Physical quantities and measurement techniques FOCUS POINTS tervals using simple devices. $ Serie hw tmeasre length vue an tine meats using simple gece, Mane Ergon sealane on attnert§ 2 Undertnaine siferene ian ear andar anes nO * Calculate or determine graphically the resultant of two p CCU See eaen This topic introduces the concept of describing space and ti co the, NOR Lu Em LO Ce ae oo See ue tenn alculate the quantities of length, area and volume. Ac Ueauently in the practical work in later topics and you will discover how to choose th TT q nterval. Any single measurement LEC a USS ten een aearn iia UEC Seen RU Le ee es ea MSO IU) Cons. teen Sea ae Many physical quantities, such as force and velocity, have both magnitude and dir pein aa IA TLL Secs Terre er eee take into account any difference in their directions. Units and basic quantities Before a measurement can be made, a standard or in many countries. It is a de mraznust be chosen. The size of the quantity to be units ae divided or multipti measured is then found with an instrument having a or larger units. scale marked in the unit, ‘Cimal system in which ied by 10 to give snaly Measuring instruments on the flight deck ofa Three basic quantities we measure in physics are bassenger jet provide the crew with information length, mass and time. Units for other quantities about the performance of the aircraft (see Figue are based on them. The SI (Systéme International AA AUnités) system is a set of metric units now used Powers of ten This is a useful way of writing numbers, especially if they are large or small, The example below shows how it works, 4000 =4 x 10x 10x 10=4 x 10° 400=4 x 10x 10 4x 10? 40=4% 10 =4x 10) 4=4x1 =4x 10) 04 = 4/10 = 4/10! =4x 10 0.04 = 4/101 4/10? =4x 102 A Figure 1.4.1 Aircratt tight deck ig 9004 = 4/1000 = 410° = 4x 193The small figures 1, 2, 3, etc. are called powers of ten. The power shows how many times the number has to be multiplied by 10 if the power is greater than 0 or divided by 10 if the power is less than 0. Note that 1 is written as 10°. This way of writing numbers is called standard form or standard notation. The number in front of the power of ten could be a decimal. For example, 45500 in standard form is 4,55 x 10%. Length The unit of length is the metre (m) and is the distance travelled by light in a vacuum during a specific time interval. At one time it was the distance between two marks on a certain metal bar. Submultiples are: I decimetre (dm) = 10m Icentimetre (em) = 10m | millimetre (mm) = 10m 1 micrometre (jum) = 10-m I nanometre (nm) = 10m Multiples for large distances are [Kilometre (km) = 10m (= mile approx.) = 10?m = 1 billion metres 1 gigametre (Gm) Many length measurements are made with rulers: the correct way to read one is shown in Figure 1.1.2. The reading is 76mm or 7.6cm. Your eye must be directly over the mark on the scale or the thickness of the ruler causes a parallax error. peek ‘A Figure 1.1.2 The correct way to measure with a ruler Significant figures: To obtain an average value for a small distance, multiples can be measured. For example, in ripple tank experiments (Topic 3.1), measure the distance occupied by five waves then divide by 5 to obtain the average wavelength. Significant figures Scientists try to make sure a measurement is accurate (close to the true value). However, the apparatus and the experimental procedure may have sources of error. The number of digits, called significant figures, given for a measurement indicates how accurate we think it is. You should not give more digits in a calculated answer than are justified by the apparatus and how it was used. For example, a value of 4.5 for a measurement has two significant figures; 0.0385 has three significant figures, 3 being the most significant and 5 the least, i.e. it is the one we are least sure about since it might be 4 or it might be 6. Perhaps it had to be estimated by the experimenter because the reading was between two marks on a scale. When doing a calculation your answer should have the same number of significant figures as the measurements used in the calculation. For example, if your calculator gave an answer of 3.4185062, this would be written as 3.4 if the measurements had two significant figures. It would be written as 3.42 for three significant figures. Note that in deciding the least significant figure, you look at the following digit. If it is less than 5, you round down (60 3.41 becomes 3.4), but if it is 5 or above you round up (so 3.418 becomes 3.42). ‘Ifa number is expressed in standard notation, the number of significant figures is the number of digits before the power of ten. For example, 2.73 x 10? has three significant figures.Test yourself How many millimetres are therein these measurements? fen tem 05cm ‘What are these lengths in metres? 300m 550m 870cm 43cm 100mm Write the following as powers of ten with one figure before the decimal point. 100000 3500 428000000 S04 27056 Write out the following in full 107 2x10 692x10' 1.34% 10? 