o r l d War. The central part of t h e mosque was m o s t damaged. The
' r e s t o r a t i o n ' w a s carried o u t by Ali M o h a m e d A b u Z a i a n . 6 ' D u r i n g t h e w o r k s t h e
housing of t h e original t i m b e r beams, w h i c h supported t h e flat roof, was discovered
in t h e w a l l s . H o w e v e r , m a n y o f t h e o r i g i n a l g r a n i t e c o l u m n s w e r e r e p l a c e d b y
reinforced concrete ones. F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e plan was altered t o divide t h e space
into f o u r bays r a t h e r t h a n t h e original t h r e e and t h e length o f t h e nave w a s
s l i g h t l y r e d u c e d t o e n a b l e e a s i e r e x t e r n a l a c c e s s . T h e mihrab a n d mimbar ( s t e p s
a n d s e r m o n p l a t f o r m ) w e r e also m o d i f i e d . This has r e s u l t e d in a b u i l d i n g w i t h five
m o r e d o m e s t h a n t h e o r i g i n a l , a l t h o u g h e a c h d o m e is s m a l l e r . T h e d o m e s m e e t t h e
Fig. 6. Plan of Dragut's complex in 1947 (after El-Ballushi and Aurigemma; elaborated and analysed by s u p p o r t i n g c o l u m n s by m e a n s o f p e n d e n t i v e s m a n y o f w h i c h a r e d e c o r a t e d i n t h e
the author)
O t t o m a n s t y l e , t h a t is, w i t h m e d a l l i o n s e a c h i n s c r i b e d w i t h o n e o f G o d ' s a t t r i b u t e s .

60 Feraud ZOOS. 76.

61 E, Rossi, Tripoli, in 77ie first encyclopaedia of I s l a m , vol. Ill, M. Th. Houtsma ed. Leiden 1913-1936.815.
62 Piyale Pasha (c.1515-1578} was Itie Turkish admiral during the Siege of Malta in 1565, during which Dragut lost his
life. He subsequently became Viner. and also commanded the Ottoman fleet that captured Cyprus In 1571.
63 U. Vogt-Gbknil. Ottomon Turkey, (no. 14 of Architecture of the World Series), Cologne 1965. 104.
64 Tunusbajl Is Turkish for Vineyard of Tunisia. R. Barroccino, 'La moschea di Murad Agha In Tajura Tripolitania',
Archilettura e arte decorative.
65 Messana 1973, 39.
66 As suggested by G. Marcais. M a n u e l dan musulman: t'orc/iltecture. vol. 2. Paris 1927. 848-55 and by A. Sa'lm
Ulgen, TrDWusgorpfo Turgor fteis M i m a r i M a n l u m e s i , in Vakfilar Dergisi, ill, Istanbul 1962,37-92.
67 Messana 1973, 106.

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David Mallia T h e survival o f t h e Knights' Church in Tripoli

physical w e l l - b e i n g ( h a m m a m ) ; a n d a m o d e l o f inspiration in holiness o r m a r t y r d o m