10° Write these fractions as powers of ten. ¥io00 7/100000 1/10000000 3/6000 Express the following decimals as powers of ten with one figure before the decimal point. OS 0.086 0.00036 0.00104 Area The area of the square in Figure 1.1.3a with sides 1cm long is 1 square centimetre (1cm?). In Figure 1.1.3b the rectangle measures 4cm by 3.cm and has an area of 4 x 3 = 12cm? since it has the same area as twelve squares each of area 1cm?, The area of a square or rectangle is given by area = length x breadth The SI unit of area is the square metre (m*) which is the area of a square with sides 1m long. Note that nxt m= i lem? = 00 m? = 104 m? Sm 00 ftom T ton 1 3am Figure 1.1.3 PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES Sometimes we need to know the a It is given by For a regula area of triangle = $ xb for eu The area of a circle of Ree m = 22/7 or 3.1 's circumference is 2; ee Worked example 7 Cateulate the area of the triangles shown in Figure 114 so area of triangle ABC = ! x AB x AC * . ji roo 4cm —28 P s Q iar A Figure 11.4 Now put this into practice 1 Calculate the area ofa triangle whose base is Bem and height is 12cm, Bie 2 Calculate the circumference of a ‘of radius 6m. ee —— tel hisarth he w Volume ei Volume is the amount of space occupied. The unit of When volume is the cubic metre (m>) but as this is rather and, to large, for most purposes the cubic centimetre (:m!) with the 1s used. The volume of a cube with 1m edges is the mer 1em?. Note that curved ¢ ; j top is em* = — mx — —— Meas 100" 100 "too ™ in mil 1 that 10 n Too0009 = 10m a‘or a regularly shaped object such as a rectangular block, Figure 1.1.5 shows that volume = length x J hs | Bem y A Figure 1.15 The volume of a cylinder of radius r and height his nh The volume of a liquid may be obtained by pouring it into @ measuring cylinder (Figure 1.1.6) When making a reading the cylinder must be upright ‘and, to avoid parallax error, your eye must be level with the bottom of the curved liquid surface, i.e the meniscus. The meniscus formed by mercury is curved oppositely to that of other liquids and the top is read. Measuring cylin in miliitres (ml) where ml = 1cm that 1000.cm? «= 1dm? (~ 1 litre). ders are often marked note A. Figure 1.4.6.4 measuring inder 2 Worked example Calculate the volume af a black of wood which is 40em long, 12cm wide and bie me! ‘volume Y= eng hh put this into p4.4 PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES Time 5 The uit of time isthe second(s), which used to be short tin based on the length of a day, this being the time for expe 5 an be improv the Earth to revolve once on its axis. However, days are longer time intervals. Several (at not allo erly the sane craton andthe Seen s just one) are tied to find the pris ofa defined as the time interval for a certain number the average value for the period is found by divig oF enry hogs to crn the time By the number of oscillations. Ten tik cof energy changes to occur in the caesium atom. Time-measuring devices rely on some kind of constantly repeating oscillation. In traditional clocks and watches a small wheel (the balance wheel) oscillates to and fro; in digital clocks and watches the oscillations are produced by a tiny quartz crystal. A swinging pendulum controls a pendulum clock. To measure an interval of time in an experiment, first choose a timer that is precise enough for the task. For short times, your own reaction time will affect the measurements. A stopwatch that records times with a precision of 1s or 0.1s is suitable for finding the period in seconds of a pendulum (see Figure 1.1.7 opposite), but to measure the speed of sound (Topic 3.4), a clock that can time in milliseconds is needed, To measure very short time intervals, a digital clock that can be triggered to start and stop by an electronic signal from a rather than single 1e period T riod of your p am 2 The frequency fo! the oscillat ber of complete nd equals 1/7; Calculat néulurr Comme; , lations changes with 4 Plan an investiga ocedu eee— metal plates Pe — string support stand pendulum. a bob x bench A Figure 1.1.8 A Figure 1.1.7 Vernier scales and micrometers Lengths can be measured with a ruler to'a precisior of about 0.5 mm. Some investigations may need more precise measurement of length, which can be achieved by using vernier calipers (Figure 1.1.9) or ‘a micrometer screw gauge. Systematic errors Figure 1.1.8 shows a part of a ruler used to measure the height of a point P above the bench. The ruler ‘chosen has a space before the zero of the scale. This 4s shown as the length x. The height of the point P is given by the scale reading added to the value of x. The equation for the height is height = scale reading + x height = 5.9 +x : Vernier scale By itself the scale reading is not equal to the height. It is too small by the value of x. ) ( ae . ‘7 => Going further This type of zero error is known as a systematic ‘error. The error is introduced by the system. A half- metre ruler has the zero at the end of the ruler and ‘so can be used without introducing a systematic ory, ‘using a ruler to determine a height, the must be held so that it is vertical. If the ruler to the vertical, a systematic error is A. Figure 1.1.9 Vernier calipers in useThe calipers shown in Figure 1.1.9 use a vernier scale The simplest type enables a length to be measured to 0.01 em, Itis a small stiding scale which is 9mm long but divided into ten equal divisions [Figure 1.1.10a) so Aerrior vision = ghrom <0 9mm =0.0%em One end of the Length to be measured is made to coincide ‘with the zero of the millimetre scale and the other end with the zero of the vernier scate,The length of the abject in Figure 1.1.10b is between 1.3¢m and 1.4cm The reading to the second place of decimals is obtained by finding the vernier mark which is exactly opposite (or nearest tol a mark on the millimetre scale. In this case