( f o u n d e r ' s m a u s o l e u m ) . It m u s t b e r e m e m b e r e d t h a t D r a g u t ' s l i f e l o n g b a t t l e w i t h
Fig. 7. Dragut's complex viewed irom the former shoreline
C h r i s t e n d o m - a n d i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e K n i g h t s o f S t J o h n - w a s c o n s i d e r e d t o b e a jihad
or h o l y w a r a g a i n s t t h e e n e m i e s o f I s l a m , w h i c h c u l m i n a t e d i n h i s h e r o i c m a r t y r ' s
T h e c o l u m n capitals are simple and decorated w i t h original g e o m e t r i c motifs. T h e d e a t h d u r i n g t h e siege of M a l t a o n 23 June 1565. A t t h e c o m m a n d of Piyale Pasha,
c u p o l a s a b o v e t h e mihrab a n d mimbar a r e d e c o r a t e d w i t h f l o r a l m o t i f s p a i n t e d b y his b o d y w a s t a k e n back t o T r i p o l i for b u r i a l in his m a u s o l e u m by Uluc Ali Reis,S!! w h o
t h e r e s t o r e r h i m s e l f ( s e e Figs. 8 t o 1 2 ) . * * w a s also t e m p o r a r i l y a p p o i n t e d t o r u l e t h e p r o v i n c e by Piyale P a s h a (see Fig. 1 3 ) .
D r a g u t ' s m o s q u e is k n o w n a s t h e Mosque of Sidi Dragut; sidi, a l t h o u g h t e c h n i c a l l y
m e a n i n g my master, i s t h e t i t l e g i v e n i n t h e M a g h r e b t o t h e s p i r i t u a l l e a d e r a n d
Political implications o f t h e choice o f t h e site: A p o t h e o s i s of Dragut
g u i d e o f a M u s l i m c o m m u n i t y . T h e t o m b s o f s u c h l e a d e r s , o r marabouts, b e c o m e
special places o f reflection and inspiration (although n o t pilgrimage) f o r t h e pious o f
C o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e d o c u m e n t a t i o n already cited leads t o t h e conclusion t h a t t h e t h e v e n e r a t e d figure in v i e w o f t h e d e e d s h e carried o u t d u r i n g his l i f e . ' 0 T h e s h r i n e
only surviving parts of t h e Knight's Church in Tripoli are portions o f t h e side a n d rear c o n t a i n s a r t e f a c t s r e l a t e d t o D r a g u t . F r o m a n Islamic p o i n t o f v i e w , D r a g u t is h e l d
walls of t h e central section of t h e m o s q u e . A l t h o u g h this m a y n o t be considered t o in high e s t e e m , particularly by t h e Tripolitanians and t h e Turks. N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g
b e a s u b s t a n t i a l p o r t i o n o f t h e o r i g i n a l s t r u c t u r e , t h e f a c t t h a t a n y o f it h a s s u r v i v e d a t t h e n e g a t i v e r e p u t a t i o n D r a g u t has in M a l t a , It m u s t b e r e m e m b e r e d h e w a s n o t
all w o u l d i t s e l f be r e m a r k a b l e a n d i m p r o b a b l e u n t i l o n e c o n s i d e r s t h a t it w a s w i l l e d m e r e l y a 'pirate', b u t an a d m i r a b l e strategist a n d s t a t e s m a n . His p a r t i c u l a r c h o i c e o f
t o s u r v i v e b y D r a g u t as a n i n d e l i b l e sign o f his v i c t o r y o v e r t h e K n i g h t s o f St J o h n . t h e f o r m e r c h u r c h o f t h e K n i g h t s o f St J o h n i n T r i p o l i as t h e c o r e o f t h e m o s q u e t h a t
T h e t r i o o f b u i l d i n g s w h i c h b e a r h i s n a m e - a t y p o l o g y w h i c h is c o m m o n l y f o u n d i n bears his n a m e can be considered t o be a m a s t e r s t r o k e o f s t a t e s m a n s h i p o n par
t h e Islamic w o r l d - w a s m e a n t t o assist t h e c i t i z e n in his life b y p r o v i d i n g h i m w i t h
t h e means t o achieve holiness and respect for t h e law ( m o s q u e ) ; cleanliness and 69 HP was born Giovanni DioniRi Galen,
70 F X Cassar. D o r g t i u t . on visiting Firs grove in Gomgha Oarghul a t Bab a l Bahor' Tripoli of t h e West. Libya.
(unpublished studs i 199S..'
68 Messana 1973.107.

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David Mallia
T h e survival o f t h e Knights' Church in Tripoli

w i t h S u l e i m a n t h e Magnificent's rededication o f t h e f o r m e r church o f Hagia Sofia.

T h e re-use r a t h e r t h a n t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e fallen e n e m y ' s iconic building served
as a p e r p e t u a l r e m i n d e r o f t h e r e m a r k a b l e v i c t o r y a c h i e v e d b y t h e c o n q u e r o r a n d
t h e political k u d o s h e acquired a s a result. This r e m a r k a b l e act can be s e e n a s
c e n t r a l t o t h e p a r a d i g m shift t h a t t u r n e d t h e 'pirate' i n t o t h e 'statesman', an act
t h a t w a s o n l y upstaged by his heroic d e a t h a n d a p o t h e o s i s o n t h e field o f b a t t l e in
M a l t a . " T h e r e o r g a n i s a t i o n o f t h e state o f Tripoli d u r i n g his b r i e f rule set t h e stage
f o r t h e e v e n t u a l creation of t h e Libyan state u n d e r t h e Karamanli dynasty in t h e
e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y a n d t h e r e - e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f Libya as a n i n d e p e n d e n t s t a t e b y
t h e Senussis in t h e m i d - t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y . 7 2

71 D. Mallia. 'The Restoration of Dragut's Tomb'. Vig'b 40. Malta 2011. 35-40.
72 The Karamanli dynasty ruled the three provinces that now form Llhya between 1711 and 1H3S. King Idrlss al-
Senussl ruled Libya between 1951 and 1969.

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