it is the 6th mark and the length is 1.36cm, since 0A=0B8-AB {1.90cm) ~ {6 vernier divisions] 90cm — 6(0.09)cm =(1.90-0.54)em=1.36em Vernier scales are also used on barometers, travelling microscopes and spectrometers, A Figure 1.1.10 Vernier scale Micrometer screw gauge measures very small objects to 0.001.cm. One mn of the drum opens the flat, parallel jaws ion on the scale on the shaft of the 46 usually mm, i.e. 0.05cm. If the drum ‘of 60 divisions round it, then rotation of by one division opens the jaws by 0.05/50 (Figure 1.1.13), A friction clutch ensures exert the same force when the object shaft drum friction teh A Figure 1.1.1 Micrometer screw gauge The object shown in Figure 1.1.11 has a length of | 2.5mm on the shaft scale + 33 divisions on the drug scale = 0.25em + 33(0.001)em_ = 0.283 em Before making a measurement, check to ensure that the reading is zero when the jaws are closed, Otherwise the zero error must be allowed for when the reading is taken. Scalars and vectors Length and time can be described by a single number specifying size, but many physical quantities also have a direction. A scalar quantity has magnitude (size) only. Time is a scalar and is completely described when its value is known. Other examples of scalars are distance, speed, time, mass, energy and temperature. A vector quantity is one such as force which is described completely only if both its size (magnitude) and direction are stated, It is not enough to say, for example, a force of 10N, but rather a force of 10N acting vertically downwards. Gravitational field strength and electric field strength are vectors, as are displacement (distance in a stated direction), weight, velocity, acceleratio? and momentum, A vector can be represented by a straight line whose length represents the magnitude of the quanti) and whose direction gives its line of action. An a1foW, on the line shows which way along the line it acts Scalars are added by ordinary arithmetic; vect® are added by taking account of their directions a5 well as their magnitudes. In the case of two vecto® and F), acting at right angles to each other at ’ a_ipoint, the magnitude of the resultant F and the angle @ between /°y and F can be calculated from the following equations: The resultant of two vectors acting at right angles to each other can also be obtained graphically. Calculate the resultant of two forces of 3.0N at right angles to each other. Let = 3,0N and F, = 4.0N as shown in Figure 1.1.12, 4 4,0N acting P lion of two perpendicular vectors 502440 = OF I6 = VIS =5.0N 3 sing tan", @= 53°. resultant is @ force of §.0N acting at 83° to the force 30N. Pv Rass Scalars and vectors Graphical method The values for Fand @can be found graphically by drawing the vectors to scale on a piece of graph paper as shown in Figure 1.1.12 First choose a scale to represent the size of the vectors, em could be used to represent 1.0) Draw the vectors at right angles to each other. Complete the rectangle as shown in Figure 1.1.12 and draw the diagonal from the origin as shown. The diagonal then represents the resultant force, F. Measure the length of Fwith a ruler and Use the scale you have chosen to determine its size, Measure the angle @ the direction of the resultant, with a protractor. Check that the values for F and @ you obtain are the same as, those found using the algebraic method. Now put this into practice 1 Calculate the following square roots a Vere b rF < VP 2 Calculate a tan 30° b tan ase tan 60°. 3. Calculate the resultant of two forces of 5.0N and 7.0N which are at right angles to each other. 4 Agirt walks 600m north and then 800m east. What is the displacement from her starting point? KLExam-style questions 1. A chocolate bar measures 10cm long by 2cm wide and is 2cm thick, @ Calculate the volume of one bar. (3) b How many bars each 2cm long, 2cm wide and 2cm thick have the same total volume? B) € A pendulum makes 10 complete oscillations in 8 seconds. Calculate the time period of the pendulum. (2 [Total: 8) A pile of 60 sheets of paper is 6mm high. Calculate the average thickness of a sheet of the paper. fal 'b Calculate how many blocks of ice cream each 10cm long, 10cm wide and 4cm thick can be stored in the compartment of a freezer measuring 40cm deep, 40cm wide and 20cm high. (5) [Total: 7] 3 A Perspex container has a 6cm square base and contains water to a height of 7m (Figure 1.1.13). a Calculate the volume of the water. 2) 'b A stone is lowered into the water so as to be completely covered and the water rises to a height of 9cm. Calculate the volume of the stone. (4 Gem ‘sS i 6an — > 4 Figure 13.19 (Total: 7] 4 5 a State the standard units of length and time. b A measurement is stated as 0.0125mm, State the number of significant figures. © Give expressions for Wy i the area of a circle ; ii_the circumference of a circle t iii the volume of a cylinder. t (otat:7 What are the readings on the micrometer screy gauges in Figures 1.1.14a and 1.1.14b? meal, ae 3 Lie ., 25 b W213 (14 hh A Figure 1.1.16 [Total: 4} a Select which of the following quantities is a vector: A length C force B temperature D time. ti b Two forces of 5N and 12N act at right angles to each other. Using a piece of graph paper determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant force graphically, State the scale you use to represent each vector. You will need a protractor to measure the angle the resultant makes with the 5N force. a [Total: 8] iz